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The Current Economy: From an Economic Historian’s Perspective Price Fishback University of Arizona Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 1 Spectacular Meltdown Last Fall • in the Financial Sector in 2007-2008 – Stock Market Halved in Value – Wall Street Investment Banks are gone or are now Commercial Banks – Large slug of toxic assets on books of financial institutions • Towers of MBSs, CDOs, CDSs built on mortgages, with houses as collateral Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 2 Constant References to the Great Depression • Worst Financial Crisis Since the Great Depression • Worst Downturn since the Depression – Still Questionable • Here is Why This is Not the Next Great Depression Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 3 Modern Unemployment Rates • Since December 2007 • Unemployment Rate has risen from 4.9 to around 9.7 percent in July • Before Thinking About the Great Depression Consider the Late 1970s and Early 1980s Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 4 Unemployment Rate, 1948-2011 12 Fed Chair Volker Wrings Inflation Out of System 10 8 6 4 2 0 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 unemployment rate Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 5 The Great Depression Unemployment Rate, 1929-1940 30 Peak above 25 percent Percent of Labor Force 25 20 15 10 Above 10 percent Every Year in 1930s 5 0 1929 The Unemployment Rate in U.S. above 10 % only one other year in U.S. History 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 Year Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 6 Employment Rate 65 64 63 62 61 60 59 58 57 56 55 54 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 Employment Rate Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 7 Growth Rate in Real GDP by Quarter 5 4 3 2 1 0 1946-07-17 1954-10-03 1962-12-20 1971-03-08 1979-05-25 1987-08-11 1995-10-28 2004-01-14 2012-04-01 -1 -2 -3 -4 Since 1984 three of the five longest periods without a recession In American Economic History Growth Rate in Real GDP Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 8 Real GDP in 1958 Dollars 240 220 1958 Dollars 200 180 160 140 Produced 30 % Less in 1933 than in 1929 120 100 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 Year Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 9 1932 and 1933 GDP Output Loss Equivalent to Shutting Down Production West of Mississippi Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 10 Real GDP Per Capita, 1948-2011 50000 45000 40000 35000 30000 25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 0 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 Real GDP per cap Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 11 CPI Inflation Rate 25.0 Nasty Inflation Late 70s, Early 80s 20.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 Terrible Deflation in 1930s Hurts Borrowers -5.0 -10.0 -15.0 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 1980 1990 2000 2010 12 Compare to late 1970s early 1980s Civilian Unemployment Rate, Inflation, and Misery Index, 19652006 Huge Success 25.0 Inflation rate around 3 percent Misery Index Percent 20.0 15.0 Unemployment Rate 10.0 5.0 0.0 1960 Inflation Rate 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 Year 1990 Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 1995 2000 2005 2010 13 Is Stock Drop Similar? • November 2007 through February 2009 Cut in Half. – Has Recovered to 90% of peak • Stock Market Dropped by Half between October 1929 and October 1930 – 12 months • Unlike Today – In the 1930s, Market Dropped to 11% of the 1929 peak in the middle of 1932. – Corporate Profits were negative for U.S Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 14 – Net Investment negative Dow Jones Ind. Avg. Past 10 Years www.bigcharts.com Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 15 1920-1940 http://stockcharts.com/charts/historical/djia1900.html Rise is even Bigger than it Looks because Of the log scale Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 16 Peaks and Troughs in S&P 500 Stock Index 1957-2011 Date Months Date of Date of Prior Peak Trough Peak Value 7/15/1957 10/22/1957 49.13 12/12/1961 6/26/1962 72.64 2/9/1966 10/7/1966 94.06 11/29/1968 5/26/1970 108.37 1/11/1973 10/3/1974 120.24 9/21/1976 3/6/1978 107.83 11/28/1980 8/12/1982 140.52 8/25/1987 12/14/1987 336.77 7/17/1998 10/8/1998 1186.75 3/14/2000 10/9/2002 1527.46 10/9/2007 3/9/2009 1565.15 Trough Value 38.98 52.32 73.20 69.29 62.28 86.90 102.42 223.92 959.44 776.76 676.53 Percent Drop -20.7 -28.0 -22.2 -36.1 -48.2 -19.4 -27.1 -33.5 -19.2 -49.1 -56.8 Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. Reached to Reach Peak Next Again Peak 9/16/1958 11 9/3/1963 15 5/4/1967 7 4/15/1972 23 7/17/1980 79 8/15/1979 17 11/3/1982 3 7/26/1989 20 11/23/1998 1.5 5/30/2007 43 Now 1400 17 Bank Failures and Fed Response in 1930s • Bank Failures • 1920-1929 Average of 630 banks a year failed – Small unit banks lost about 0.7 % of deposits • 1930-1933 Lost 7,200 banks • Much bigger banks, • Major bank runs. • FED Response • Ineffective discount rate cut--due to deflation • Waited until 1932 for large purchase of bonds Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 18 Comparison • During Great Depression, It took the Federal Reserve – 3 years – a rise in unemployment to over 20 percent – and a decline in annual output of 25 percent – before the emergency moves were made? • Fed Chair Bernanke is a Student of the Depression. • What have he, Paulson, and Geithner Done? Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 19 Bernanke Policy A federal funds rate near zero FED has Flooded the System with Cash FED and Treasury have taken ownership stakes in banks and AIG Guarantees on Bear Stearns and in many other places. This happened all before the unemployment rate made it to 7 percent. Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 20 Experimentation? • Uncertainty Delays Long-Run Decisions • 1929 Crash and current Crash strong negative effect on • Purchases of autos, houses, other consumer durables • Investments in new plant and equipment • Serious problems with Constant Policy Change in 1930s – Higgs, Shlaes Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 21 INFLATION WORRIES FLOOD OF FED ASSETS Federal Reserve Assets (Uses of Funds) $ billions 2,400 2,200 Agency & MBS Lending to Nonbanks Credit Mkts 2,000 Short-term Lending to Financials 1,800 Treasuries Misc. 1,600 1,400 1,200 1,000 800 600 400 200 Dec-07 Feb-08 Apr-08 Source: Federal Reserve Board Jun-08 Aug-08 Oct-08 Dec-08 Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. Feb-09 Apr-09 Jun-09 22 Auto Bailout Today/RFC Railroad Bailouts in 1930s • RFC gave loans to some RRs, while some went into bankruptcy • Guess which ones spent more on maintenance and improvements in capital stock Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 23 Challenges for the Future • • • • • • Search for Security Gigantic Budget Deficit Will the Stimulus Work? Controlling Inflation Social Security and Medicare Health Care Issues Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 24 Surplus/Deficit as Percent of GDP 6.0 4.0 2.0 0.0 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 -2.0 -4.0 -6.0 -8.0 -10.0 -12.0 Surplus/Deficit as Percent of GDP Side Note: New Deal was not Keynesian nor was WWII Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 25 Federal Debt as Percentage of GDP 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 Federal Debt as Percentage of GDP Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 26 Keynesian Deficit Multipliers • Pre 1970s– Samuelson Text – 2 or 3. – Federal Deficit of $1, Real GDP up 2 or 3. • Backlash from Friedman. Crowding out of Private Investment and Employment. • Majority of Economists these Days would put multiplier between 0.5 and 1.5 • Christina Romer, Chair of Presidents CEA and Mark Zandi at Moodys.com around 1.5 • Robert Barro at Harvard around 0.8, long run zero. Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 27 New Deal Multiplier • Fishback-Kachanovskaya Study of State Income and Net Federal Spending in 19331939 • Expect the largest multiplier in the Great Depression because unemployment over 14% • Do Not Find a Robust Number • Range is 0.03 to 1.76 depending on assumptions (all are reasonable). Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 28 Social Security Worries • Pay-as-you-Go System – Current Tax Revenues Fund Soc. Sec. pensions – Have also been funding other govt. programs – With Soc. Sec. Tax collections, deficit much bigger. – Same True of Medicare collections Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 29 Iron Law of Pay-Go tax rate = Benefit Rate/Wage Rate * Recipients/Working Pop. • • • • Currently tax rate is = .12 Benefit Rate/Wage Rate is 0.4 Recipients/Working Population is 0.28 Still an annual surplus. – t = .12 > 0.4 * 0.28 • 2030 Recipients/Working Population is 0.4 – Current tax rate = .12 Less than (0.4) * (0.4) = 0.16 Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 30 Solutions • tax rate = Benefit Rate/Wage Rate * Recipients/Working Pop. • Solutions – Raise tax rate to 0.16 (8% worker/ 8% employer) • History of doing this (original 1%/1% now 5.5%/5.5%) – Lower Benefit Rate • Done in 1970s – Lower number of Recipients by raising retirement age • Rise from 65 to 67. • Lowers lifetime benefits – Raise Working Population • Increase immigration Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 31 Medicare Problem • People even more worried about the Medicare problem because of the great uncertainty about containing health costs Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 32 Does the Rest of the World Spend More on Social Welfare • Social Welfare Spending – Health, unemployment, poverty relief, disability pay, retirement, etc. • Comparison to the Nordic Countries – Third Way • Different Philosophies – Nordic Universal – U.S. Safety Net Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 33 45 Standard Picture Gross Public Social Welfare Spending as a Percent Relative to GDP, 1993-2003 40 Sweden 35 Denmark Norway Finland 30 25 Denmark Finland Norway 20 United States 15 Sweden United States 10 5 0 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 2003 2005 34 Net Public Social Welfare Spending as Percentage Relative to GDP, 1993-2003 45 40 35 30 Denmark 25 Finland Norway 20 USA 15 10 5 0 1993 Sweden United States Subtract out 28 percent tax on Benefits and Over 20 percent consumption tax for Nordic US only 5 and 7 (respectively) than add tax subsidies in U.S. EITC, Nordic Fall toward US. 2001 1995 1997 1999 2003 2005 Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 35 Net Public and Private Social Welfare Spending as Percent Relative to GDP, 1993-2003 45 40 35 30 USA 25 Denmark Finland Norway 20 Sweden United States 15 10 After Add Net Private U.S. Jumps to Middle and by 2003 is higher than all but Sweden 5 0 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 2003 2005 36 Per Capita NET PUBLIC Social Welfare Spending in 1990 GK Dollars Purchasing Power Parity, 1993-2003 8,000 7,000 6,000 USA 5,000 Denmark Finland 4,000 Norway Sweden 3,000 2,000 1,000 0 1993 United States As U.S. Real GDP is higher, Per Capita Net Public Spending in U.S. rises within $800 of Sweden's, even with Denmark 1995 1997 1999 2001 Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 2003 2005 37 Net Public and Private Social Welfares Spending Per Capita in 1990 KG Dollars Purchasing Power Parity, 1993-2003 USA 8,000 7,000 6,000 5,000 Denmark Finland 4,000 Norway Sweden 3,000 2,000 1,000 0 1993 United States Add in Private Spending and U.S. Per Capita Spending is Above All of the Nordic Countries 1995 1997 1999 2001 Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 2003 2005 38 Estimate of Income per Equivalent Person in Households at the 10th Percentile and the 90th Percentile in 2000 U.S. Dollars, PPP 10th Percentile 90th Percentile Finland 9,300 27,100 Sweden 9,300 27,600 United States 9,500 51,300 Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 39 Problem for U.S. Arises in the Average for the HHs in Bottom 10 % • U.S. average is $5,800 in 2005 • Nordic Average is $8,000 in Finland to $12,000 in Norway. Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 40 Holes in the Safety Net • Surprisingly large share of eligible not getting benefits – Why? – Is it lousy information flow from government? – Is it difficult barriers to eligibility? – Is it choice by eligible not to collect? Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 41 The Health Safety Net – Personal Insurance – Employer-Based Insurance • No taxes on health insurance – Medicare for the Elderly – Medicaid for the Poor – Child Health Insurance Program (CHIP) for the Near Poor – Direct Payment for Health Services – Hospital and Doctor Charity Care – Emergency Room Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 42 Facts About Health Care • • • • • U.S. spent 15.8% of GDP on Health Care Other countries French spent 11, Swiss spent 10.8, Ger. 10.5 UK 8.5, Sweden 9.1, Finland 8.3 U.S. PUBLIC expenditures on Health Care were 7.1 % of GDP (45% of the 15.8% figure) – We spend almost as much on poor and elderly as rest of world spends on Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 43 US Spends a Lot for Elderly Ratio of Health Care Expenditures by Age Group Relate to ages 50-64 in 2002 Hagist and Kotlikoff, “Who’s Going Broke”, 2005 Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 44 Who Are the Uninsured? • Employment Policy Institute Study by June O’Neill and Dave O’Neill of Baruch College • 47 million (16% of pop) uninsured by anybody • Elderly almost all covered by medicare • Children access at 200% of federal poverty line in AZ • Focus on 18-64 38 million uninsured – Roughly 16 million have incomes > 2.5 times poverty line – Described as voluntarily uninsured Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. http://www.epionline.org/studies/oneill_06-2009.pdf 45 Look at “Involuntary Uninsured” • 21.6 million with less than 2.5 times poverty level are uninsured. • Of those – 55 percent in households with no kids – 42.4 % White, 34.7% Hispanic, 16.6% black – 51.7 % 18-34, 22% 35-44 – 38 % did not work in prior year – 58 % family income less than $20,000. – Less Educated Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 46 State Variation in 2006 • States with highest percentage of uninsured among people with incomes < 2.5 fed pov. Line • NM 20, TX 18.4, OK 18.3, MS 18.3, AR 17.7 • LA 16.4, AZ 15.9, FL 15.8 AL 15.3 • States with lowest % • MN 6.6, VT 5.6, HA 6.9, CT 5.9, MA 6.4 Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 47 Effects on Probability of Having Insurance Holding All Else Constant – Rise in health premium of $1000 • lowers the probability of insurance by 32% for unmarrieds with no children • Lowers probability by only 2.7 % for marrieds with children – Hispanics • with children 10 % less likely than white non-Hispanics to have insurance • without children 13 percent less likely Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 48 Fundamentals of Insurance • Insurance works best when pool known risks that are similar and independent of each other • Mutual arrangement of everyone in room. • If risks not known, works less well Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 49 Insurance Problems • Adverse selection • End up with large share of high risks • Moral Hazard More protection allows people to take more risks Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 50 Reforms • Development of Universal Coverage in Other countries very Path Dependent • Britain National Health care came out of WWII shift to National Hospital • Netherlands employer private-insurer based. Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 51 Problems • Problems stem from Asset Value Problems. • Large Share of Troubled Assets Based on Mortgages – Assets because flow of payments • House itself is collateral – Backed by the value of the House Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 52 Housing Problems • Problems stem from Asset Value Problems. • Large Share of Trouble Assets Based on Mortgages – Assets because flow of payments • House itself is collateral – Backed by the value of the House Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 53 Housing Prices More than Doubled in Major Markets , 2000 to 2006. Have fallen back to 150% of 2000 peak Case-Shiller Housing Price Index, 10 Cities Through June 2009 250.00 200.00 150.00 100.00 50.00 0.00 March 1986 December 1988 September 1991 June 1994 March 1997 December 1999 September 2002 May 2005 February 2008 Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 54 WSJ 11/12/08 Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 55 Key Assets Involved • All were attempts to Spread Risk and Minimize it. – Mortgage Backed Securities (MBS) • Just like a stock fund • Own a whole group of mortgages – Collateralized Debt Obligation (CDO) • Fund made up of MBSs – Credit Default Swaps (CDS) • Insurance on the CDOs Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 56 AIG Credit Default Swap • Goldman owns a CDO and pays insurance premium to AIG to cover CDO • If bunch of mortgages default and MBS and CDO fall sharply in value, AIG pays Goldman and takes over CDO Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 57 Posting Collateral for CDS • The Big Risk that AIG never Expected with respect to Credit Default Swap • If AIG’s market value falls, CDS requires that they post collateral to prove that they can cover the CDS. – AIG was so big, no one ever thought that they would ever have to post collateral • Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 58 The Perfect Storm • Plenty of Blame to Go Around • Stock Bust early 2000s led People to Invest in Housing as Asset • Greenspan interest cuts than rises • Increase in Federal Government pressures on Freddie Mac and Fannie Mae to purchase subprime loans – subprimes from 5 to 20 percent of market Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 59 The Perfect Storm • Plenty of Blame to Go Around • Stock Bust early 2000s led People to Invest in Housing as Asset • Greenspan interest cuts than rises • Increase in Federal Government pressures on Freddie Mac and Fannie Mae to purchase subprime loans – subprimes from 5 to 20 percent of market Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 60 How Did We Get There? • Change in lending standards • Ratings Agencies Overly Optimistic • Accounting Rules for Regulatory Purposes – Shifts in Valuing Assets • Move from Book Value to Mark to Market Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 61 Was the Problem Deregulation? • NO. • Nearly all of this occurred in Regulated Markets. • Fannie and Freddie heavily regulated • did they control the regulator? • Credit Default Swaps and CDOs were never regulated – Calls for CDSs and CDOs to be traded on exchanges might be good idea Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 62 Was the Problem Deregulation? • Repeal of Glass Steagall divided between investment banks and banks? • Did more to save situation than make it worse. Copyright, Price Fishback, April 26, 2012. 63