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CHAPTER 8 Mediterranean Society under the Greeks and the Romans or a man wh<l pcrhaps ncvcr Odysscus as he sailed homc after existcd, Honrcr has bce n thc Trojan War. The ru'o a work profoundly influential figure. Ac- describcd scores of difHcultics cording to tradition, Homer coni- faccd by Grcek warriors, including poscd thc t\r,o great cpic poems ancicnt Grccce, the llisd of and thc Odyssey.In fact, siholars now -know that bards recitcd both batdes, monstcrs, and conflicts among themselves., Betrveen them, the nvo epics preserved a rich collection of storics that literary fig- pocms for generations before urcs mined for morc than a Homcr, and some belicvc that millcnnium. Homcr was simply a convenient The Iliod and the Odyssry also name for the otherwise anony- testi$r to the {requency and nor- mous scribes who committed the mality of travel, communication, Iliad. and the and intcraction in thc Meditcr- Odysscy to writing. Whethcr Homer ever really lived ranean basin during thc sccond or not, thc cpics attributed to him and first millennia s.c.u. Both deeply inffuenccd the devclop- works portray Grecks mcnt of dassical Grcek thought and fearless scarncn, almost as and literature .The llia.d offcred a comforable aboard their ships as Greek perspective on a campaign on land, who did not hesitate to waged by a band of Greck warriors against the city of Troy in venture into the waters of what Flomer called the *wine-dark Anatolia during the twelfth cen- Homer lovingly described the tury B.c-c. The Odysey recounted sleek galleys in which Greek war- the experiences of the Greek hero riors raced across the uaters, and Opposrr Ptcr.: Thc theeter at Delpbi. as expert sea., I32 PART2 I THE FORMATION OF CII.SSICAL SOCIETIES, he cven had Odysseus construct a seiling ship singlehandedly when he found himself shipwrecked on an island inhabited only by a goddess.The lliod.andthe Odyseymake it clear that maritime links touched peoplcs throughout the Mediterranean basin in Homer,s timc and, further, that Greeks were among the most promincnt seafarers of the age. Thc maritime links established by the Greeks lived on long aftcr the decline of classical Greek society. Indeed, the Romans took advantage of those links and used thcm to build a powerfirl society that dominatid the whole Mediterranean basin by the first century c.r. By that time, Roman citizcns found thcmselves living in a cosmopolitan world in which Rornan administrators oversaw affairs from Anatolia and Palestine in the east tb Spain and Morocco in *re wcst. |ust as Homer's epics recall the world of the Grceks, thc story of Paul of Tarsus reflects the cosmo- polianiiorld of the Roinans. Born in the first century c.r., Paul was a devout Jew from Anatolia who accepted thc Christian teachings of |esus of Nazareth. Paul was a principal figure in the development of Ctristianity to an independent religious faith, largely bccausc of his zealous missionary efforts to attract conycrts from outside as well as within the Jewish community. While promoting his adopted faith in ]crusalcm about 55 c.E., however, paul was attacked by a crowd ofhis enemies who believed his views werc a dreat to Iudaism. The disturbance was so sevcre t}tat Roman authorities intcrvened to restore order. Under normal circumstances, Roman authoriti es would havc dclivered Paul to the leaders of his own ethnic comrnunity, where he would bc dcalt with ac- cording to custom. But knowing that Jewish leaders would probably execure him, paul assertcd his rights as a Roman citizen to appeal his case in Romc. paul had ncvcr becn to Rome, but this Anatolian travcling in Palestinc callcd on thc laws of thc impcrial cen-- tcr to dctermine his fatc. Paul traveled across thc Meditcrranean to Rome, bur his appcal did not suc- cccd- Tradition holds that hc was exccuted by impcrial authoritics our of conccrn that Christianity was a thrcat to the peacc and stabiliry of thc cmpirc. Undcr*both tbc Grccks and thc Romans, thc Mcditcrrancan bilin bccamC iiiuch morc tightlyintcgratcd than bcfore as both socictics org"rrir.d .o*mcrcial cxchangc and sponsored interaction throughout thc rcgion. In fact, undcr Grcck and thcn Roman 5OO B.C.E. TO 5OO C.E. supervision, the Mediterranean served not as a barrier but, rather, as a highway. Moreover, this highway carried more than soldiers, citizens, and goods: it also carried ideas. Indeed, Greek philosophy-which generated a remarkable body of moral thought and philosophical ki d Kno fr reflection-shaped the cultural foundations of th. Roman republic and empire, as educated Roman thinkers drew inspiration from their neighbors to the east. Later, this highway carried the Christian religion to all corners of the Roman empire. Yet Greek and Roman societies also differed substantially both in and in outlook. Early in the classical cra, thc Greeks lived in independent, autonomous city-setes. Only aftcr the latc third century B.c.E. did they play prominent rolcs in the large, centralized empire established by their neighbors to the north in Macedon. LIntil then, thc Grecks had intcgrated the societies.and economies of distant lands mainly through energctic commercial activity over the Mediterranean sea lanes. In contrast to the dreeks, the Romans built an extensive, centralized land empire. At its high point the Roman empire domirrated thi en# Pi w h' lo ci B. ,cr G eI g B. .m. Mediterranean basin and parts ofsouthwestAsia as well as north Africa and much of continental Europe and Britain. In addition, wtrercas Greek authorities did not sponsor an evangclical religion, Christianity eventually became the official religion of the Roman empirq which allowcd the new religion to spread much more effectively than beftirc. Ennlv Drvelopnaerur oF CREEK SocIrrY ?u.lng the third millcnnium B.c.E., the peoplcs of the Balkan region and the Grcek peninsula increasingly met and mingled with pcoplcs from different socictics who traveled and traded in the Mcditerranean basin. As a result, carly inhabitants of the Grcek peninsula built thcir societics undcr the influence of Mesopotamians, Egyptians, phocnicians, and othcrs activc in thc region. Bcginning in the ninth ccntury B.C.E., thc Grecks organizcd a series of citystatcs, which servcd as thc political contcxt for thc dcvclopmcnt of classical Greck socicty. .Eu ltw, Suict . sca ma sol Pcl i, tcc agr Mr tan l{. Par Minoan and Mycenaean Societies During thc latc third millcnnium B.c.E., a sophisticatcd society arosc on the island of Crctc. Scholarc refcr to it as Minoan socicty, aftcr Minos, a legendary (:llAl'l t)itrncr rY car- cilrrccltcd $() ,phical (rf thc i.otttlttt t() thc ,'ligion tl sr.tb- .:rrlv in rlt, iltlcrlturv a, ccn- t() thc I intclands Ycr the ks, the 'irc. At ' entire as well ;'re and lid not ntuillx mpire, r more ples of rcreas- :ferent :diterof the : influrs, and ninth rf citybr the phisti- F.R king of ancicnr (lrctc. Ilcnvccn 2000 tl I rllll)11'[':RRANFrq,N soCIETl' rnd 1700 n.c.r:., crn From 1500 to Il00 B.c.E.) the Mycenaeans ex_ panded their influence beyond peninsular Greece. They largely overpowered Minoan sociery and they took over the Cretan palaces. The Mycenaeans also :holars Minoan (mih-NOH-uhn) endary Mycenaean ( nreye-suh-NEE-uhn ) n.<:.1. thc Itlvccnacans cnragcd The World of the Polis Decline of tant setdements. About I200 peoplc abandoncd nr()st scttlcnrcnts. a serics of earthquakes, r'olcanic eruptions, and tidal waves. southern part of the Greek peninsula, known as the Peloponnesus. Because the fortified sites offered pro_ tection, they soon attracted settlers, who built small agricultural communities. Their society is known as Mvcenaean, after Mt,cenae, one of their most impor_ Italy,. productivc aqrictrlttrrrrl socictics. Nlvccnacan prlaccs fell into rrrin, rhc 1'ropul:rrion slrarylv dcclinctl. an.l Aftcr 1700 s.t:.r.. Minoan sociery expericnccd where they learned about writing and largescale construction. A_fter l4S0 s.c.s. they also built massive stone fortresses and palaces throughout the R()uAss 133 Chaos in thc Eestrn Homcr rccallctl fionr a Circck ocr, Mcdttrtencen spcctivc in his //ia4 c.rincidctl r'irh invasions of tirrcign rnarincrs in thr }tr.ccnacan honteland. Indccd, tiolu l100 to 80t) n.r .!... chaos rcigncd throur:'h()ur tlrc crstcrn Alcditcrrancln rcgion. Invasious rrncl civil clisturbarrccs mldc it irrrporsiblc t<l nrlintrrin strrlrlc g()vcrnnlcnts ()r cvcn craft of Phoe nician clcsign. Minoan ships s:rilcd t<t (ircccc, Anatolia, Pl'rocnicia, and Egvprt, rvhcrc ttrcy cxclrangcd Crctan rvinc, olivi oil, ancl u,ool for [rains, tcxtilcs, and nranufhcturcd goclds. Aftcr 1600 B.c.t. Crerans cstablishcd colonies on Cvprus and rnanv islands in the Acgcan Sea. Beginning about 2200 s.c.E. migratory Indo_ European peoples filtered inro rhe Greek peninsula. they had begun.to trade Mycenoean ::c'E'merchants and visit -t1,t199 u,ith Minoan Crere, Society ANI) I'H]. in a conflict uith tlrc citv t,l''ltov in Anatolia. 'l'his 'l'rojan *ar, r..hicir rvcrc rcsidcrrccs olrurlcn, and thcY als<l scn,cd ls storchouscs s'lrcrc oflcials collcctcd taxcs irr kintl fiom kx'al cultivators. Bctrvccn 2200 ancl 1450 R.c.r:., Crcrc u,as a principll center <lf N{cditcrrancan c()nrnrcrcc. I}1, 2200 l].(t.H.. Crctans \!,crc travcling ab<lard aclvlncccl sailing noan society attracted a series ofinvaders, and by lI00 B.c.E. Crete had fallen under foreign domination. yet Minoan traditions deeply influenced the inhabitants of nearby Greece. l'H1.. (it(h.F.Ks cstablishcd scrrlcnrcnrs in Anatolil, Sicilt,, and s()uth- tlrc inhabitants ()f Crcrc built a scrics of hvish palaces throughout.thc island, ntost notrrtrll,thc cnor_ Knosos rrrous conrplc.t at ffurossos dccoratctl rvith vivid tit'scocs clcpicting .i\.linoans ar s'ork ancl play. Thcsc prlaccs \l'crc thc ncn.c ccntcrs of Minoan s<xicty: thcy Benveen 1600 and 1450 s.c.u,., Cretans embarked on a new round of Minoan Society palace building to replace structures destroyed by those natural catasuophes: they built luxurious complexes u,ith indoor plumbing and drainage systems and even furnished some of thern rvith flush toilets. After 1450 B.c.E., however, the lvealth of Mi_ UNt)tit( - In the absence of a ccntrllizcd srate-<x crnpire- l<xal institutions took tlrc lcatl in rcst<lring political ordcr in Greece after thc dcclinc ol Myccnrcan scx-icrr.. Thc most importanr institution u'as thc ciq'-state , or polis Over time, manr, <>frhcsc poleis (the piunl oi polis) be came lively commercial cenrers.lThcy took on an increasingly urban character and extendcd *rcir authorin over surrounding regions. By about 800 s.c.t. manr. poleis had become bustling city-states that functioned as the principal cenrers of Greek society. Thc most important of the poleis rvere Sparta and Athens, r*,hose contrasting constitutions help to illustratc thc r-arien.ol political styles in classical Greect. Sparta was situated in a fertilc region of the Greek peninsula, ivhose lands rhe Spartans exploited b1'forcing neighboring peoples to perform agricultural labor. These ltelots, or servants of the Sparran tParta state , were not slaves, but neither u.erc ther- tiee to leave the land. Their role in societv was to kccp Spartl supplied with fbod. By the sixth centun B-c.E., rhe helots probably outnumbered the Sparran cidzens brmore than ten to one) rvhich meant that the Spartans constandy had to guard against rebellion. 3s a result. the Spartans devoted most of their r€sources to maintaining a powerful and disciplined militaq,machine. In theor,v, Spartan citizens u'ere equal in status. To discourage the development of economic and social distinctions, Sparrans obsen'ed an extraordinarily austere lifesryle . They s?artun socirry did not wear jeu,elry or elaborate clorhes. nor di,l they pamper themselves,with luxuries or accumulatc private wealth on a large scale . It is for good reason. polis (POH-lihs) r34 I f PARI2 I THE FORMATION OF CI.ASSICAL SOCIETIES, 5OO r.C.r. TO 5OO C.E. Ap. t@n$dcty atta, raoo"".ou"ty hclp no adu lear voic rich Athcni Map &f M.Fr ciry-statcs, or poleis, of ctassical Grcccc bcrwccn gO0 and ;Hi:J,:l,"ffiJ.[ilated inland' Ho*-ig;p'o*i.itv thcn, that our adicctiv e spurtanrefcrs charactcriznd bv simoticiry r."*"i,.r, Distincrbn irong tr,. prowcss, dixiplinc, and to a lifcstylc ""i lustcrity. uy iIi Spartans, mcn and.r",rnr"n, . ,igo.r-o_urrcgin*.of physicaitraining.d;;;,;isparran ,ij.I*.n. ctuzcns lcft rhcir homcs at agc scvcn and wcnt to livc in military berracks. s'.J.;;ilA mcnt. sparun womct if,:r":::?,.t:l ht"t**: .ish;..;;;.ffi :L1l.I;.#hf H;:*f; -.^ rF-'' their husbands. Onlv at abour agc thirty did men lcavc the ba*acks ch thc Spartan cducational system culrivatcd from an carly agc. All mili ta,y to or distancc from thc sca havc shapcd thc cconomic and sociar . Wef( weal tocr: inA, ( T..il;$;"il.r.. tr.y,-,-"i_,,'*rrf nr cenl * sei.p" h;;;;"]o*;;ii.ir "nd trg,4 sp**liil,i'ria'i",, i*il&:,. fl or ts ascctic rigor *;"il;.; wives .nu.r, by the fourth E., Spartan instirutions ncvcrthel.r, ."n,inuJi,i'LR..,,t. largcr societyrs commiunent to military values. Whcreas Sparta sough.r to imposclraJiv _ili,.rv Athcnians rctieved r".i"t i.*iJrliilourirr,_ ,T:rrr, mg a govcrnment bascd on dcrnocrad;;ril;. ples. Indccd, Athenians opcned officcs to all citizcns *d cat participation in ctassicat ,or.rrrrn.ri At*cns #;J;;8il;#:fporiti_ cr;;.:. d;;; was by Hc, Solot a. Atlnnir Dcmocr mcnr zcn \ Duri rcfor salari not c T dem< (:l{AP'l'I:Rlt | I\'lEl)tl 11l(lL\Nl:AN s()(:lEl-\ uNl)t:,Rl'ttt1 (iRt:I]Ls ANI)Tl{}: R()t\l.{Ns 135 canlc undcr thc lcatlcrslrip of thc statcsntan Pcriclcs, s'lro bccamc thc nrosr popular Athcnian lca&r from 461 n.<:.e. urrtil his cicath in 429 n.c.u. Undcr thc lcatlcruhip of Pcriclcs, Athcru bccamc tlrc Pcr*lct nr()st sophisticatcd ()t thc polcis, with :r vibrant conrmrtnin, ()t' scicntists,- philosol'rhc n;, [x)cts, dmn)atists, artists, rnd archirc.cts. Gnrecr AND THE LARcER Wonlo As thc polcis prcs1'rcrcd, Grceks bccame incrcasinglv pronrincnt in thc largcr rvorld of the Meditcrrancan basin. Thcy cstablishcd colonies along the shorcs ofthe Mediterranean Sca ancl the Black Sea, and thcy traded throughout thc rcgion. Evenrually, rhcir politkal and A painted cup produced in Sparta abour 550 a.c.r. depicts huntcrs attacking a boar. Spartans regardcd hunting as an cxercise tiat helped to sharpen fighting skills and aggrcssive insrincts. no means open to all residents, however: only free adult males from Athens played a role in public affairs, leaving foreigners, slaves, and women with no direct voice in government. _ _ During the seventh century B.C.E., the gap between rich and poor around Athens widened considerably as increased irade brought prosperity ro Athenion Socien wcalthy landowners. By the early sixth a large class of undcrprivileged people leave vives nuch ipart the titary rlish- Athens olitias by century r.c.r., were unhappy enough to wage war against their wealthy neighbors. To alrrt civil war, an Athenian aristocrat named Solon devised a solution to class conflict in Attica, *re region around Athens. Solon forged a compromise between the classes. He allowed aristocrats to keep their lands, but he Solon ond cancelled debts, forbade debt slaverS and Athenion liberated those already enslaved for debt. Detnocracy Solon also provided representation for the common classes in the Athenian government by opening the councils of the polis to any cirizen rvealthy enough to devote time to public affairs. During the late sixth and fifth cenruries B.c.E., these reforms went even further as Athenian leaders paid salaries to officeholders so financial hardship would not exclude anyone from service. These reforms graduaily uansformed Athens into a democratic state . The high tide ofAthenian democrary economic intercsrs brought thcm into conflict with the cxpanding Persian cmpire. After a centur)'of intermittent war, in the fourth century B.C.E. Alexan- der of Macedon toppled the Achaemenid empire and built an empire stretching from ladia to Egypt and Greece. His conquests crcated a veft zone of trade and communication that cncoqraged cnrnmercial and cultural exchange on an unprccedenrcd scalc. Creek Colonization To relieve population pressurcs in the rocky Grcek peninsula, Greeks began to establish colonies in other parts of the Mediterranean basin. Between drc mideighth and the late sixth centurics n.c.r., they founded more than four hundred coloirics along thc slrores of the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea. The Greeks established their first colonies in the central Med.iterranean during thc earty cighth ccnmry B.C.E. The most popular sites were ^_-. Qtsnies Sicily and sourhern I,"rv, p"r**r"rrv Gtd the region around modern Naples, which was itself originally a Greek colony called Neapolis (*nerv polis"). These colonies provided merchants not only u'ith fertile fields that vielded large agricukural surpluses but also with convenient access to thc copper, zinc, tin, and iron ores of central Italy. During the eighth and seventh cenruries B.c.E., Greeks ventured into the Black Sea in large numbers and established colonies all along its shores. These I 136 PART 2 I THE FORMAUON OF CI.{SSICAL SOCIETIES, 5OO B.C.E. TO 5OO C.r finar once isted tribu t confl I I i i The Pelo w,, Conte B.C.E. nians victor flics c intr as power Map82 lrliorcrEf citics and colonics. *"** rnarryCrrtctcolonies.Whatdoes.r,".,.,ggo*iliffi.ffi3basinbetwecn800and50os.c.g.Notcthc."*;m settlerirents oftred m3r;hant1 acccss *f;H f.hf*'::::i ;*-' to rich supplies ;*"'gota' ""a -d ***;;. ilffT il1i1,i,:i:*,#.[u Unlikc thcir countcrparts in and Irrc4 the Grcercs .f*i.Jp..ria, ssi a China, die;;Jd riat stae. rnstcad" cotonies ".l"ollr.o,_*_ *ti.a;il;il# .**.., and chartcd rlrir-ovn onl,,ti* Nevertheless, Greck col- [oilii;t^":Y "na.*.r,_-g;d-.*:T.xITffi iliift il,l.x".xi? lands and pcopb. Froln.thc .*ly.ighft;;-n;ry cotonies ficilitatcd tradc b.nu""ri B.c.E., and spread ffi;;;;;ons J.nJ,IiJIffin oons throughout thc "r..uriu."i "iio"il..n *.*_ er.ai,"**._-ii#]iil* or..n the Grcet poteis. At o_. Grcek tanguase as wclj *. ffiffifiIl"i,,crrccts Conflict with persia During thc fifth ccntr o-:d, ;; *ni ;;:ilr*" i ;.,},:::f,[i [.Xt conflict with thc pcrsi i:ffi :ji:i*u,*T"rl#:iii.ri,I:$; gnp on Anatolia. the Greek cities on the Ionian coast bccame increasinely s"o.oT...r. they re _ volted against perlirn rule and expclled the Achae_ ..r.1;.;; menid administrato.:t Grcels and comme.,.r.al a fleet of ships tf,. a1d th"n _"r.-h-J' C".n,l "Jrrr"y*". U"ttf . in his hol. after a c, launchir Alcxander of Mecedou old son, vicro thc Grc, vadc tht w stratcgis well-cqu il:.; l# ;'*;:,i;;,.il1flu: mish intcrmiftcntlv v", ,, under h - Philr felow ;f{[ I:Tn l*:;,lt xni :i* r*i :ji{,"r.fi cure definitive a ,, Kingr -; ofTbeMaeedo il; reprcssed the r.;.;. fi;*- "'ir', y.ll, r",.r, r,. ,*r.i ^,*,ens *T i ;.;*,, r rrirrans senr Ir rrpp;;:-;;;eir p_r;cT, ,nf p, n ; n, w. H.l.:T3lfl ?ff n $i":: X rner r rntcrfbrence. r.l"rgh g... rly ou tnum bered, the Athenians routed t th" pe .J"rr :t_y:.*n:n Until donw Durinl larger ; proved Warhat hamper to aid the IoJ* Jrror-,.-'" Dcspitc Athcnian assi.t*.., Ionian rebellion in 4e3 ' , The the ( ii.'i.'.,#,;llH*,,'ffi ::T:il con n i c t among the Grcek oolcis themffir. il.:"usc . was an alliancc b.mecn tt,. pot.i, t n;;r^,J th^c Dcrian whicfi rbc-Dctiatt crtscouraget'gy., furthcr p..rian ;;;;;j; aJo,,*,"i.r ltaguc Greccc. Becausc of its supcrior flcct, Athcns bccamc rhc cc, bcncfidng grcatly from thc r."d;;;il;,i,:: his hthcr and Ana: held Svri. uollcd r\' sian honr Achacmc in 330 n., C[lpCror r (ltlAP'fLR tt I Illll)l'l'l'.RILAnNh-{n- S(XllFl'[1- tlNI)lrl{'l t Ill (;Rt;tiKS ANI)'t'Hti l ,:l .l ofthe l coast rey re- ' ,- \chae fellow - ls sent ed the -er, he ian Wan )ered, battle ens in uccess rld se- 'more o skir- >nflict ie was n Delian Leogae acame ,m rhe finrrncill c<lntributions of othcr polcis. Horvcvcr, orrcc it s'as clclr thar tlrc l)crsiarr thrcat rro l<lngcr cxistcd, thc othcr p<llcis rcscrrtcd hl'ing ro nrakc contritrutiorrs thar sccnrcd ro bcnclit ()nh, thc Athcnians. Llltinratcl)', thc tcrrsions r"rultc.l in a bittcr civil c()rrflict knou'n rs rhc l)cloponncsian War (4.3 l-404 .t.l* pclo,onncsian n.r:.t,.). Polcis dividctl into iio, nr.<t arnrccl canrps undcr thc lcatlcrship of Athcns and Sparta, tlrc principal contcntlcrc filr hcgcnronv in the (ircck s<lrld. lly 404 Ir.c.h. thc Sgr:rrtans and rlrcir allics had filrcctl rhc Athcrri:rns to r,rnconclitit>nll strrrcndcr. Hou,cvcr, Sparta's lictorv s()()n gcncratcd ncu, jcalousics, antl ncu, contlicts quickh'trrokc our bcru'cen thc polcis. i\.lcan*.hilc, ls intcrnal strugglcs rvc:rkcncd thc polcis, a tilrnridablc p()\\'cr took shapc in drc north. The Macedonians and the Coming of Empire LIntil thc fburth ccnrurv B.c.E., the kingdont of Macedon rvas a fronder state north of peninsular Greece. During the reign of King Philip II (359-336 B.c.E.), Macedon became a powerful, The Kinqdom ' however, unified state with an impressive military of Maceion machine. When philip had consolidated his hold on Macedon, he turned his attention to rwo larger prizes: Greece and the persian empire. Greece relatively easy to conquer: the peloponnesian War had poisoned the poleis against one another, which hampered organized resistance. Thus in 33g r.c.e., alier a campaigrr oftrvelve years, philip had all of Greece under his control. Philip intended to use his conquest of Greece as a launching pad fbr an invasion of persia but rvas preAbxander vented from doing so by an assassin who of Maced.on brought him down in 336 s.c.s. The inva_ sion of pe rsia thus fell to his tw,enry-year_ old son, Alexander of Macedon, often called Alexander the Great. Alexander soon assembled an army to invade the Persian empire. Alexander was a brilliant strategist and an inspired leader, and he inherired a well-equipped and highll'spirited vereran force from his father. By 333 B.c.E. Alexander had subjected Ionia and Anatolia to his control; rvithin another year he held Syria, Palestine, and Egrpt; bv 33I B.c.E. he con_ trolled Mesopotamia and prepared to invade the persian homeland. He took Pasargadae and burned the g_1""_.d Achaemenid palace at Persepolis late in 33I B.c.E., and in 330 B.c.E. Alexander established himself as the new emperor of Persia. R(}ntAtis 137 By 327 R.(;.r,. Alcxatrdcr had largcr ambiriorx: hc took his arnrv irrto Irrtlia lrut w,as forr.cd to rcturn homc u'hcn his tr(x)ps rclirscd to procccd any ,lkrnadcr,s thrthcr. Bv 32.1 n.(:.1.:. Alcxandcr and his ' c'onqucss arnry, hacl rcturrrcd to susa in Mcxrprtamia. In Junc of .323 B.c.F.., howcvcr, aftcr an cxtcndcd rountl of l.rrrsdng and drinking, hc suddcnlv fLll ill and dicd ar rhc rgc of thirty-thrr.e. Thus, although Alcxandcr pr<>r'ctl to ['rc a brilliant conqu€ror, hc did not livc long cnouuh to devclop a systcm ofadministration filr his vlsr rc:rlnr. The Hellenistic Empires Whcn Alcxandcr clicd, his gcne rals divided rhc cmpirc into thrcc largc states. Antigonus trxrk Grcecc and Maccdon, u,lriclr his Antigonid succcssors ruted until replaccd bv the Romans in the sccond ccnrur\B.c.E. Ptolemy took Egypt, u,hich thc Ptolemaic dr.nasty ruled until the Roman conquest of Eglpt in 3I s.c.e. Seleucus took the largest portion, the former Achaemenid cmpirc strctching from Bactria to Anatolia, which his s.uccessors ruled until the Parthians displaced them during thc second century B.c.E. Historians refer to the age ofAlcxandcr and his sucagi-an era whcn Greek cultural traditions expurded their influence cessors as the Hellenistic (Heltas) to mu.h larger world. [n- Tbc xrellenistic - Era " deed, the Hellenistic govcrned cosmopolitan societies"-pi.., and sponsorcd interacrions between peoples from Greece to India. Like imperial states in classical Persia, China, and India, the Hellenistic empires facilitated trade, and they made it possible for belie6, values" and religions ro spread over greater distances than el,cr bcfrre. All the Hellenistic empires bencftcd handsomehfrom the new order through the supcrvision of extensive trade networks and efficient tax cotlection. yet perhaps ,h. *;,hi;;"f ,h. Tbe Pnlemaic Empire Hellenistic empires rvas ptolemaic EgyptGreek and Macedonian overlords did not inrerfere in Egyptian socieg,, contenting themselves r*ith the efEcient organization of agriculture, industrr, and ta-x Ptolemaic (TAWL_-oh-may-ihk) I38 ptRT 2 T}IE FORMATION OF CLq,SSICAT SOCIEfiES, 500 r.c.r. | To 500 c.E. used thoup not lc I classit broug and cr THr Cnr Thc r pcnin south munir rcads. by lar hcavil Trad offi Altho n lIlaPL3 tsiradarics of Alcxander's former empirc and of thc Hellenishc cmpircs that Ilotia thc iffirencc in sizc bctween thc three Hellcnistic cmpircs. What would disadrrmgcs of cach| succccded it about the year "n' 2ZS s.c.s. have bccn the cconomic and political advantagcs and i \illne. thc M collcction. Thcy maintained the irrigation networks and monitorcd the cultivation of crops and the paymcnt of urcs. They also established royal monopolies ovcr thc rnost lucrative industries, such as textiles, salt nnking;and the brcwing of becr. Much of Eg5rpt's wcakh flowed to thc ptolcmaic caprtal ofAlexandria. Founded by Alexander at the molth of thc Nile, Alexandria servcd as Alrxrr*a- thc Ptolemics' administrative headquarters, but it becamc much more than a bureaucratic curtcr. Akrandria's cnormous harbor was ablc to accommoderc 1,200 ships simultancously, and the ciry soon bcenre the most important port in thc Mcditernulcan. Ahngsidc Grecks, Maccdonians, and Egyptians livcd rizable comrnunities of Phoenicians, |cws, Arab6, and Babylonians. The ciry was indccd an carly mcgrlopolis, wherc pcoplcs of diffcrcnt cthnic, religious, and cultural traditions conductcd thcir affairs. Undcr t}r Ptolemics, Alcxandria alrc bccamc thc culnxal capiel of thc Hcllcnisdc world. It wrs thc sitc of thc funourddexurdrian".Muscunr-* statc-financcd *<.: :.-: institute of higher learning where philosophical, liter- arg and scientific scholars carried on advanced research-and of the equally famous Alexandrian Ubrary which supported the scholarship sponsorcd by thc museum and which, by the first century B.c.E., boasted a collection of more rhan seven hundred thousand works. It was in the Seleucid realm, howcver, that Grcck influencc rcachcd its greatest exrent. The principal channels of that influencc werc the numcrTbc sclcwil ous citics that Alcxand.r *a *r rr.;;; founded in thc formcr pcrsian cmpire. Empit Greck and Macedonian coloniss flocked to rhesc citics, rvhcrc rhey created a Meditcrmean-stylc urban socicry that lcft is mark on lands as disrant as Bactria urd India. Many Sclcucids became familiar with Greck languagc, drcss, litcraturc, philosophy art, and architccturc. Enr- pcrorAshoka of India himsclf had his cdicts promulgatcd in Grcck and Aramaic, thc two most commonly Sclcuci& ( sih- LOO-sihds) 6fg". Br Cfatc( 'Mcrcl throul in thc Mcdir Thcsc Grecl gods spokc ttleti< Gr ticipa, olr CHATTTER8 I[{I.]DITHRRAN}I,NSoCIEIYUNDER'I'III:(iRI'F:KSANT)]],IF:IT().|\IANS I39 uscd languagcs of thc Hcllcnistic cmpires. Indccd, although thc socictics undcr Hcllcnistic domination did not losc thcir oun cust()nls, thc Hellcnistic cnrpircs, likc classical statcs in Pcrsia, China, and India, ncvcrthclcss brought distant lands into intcraction by u'ay of tradc and cultural cxchangc. THr Fnurrs oF TRADE: Gnerx Ecoruorrlv AND SoctETy Thc mountainous anti rocky terrain ol thc Grcek peninsula lelded only small harvests of grain, and the rrs southern Balkan mounrains hindercd travcl and comn'runication. Indeed, until the construction of modcrn roads, much of Greece was more acccssible by sea than by land. As a result, early Grcek society depended heavily on maritime uade. Trade and the tntegration of the Mediterranean Basin t ter- re'ian red r.E., red eek ipal leucid. impire rge , ,,m- rul- 1 Although it produccd litde grain, much of Greece is ideally suited to the cultivation of olives and grapes. After the establishment of the poleis, the Greeks disTrade covered tlat they could profitably concentrate their ef-forts on the production of olive oil and wine. Greek merchants traded rttesc products around the Mediterranean, returning *ith abundant supplies of grain and other items as wcll. By thq eady eighth cenrury B.c.E., rade had generated considerable prosperity in the Greek world. Merchants and mariners linked Greek communities tlrroughout thc Mediterranean world-not only those in the Greek peninsula but also those in Anatolia, the Meditdrranean islands, and the Black Sea region. These trade links contributcd ro a sense of a lirger Greek community. Colonists recogr*ized the same gods as their cousins in the Greek peninsula. They spoke Greek dialects, and they maintained commercial relationships with their native communities. Greeks from all parts gathered periodically to participate in panhellenic festivals that reinforced their The Olvmoic common bonds. Many of these festivals fbatured athletic, literary, or musical conGamei ' rests in which individuals sought to win glory for their polis. Best known of the panhellenic festivals were the Olympic games. According to tradi_ tion, in 776 e.c.E. Greek communities from all parts of the Me diterranean se nr their be st athletes to the polis of Olympia to engage in conte srs of speed, Harvcsting olivcs. In this painting on a vase, trtrE mcn knoct fnrit offthe branches whilc a third climbs the trec toshake drc Srrhs, and another gathers olives from thc ground. strength, and skill. Events induded footracing long boxing, wresding, javelin tossing, and discus throwing. Winners of events received olive rmcaths, and they became celelrated heroes in their home poleis. The ancient Olympic games took ptace cvery four years for more than a millennium before quietly disappearing from Greek life . So, although ther- uere jo-p, not united politically, by the sixrh cenrun" B-c.E. Greek communities had nevertheless established sense of collecrive identiry. a Family and Society With the establishment of poleis in the eighth ceorury B.c.E., the nature of Greek family and socien- came into focus. Like urban societies in southlvest Asia and Anatolia, the Greek poleis adopted strictly patriarchal family structures. Male family heads ruled their 140 pART 2 | THE FoRMATIoN ()i ct {ssrcAr socrEl.IEs, s00 houscholds, and fathers even had ,1r. ,;ght to decide whether or not to keep infants Uo.., ..l ri.ir wives. pa*iarcbl fuilrty They could not legally kill infants, but they could abandon newbor::s in. *1g rnountains or the countryside, where they would soon die of exposure . Grcck women fell under the authority of rheir fa_ rhcrs, husbands, or sons.,Upper_class G..ek women spent mcr of their time in the family home and fre quently worc veils when they ,renrured outside. In most of*re poleis, women cotrld not own landed prop_ er1 bur they sometimes operated small businesses zuch as *rops and food stals. the only public position open to Greek women was that of priestess of a reli_ pous cuh. Sparta was something of a special case when cal3 to gender relations: theie *o.i.r participated it in athlctic contests, wenr abour to*n bf ih;il;r, and sometimcs even took up arms to d#na the polis. Evln in Spqrq howevcr, mcn were family aurhorities, ' and nrcn done determ[ned Utency was ,tat poti.io. comriron upper_class Grcek women, end a few womcn "morrg .rrrr.J re-p-utations for lit_ fuplho .cnrytalcnt. Most famous ofthim was the poet Jappno, who was active during the around6(X) r.c.e. years Sappho, probably *ito* from an aristocratk-family, invited yo""g' " *oi.n inro her tromc rcr rnsrucdon in music and literature. Critics chargcdl hcr *ith homosexual activity, *J n., suryiy_ ing versc spcal$ ofher strong ptyri.Jr,rraction ro voung wlrmen. Gree k society readily tolerated sexuJ relationships betwcen men bur no*r,.j on female h.omgsexulity.fu a resulr, Sappho f.ti,rrra., a moral cloud,.and only fragment of fr., p"*ylr*i*. tamilies with ex tcn sive la ndholdin gs ^nsrocratrc could afforrd to provide girls with tbr*J educarion, bur in lcs privilcged famities .Il h""J;;;tributed " to thc wclfarc of the household. in ,r.r."1 f"_ili.s, men pcrformd most of the outside *uort, ,ufrit. women rook care of domestic chores and rvove rvool In artisan familics living in th. pot.ir,toi, textiles. _.n \r'omen o,&cn participated in "r,a busincsses and main_ raincd stasds or booths in thc mrkc,pt.... Throughout the Grcek rvorld, socictics' shvery was a promincnt ", in ",i., classical nlcans of mobilizing-labor. Slavcs camc fiom scvcral diftbrenr Drkgrounds. Somc cntcrcd slavery bccausc thcr co$.d not pay thcir dcbts. Mrny,r;;. soldiers capturcd in war. A largelumber camc from Sleecrl thc pco_ ples u,ith whom thc Grccks tradcd: ,t*. m"rt.t .r !la1k &a ports sotd seminomadi. S.wtiin, caprurcd in Russia, and Egyptians proviclcd Ani..iri"r.r. B.c.E. To 500 c.r Greek law regarded all slaves as the private chattel property of their owners, and the .o.rdiio.r, of slaves, tives depended on the *J;;';;;.."ment of In general,"".a, fro*.u.., Jil;i;;.rr; :y:I. special skills fared befter than orrUt"J ,i"u.r. A slave named pasion, for example, worked n rir, , porr., then m.i as a clerk at a prominent "rra atnenlan Uank during the late fifth and early fourth ;;;;r;...r. UIti- nrarely. Pasion gained his freedom, ,""t "*. manage- ment of the bank, outfitted five wanhifs from his pocket, and won a granr ofAthenian.i?r."rfrp. own t l' t, & o o ri Je THr CulruRAL T LIFE br oF CLASSICAL GREECE A During the eighth and seventh centuries B.c.E., as Greek merchanm ventured,hr""gh;;; J. u.ai,.r_ basin, they became acquainted with the so_ I11.T pnlstrcated cultural,traditions of Mesopotamia and They lcarned astronomS science, ISyp,. mathemat_ ci tC ics, medicine, andmagic fr"-,fi;"by]i}ri;, aswell as geomers medicing and divination from the Egyptians- Thcy also ar.* i"rpir"JJ" from thc myths- religious beliefs, ,r, *l ,.chitectural -"rifi, stytes of Mesopotamia *d Egyp;. Ab;;ioo r...r. they adapted the phoeni.i";6h;;ii" ,rr.i, language. To the phoeniciail;;;r;;;"ts owrl.,* they added symbots for vowets and thus ;;;;;;;; exceptionalty flexible system fb. ;;;;;ijig i,r_rn speech in written form. -During thc fifth and_fourth cennints B.c.E., rhe ^ Grceks combined rhose borro*.a.."f*rJelements with their own intellect.r"t interesi, ,J'J"uorrr. . rich cultural tradition tt rt .*.r.i..a ."*i.,"r, irnr_ encc in the Mediterran^ean basin and *;;; Europe. The most disti.ctive f.",".. of .i*ri."i 6*.t.rr ture was thc effort to construct a consistent systcm of philosophy based purely "" i;;;;;; Rationat Thought and philosophy Thcpivotal figure in thc development of philosophy r.c.r.), ,f,orgn?.i'Athenian " jrivc.n by a powcrful urge to understand human bc_ ings in all. thcir complciity. S"..",.;;iJ;; commit his thoughilo writing, but his d.iscil sotates plc Plato latcr comooscd diallgues ,fr"ffir.r.n,"a vicws. He ,ugg.stcd that honor focmtes' was frr morc rmportant than u,calth, famc, or othcr rrp..fi.i.l was Socratcs (47C-S9g "r_ bt 3l di ('ll.\l'lliRS lltlll)l ll:RRAN|ANS(Xlllil-\'ttNl)l'.R l'lllr(iRl:l.lKSANl)]'H11 R()l\tAlis rttcl vcs' t ()l trilrr,rtcs. Hc scorrrcd thosc rvlro prctl.rrctl lrulrlic rrcco- htlcs to lx'rs()nal intcgril\'. antl lrc insistcd ()n lllc nccd t() rcflcct on thc purp()scs .rrrtl golls of liti.. "'l'lrc un- l4l S()cratcs' inflrrcncc survived in tlrc u'ork o('his rrr()st zcal()us tlisciplc, Plato (4.30-3{7 n.t:.t,.), end in r8c- otrlig:rtion to strivc krr' 1'r('151111;rl intcgrin', trclravc lronor:rblt' tos'lrr'l ()thcrs, rrrrtl srrrk trlu'rrrtl tlrc corrstrtrc- Pllto's clisciplc Arisrotlc (384-.122 $.c.h..). In- h, t'tato spircd bv his nrcnt,,r's rcflcctions, I'hto chborirtcd a svstcntrti. phikrs<lphv of grcat subtlctr'Hc prcscntcd his thought in a scrics of dilklgucs in s'hich S()cr:rtcs fiqtrrctl irs thc principll spcakcr. As tirnc prasscd, Plir() sr:ldrrallv fbrmuhtcd his thurghr itrto a svstcntrrtic visiorr of tlrc urrrlel irnd hu.mJr] )\\'11 tion olrr just socicir'. s()cict)'. iscd lavc cxlnrincrl lili' is not .urd hckl, irnplvirrg thlt s'orth living." hc 'ing tlti- lrtrnr:rrr ['rcirrrls hltl In cllt'rrlrltitrg th()sc vicu's. Socr.rtcs olicrr irn su[r- jcctccl trlrlition:rl cthic:rl tc.rchings to critic.rl scnrrinr'. 'l'h.rt outrlrtcrl solnc ol- his fi'llorv citizcrrs, s'lr<r ,es tcrso- lnd l'rrotrglrt hirn to trial on clt.trscs that hc c()rnrPtc('l thc .\tl'rcnian \'()utlls rvlro ioinctl hint in thc nrrrrkctpllcc to disctrss nroral and crirical issucs. A jurv of'Arhcniirn citizcns clecidcd that Socrltcs haci indcccl plssctl thc tnunds of propricn,rrnti condemncd hinr to clcirrh. In 399 g.t:.t.. Socratcs tlrank ir p()tion of henrltxk slp and died in thc contpanv of his fiiends. llatwell the the ural C.E. )wn hey iepnan the that thc rr'r>rld in rvhich u,c live is not thc u'orld od'gcnuine realiry, but onlv a prale and impcrfLct reflection of the world of Fornrs rlr Ielcas. The secrcts of thisr*,orld, Plato'argued, wcrc available only to philosophersthose who applied their rational facultics to thc pursuit of wisdom. Though abstract, Plato's thought had impo,rtant political and social implications. In his dtalogw Tbe Republic, for example, Plato argued that sincc $dloso phers werb in the best position to understand ulrirnate realiry they would also be the bcst rulers. In cffcct, Plato advocated an intellectual aristocracy: the philosophical elite rvould rule, and less intclligentclasses rvould rvork at functions for which dreir talents best During the generation after Plato, Aristodr claborated a systematic philosophy that equaled Arisatle Plato's work in its long-term irrflu.rr... Urrlike Plato, Aristode believed that philosophen could ,flu)pe. cultem rely on their senses to provide accurate informarion about the world and then depend on rcason ro sort out its mysteries. Aristotle explored the naturc of reality in subde metaphysical works, and he devircd rigorous rules of logic in an effort to construct pon'erful and compelling arguments. His rvork providcd such a coherent and comprehensive vision of thc rvorld that his later disciples called him *the masrer of those u,ho know." phv rian belocrates lore I at- [ris {heort' suited them. ints tea rted 'fhc corrtcrstonc olt l)llto's th<xrglht rvls rtt'Fornrs, or Irlc.ts. lt rlisttrrbccl Phto thrt hc coultl not gain satistrrctorv intcllcctual control ()\"cr thc u'rlrld. Thc quelitr' of virtuc, firr cxerrrplc, ntcarrt dit-tcrcnt things in tiitli'rcnt situations, ls did honcsn', c()uragcr tnlth, incl [rc:tun'. Hotv $'as it lxxsiblc. thcn, to undcrstand virttrc ts an abstract qualiw? In sccking iln ans\\'cr to thit cplcstion, Plrto dcvcl<lpcd his bclicf Tradition holds that Socrares was not a physically attractive man, but this statue emphasizes his sincerity and simpliciw. The Greek philosophers deeply influenced the development of European and Islamic cultural rradirions. Until the seventeenth century c.E., most European philosophers regarded the Greeks as intellectual authorities. Christian and Islantic theologians alike s'ent L42 PARS 2 I THE FORMATION OF CI-ASSICAL SOCIETIES, 5OO B.C.E. TO 5OO C.E. rog tion todc othe In oflis co'rliut d'iolog*cs,The Apology, Pl*to offered an accotnt of socratel defc{ of hirusetf dting bcfon t ioy of Athcnian citizcns' *i had conpicted. thc pow oac r*tt,t lim nni iary 'lper gdcatb ond. rcempbariud. bis commitmerrt to eirt .c hisffial cond.emud. ;ar;;;;;;; him to d.eoth, sorntes rcflccted. on wenrth orfame. Pot ISE And if rvc reflect in another way we shall sec that ye mayxcll hope that death is a good thing. For the satc ofdeath is one of trro thiogr, cith"er the dead meri wholly ceases to be and lo-ses all sensa_ ti3n; or, ac5ording to the corrmon belief, it is a clange and a migration of the soul unto another tlr.: AS f death is the absence of all sensation, like the Cacp of one whosc slq4beo by any drcans, it will bc a wondeifi{ Tl.T tt{i -fd.r" soundly thet man *Ui"t.i "r" eai;. For if a ilggt in wh,id ti6. jl6pt ,o he did noif,-v..eq see any dreams,'and tooryarc wittr it _q+ the, othgr,nighs hdj..d"* ollriiffq,rlrdthenhidio'iathovt_rq;i:,.;r*X; had nights" ip"tltife antly-gan ff-s - mYr' ]ra;.ii'rie"rI ftink tn", *;J;r"- ;'*^. he ha{ s[epr,better nisht do not put men to death for doing that. For besides the other ways in which they arJhappier than we are, they are immortal, at least if the common be_ lief be true. And you too, judges, must face death with a good courage, and believe this as a truth, that no wil can happen to a good man, eitherin life. * death. His fornrncs ar:.not ncglcctcd blthc "R., gods, and what has come'to i1c. tody t ,rJtio-. Uy chancc. I am persuadcd that it is Letter "" for me to ai. now-, and to be releascd from trouble. . . . And so I hI4lLP{Y-.Y*"+y my arcusers, or with fhose :T yr" Yij,*!$:*:S".gS, . a". vJ it.,,*'I". *i r, . ncome, OnIy to findda'ii: nurhxflfiffiffi:ffiffii ffiHHiflW il;i-"';;'fr; vexed y.ou lgthey dai:nfto you to * .r ' for any.tliqg. othepr$,g,virtuc: ". ,ht ;;-gr.". mln when fact they ar worthless. worl!, A"d tf6;;[ do this, rinmpelf my sons will sii h*o ;;ir"d our deserts at yourand hands. But now hap- ,h. dd;lo-,.rrd *" must go hence r to d"ie, t1il ;i;;;',;li-"". whcthcrlife "' is bettcr is ttey h;fi;"ebd,;;;-a;j:;ir: oideath Hop dm &ttta, tndtstanding of pcnonal morality and Butlhi*, *trd Hindr picps dirrersai in crrlicr its ttpards compan cbcptcn? f$ffil ;;'6" ;;* if Oey-tt i"t ;;,;i6T:;H:1ffi?#*LS-Xf*"JJH "na d*.*,^ "ri*fi; rh"T." Ii;; r"pillrrgrc"6rnot f A;fr;at thcy,h;JJ;;;r thinkins thar "qg thc comm belierbe truc,,il dwcll thcrqwhat goodcourd be greater mv judgcsl would a jourhev not worth at thc cnd of it' in thc other world, we should"be releascd from thc self'styled;udges of this and should find thc true judges iho said to in judgmcm bclowt ' ' ' ti wJua be an ir,finiie piness to converse with them, and to [r" them, and tocxamine them. Assureayocrc abor and I' ckch' trrns' T,, Tliel ud Dcatb osw,,a2nd cd. London: etd cor**t vith . Beca an a, Popt Deities sive, begt, wtric thinl th.y ral p biae ofth of th score . :.- . for e: bilrEr OPPC veng, t myth Rcligio' vidu: . comr varie, speci. one s spirc, frenz t-- tbc hnertriat, . polci Tlngic ) Macnriuan, 1886, pp. 2G78. (Tru,,Ltion slightty religi of pl, ttre t' trans Grcci dicn. (]HAT'TF:R Jllt I It I I\,tb]I)IT}:RRANFAN SOCIETY UNI)I.]R THT, GRI.:IiKS to grcat lcngths ro lrarnronizc thcir rcligious convictions rvith thc philosophical vicn's of Plato and Aristotlc. Thus, likc philosophical and rcligiotrs figurcs in othcr classical socictics, Plato and Aristotlc providcd a pow.crful intcllccttral tranrcu,ork that shapcd thought about thc u'orld and hunran affairs for nvo millcnnia and nrorc. ANI)'I'I{I] R()I\TANs I{3 Thc grcat uagcdians-Acsch,vlus, Sophoclcs, and Euripidcs-rvhosc livcs spanncd thc 6fth ccnturv B-c.E., cxplorcd the possihilitics and linritrtions of human action. Comic clramatists such as Aristr4rhancs elrc dcalt with scrious issucs of human strivirrg and rcsponsiblc bchavior by ridiculing the foiblcs of promincnt public figurcs ancl calling attention t() rlic absurd conscquenccs of ill-considercd action. Popular Religiorr and Greek Drama Becausc most Grccks olthc classical era did rlot have an advanccd educltion, they turncd .l ) r ,i, v I i1 , .) ,l v e r K .t ,t t ll , s to traditions of popular culturc enrl 1'ropular religion rathcr than phito scck guidance for human behavior. Deities ' -IP:"01, he Grecks did not rccognizc a single , exclusive, all-pou,erful g<xl. Rather, they believed that in the beginning therc rvas the formless void of chaos out of rvhich cmerged the earth, the,mother and creator of all things. Thc earth then generated rhe sky and together thel'produced night, da1,, sun, moon, and other natural phenomena. Struggles between the deities led to bitter heavenly batdes, and ultimately Zeus, grandson of the earth and sky gods, emerged as paramount ruler of the divine realm. Zeus's hcavenly court included scores of subordinate deities who had various responsibilities: the god Apollo promoted wisdom and justice, for example; the goddess Fortune brought unexpected opportunities and difficulties; and the Furies wre'aked vengeance on those who violated divine law. Like religious traditions in other lands; Greek my'ths sought to explain the world and the forces that shape it' They served also as foundaReligioas Cults uons for religious cults based on individual poleis that contributed to a powerful sense of community in classical Greece . These religious cults varied widcly: many conducted ritual obscrvances in special places, for example, and some were open to only one sex. Before the fifth century B.c.E., many cula inspired emotional displays and spirited-sometimes frenzied----song and dance. During the fifth cenrury B.c.E., however, as the poleis strengthened their grip on public and political life',the religious cults became progresTrngic Dratno sively more tame . Instead of festivals, religious cults marked the year u,ith the presentation of plays that examined relations between humans and the gods or reflected on ethics and morality. That transformation set the stage for the emergence of Greek dramatic literarure, rvhich sought to engage audiences in subtle reflection on complicated themes. Hellenistic Philosophy aird Religion fu thc Hcllenistic cmpires scizctl rhc plirical initiarir c in the Mediterrancan basin and cclipsccl rhe prolcis, rcsidcnts ceased to regard their polis as thc fcrus of individual and religious lovdties. Instcad, thev increasinglr' looked toward cultural and religious rlternadlcs that ministercd to the needs and intcrcsrs o[indiriduals lir'ing in a cosmopolitan socieqr The most popular Hellenistic philosophcrs-thc Epicureans, the Skeptics, and the Stoics-addressed individual needs by searching for per- r.,r".l{8ry_:.:: *tr;:ffiX sonal tranquiliry and ans, for example, identified pleasure as the greatest good. By pleasure thev meant not unbridled hedonism but, rather, a state of quict sadsfaction that would shield them from the pressures of rhc Hcllenistic world. Skeptics refused to r& strongpositions on political, moral, and social issues bccause thev doubted the possibility of certain knowledge . The rnoat respected and influential of the Hellehistic philosophers, however, were the Stoics. Unlikc ttrc Epicurearu and the Skeptics, the Stoics did not seek ro uithdras' from the pressures of the world. Rather, tlrev taught that individuals had the duty to aid others and lead rirtuous lives in harmony with reason and naturcWhereas the philosophcrs' doctrines appealcd to cducated elites, religions of salvation spread across the trade routes of the Hellenistic emoires and enjoyed surging populariry in rrlu.nirti RcliSions of fu'ltation society. Mystery religions promised etemal bliss for initiates who observed their rites and lired in accordance with their docrines. Some of these friths spread across the trade routes and found fbllos'ers far from their homelands. The Egyptian cult of Osiris, for example, became extraordinarily popular bccause it Aeschylus ( ES-kuh-luhs) Epicureans (ehp-ih-KYOOR-eeuhns) Stoics (STOH-ihks) I44 PART 2 I THE FORMATION OF CLASSICAL SOCIETIES, promised salvation for those who led honorable Lives. lulg from Pcnia, Mesopotamia, Anatolia, and Greece alsd attracted discipla tfroughour Ai Hellenistic world. Many of the mystery religions involved the worship of^a savior whose death and resurrection would lead the way to eternal salvation for devoted followers. Some philosophers and religious thinkers speculated that a single, universal god might rule the enti.e urriverse , and that thls god had a plan for the salvation of all humankind. Uks the Hellenistic philosophie!, rhen, religiors of salvation addressed the interests of individ_ uals searching for scurity in a complex world. Indeed, those interests continued to be ofioncern to peoples in the Meditcranean basin long after political domi_ nance passed frorn the Greek to the Italian peninsula. Ronar: Fnou Krrvtroorvr - ro REpuBLtc Foundgd in thc eighth century B.c.E., the city of Rome yas,origrnally a snrall city-state ruled by a single king. I1 509 B.c.E., howwer, the city's aristocrats a.por.Ia the king, cnded thc monarchy and instituted a repub_ Iic-a form of govcrnment in which delegates reprc_ senr the inrcrests ofvarious consdtuencies. the Roman republic survived f,or morc than five hundred years, and it was dndcr thc rcpublican constirurion tfi"t R"_. came to establish itself as the dominant power in the Mediterranean basin. The Etruscans and Rome According to lcgend, the city of Rome rvas founded by Romulus, wha-alcng with his nvin bro*rer, Rcmus_ was abandoned as r baby by an evil uncle near the Rom*las floodcd Tiber River. Before the infants and R.cmus could drovn, a kindly she_rvolf found rhem and nurrd them to health. Thc boys grov strong and courageous, and in 753 s.c.r. Rom- ulus foundcd thc ciry and esmblished hinrscif nor,.,fri:ff:ffi Modcm schorars do t"r., but thcy do agrce thar bonds oflndo-European nrigrants 5OO S.C.r. TO 5OO C.E. cupied much of the Italian peninsula, including the fu_ ture site of Rome itself. Bronze metallurgy appeared about 1800 n.c.s. and iron about 900 s.clr. Etruscans, a dynamic people, dominated much ^_The of Italy between the eighth nni, centuries B.c.E. ""a The Etruscans probably migrated to Italy from Anatolia. They settl"ed n rt i" The Etvuscans tcrranean rvorld. The Roman Republic and lts Constitution When thc R<>mln nobility dcposcd thc last Erruscan ling and replaccd him with a ,.puUfic, tt Uuilt th. Roman fortrm at thc hcart of thi ciry_a political "r, and civic ccnrcr fillcd rvith tcmplcs a.r.l r--' public buildings rvhcrc lcadine cidzcns F'stablisbmcnt tcndcd to govcrnmEnt businiss. They of thc Rcprblh crossed thg Alps and semlcd throughout the Italian pcninsula bcginning about 2000 r.clr. Ukc thcir distant cousins in Indie, Grcece, and northcrn Europc, th-csc migrrnts btcndcd with thc ncolithic inhabitants also instinrtcd a rcpubtican constitution that cntrustcd cxecudvc rcsponsibilitics to trvo consuls u,ho uicldcd tribal fedcrations. Shcephcrden and small farmcrs tx_ Etruscans oL t!c- rgSion, adoptcd agriculrurc, and cstablirh"d .r"---.".'* rePl reas pub and can dominance, trade roures d"parts of Italy "it society cgnverged on Rome. When Etruscan de_ clined, Rome was in a suong position to plav a morc prominenr role both in Italy and in the largcr Medi_ 1 ih -'tRUHS-kuhns) face lead sixth-century B.c.E., however, the Euuscans encoun_ rancan by way of the Tiber River, but rirrc. it was not on the coasr, it did not run thc risk of invasion or at_ tack from the sea. Already during the period of Etrus_ the Po\\ tered a series of challenges frorn other peoples, and their society began to decline. The Etruscans dceply influcnced thc early development of Rome. Like the Etruscan cities, Rome was a monarchy during the early days after its foundation, and several Roman kings Tbe Kinfldom were EEuscans. The kings ruled Rorn'e of Romc through the seventh anJ sixth cenruries r.c.E., and they provided the ciry with pavcd ,r...rr, public irrg. ,.-pt.r. Etruscan merchanm drew a largc vol;ne of ralfic to Rorne,9*k partly to the ciryl geographical ad_ vantages. Rome enjoyed ."ry ,-h. M.dit.r_ "...rrlo Ron The offi, soon controlled mu.ch of Italy. They builr thrivini cities and established political ,nd eco.romic alliances between their settlements. They manufactured high_ quality bronze and iron goods, and they worked gild and-silver into jewelry. They built a fleetld tradeJ ac_ tively in the western Mediterranean. During the late wjls, ASSE arist Tuscany, the region around modern Florence, but they buildings, defensive civil sent Arrfli, Portc, Plcbcit the €Il€r of tl rigt sent nall _. cver Ven( tov APP plcb _-l (:l-1.'\l!'l'ER tl I llLI)l'l'b.RlL{N}..\N s()(:tlilt' t'\..l)l,t( lltt. civil ancl militart, p()\\'cr. C<lnsuls u,crc clcctctl lrv an asscmbly donrinatccl br. thc s'calthv chsscs, knorvrr in Romc as thc patricirns, lnd tlrcv scn.cc.l ()nc-\'cilr tcnns. Thc porvcrfirl Scnltc, s'hosc nrcnthcrs r,'..rc rn()sttv aristocrats u,itlr cx tcrrsivc pol i tical cxpcric rrcc, ldviscd sc4ns .'\' r8 cs 1t- td thc consuls and rltificd all nrajor dccisiorrs. Whcn fhccd with criscs, lrclrvcvcr, thc Ronrirns appointctl irn official, known irs :r clictator, s'ho u.icltictl irbs<llutc lxrwer for a tcrrrr olsix nronths. l]t'pr<lviclinu tirr strong lc.rdcrship during rinrcs of cxrraordinirrv clitlictrln', thc rcpublican c()nstituti()n cnablccl Ronrc to nr:riut:rin :r rcirsonat'lly stablc socicn' thnrugl'rout nt()st of rhc rcpublic's histr>rr,. Because thc consuls and thc Scnatc l.roth rcprcsentcd the intcrcsts of thc patricians, tllcrc \\'as c()nstat.rt Conflict betpeen Patricians and. Plebeions ,dom '.omc d ic tcnsion bcnvccn thc u'calthv cl:rsscs and thc con'lmon pc<>plc, kn<ln'n as drc plcbcians. Indeed, during rhc carlv fifth ccnturv B.{:.E., relations bctrvccn the classcs bccante so strained that thc plebcians thrcatened to secede fiom Rome. To nraintain rhc inregiitt, of the Roman state, rhe pauicians grantcd plebeians rhe right to elect officials, known as tribunes, rvho rcpresented their interess in the Roman governmenr. Originally plebeians chose rwo tribunes, but the number eventllally rose to ten. Tribunes had the po\\/cr to intervene in all political mafters, and they possessed the right to veto measures that they judgid unfair. Although tensions between the classes never disappeared, during the fourth century n.c.e. plebeians plcbeians (plih-BEE-uhns) (;REl-.Ks ANt)'t'HF. R()t\tANs 145 l'tcclnrc cligitrlc to lrold nlnrost :rll statc tfliccs and gainctl thc right t<l havc onc of thc consuts somc tionr thcir r.rnks. Ilt' tlrc c.rrlv tlrird ccnturr', plctrciarrclonrinltctl :rsscrntrlics \\r)n thc p()\\'cr to makc dcci- sions t'rintlinq on rrll <lf Ronrc. 'l'hus, likc fifth-ccnturY Athcns, rc1'ru['rlicln Ronrc glrldr.rallv br<ladcncd thc blsc of 1'roliric.rI p:rrticipation. The Expat-lsion of the Republic Rcnvccn thc lirrrrth and scc<lncl ccnturics B.(--r-., thc 1'rc<lplc of'lkrnrc transfirnuctl thcir cin' trom a small .rtrrl vulncrlt)lc cir\'-st:ttc to thc ccntcr of an cnornrous ctupirc. 'l'lrcr' [',cgln bv consoliclaring thcinpos'cr in tlrc Italian pcninsula itsclf. Inciccd, lrv the larcr firurth ccnturv thcv h:rtl cmcrged as thc prcdorninant [xxvcr in thc Italian pcninsull. Rontan succcss in thc pcninsula rvirs pirth' a tnattcr of militafv pos'cr and partll' a nlattcr <>f gcncrous policics tou'ard thc peoplcs thcv conquercd. Instcad of ruling thcnr as vanquishcd subjects, thc R<>nr.rns allorvcd conquercd pcople ro go\'ern their internal affairs as long as rhey provided military support and did not enter into hostile alliances. In addition, conquered peoples werc allorved to trade in Romc, to take Roman spousesr and cven to gain Roman citizenship. These policies horh provided Rome rvith essential support and eascd the pain ofconquest. With Itdy under its control, Rome begao to play a major role in the affairs of the larger Meditcrrancan basin and to expcrience conflicts u,ith other ltleditcrranean po\\'ers. The principal porver in the u-cstcrn Ruins of thc Roman tbrum, whcre political kadcrs conductcd publie atiiirs during the era ofdre republic, still sterd toda11 rcnt blie I I t# PART2 | THE FOR&IATION OF CI^A,SSICALSOCIETIES,5O0 B.c.E. TO S00 c.n. of tio ec( o!\ ow to tio; Citil po. l.g sult B.C Ror ing M?84 Tcrritod- of thc Boman rqrublic to 133 why migtt thc acguisition oft much *..i.o.y r,"u. . k'rr.. r'c''. Notice that some of is,territorics "r.ctcd wcre quitc distant aom the city of Rome. thc political sebility of the republicf Mcditcrranean during thc fourth and third ccnturies B.c-E was thc city_sae of Carrhagc, located near mod_ F-rpansion in tt* 13 Tunis. Originaly established-as a Midi**rznca, t hoenicr.an- colony, Carthage enjoyed a straregic location that cnabted ii to tradS.actively droughouith. wealth gcnerated bv o*.t. f.o_ th. -I;g.;;;; .o*.r.., $s the dominant polidcal power ir, (excluding Egypt), thc southem p* ";;;Hca ru.ril" peninsula, frA.At and thc westcrn region of gr"irr_.i.f3-[ily "rrrr. as well. Meanwhile, thc three Hellelnistc ._pir.. thar suc_ ceedcd Alexandcr of Macedon the castern Mcditerranean. .""d";;J; dominatc Econonric and oolitical compctition brought thc Romans inro conflict with Carthage first. Betwecn Tbc prnic Wan 2,64 and .146 n.c.r., th.y fought three devastating conflicts known as thc Punic Crr*Igi"i*;. il,.-i"r"tryended aftcr Roman fbrces subjcc-tcd C"riir"g.'r" a long siegc,-c-onqucrcd Wars rvith thc and Ur.r.J ,t,.'.'iay? forccd somc fifty th.usandsurvivors ""aThc Ro_ into,i;;; mans thcn :rrrncxed Carthagini.o porJ.rrion, in north AFica rnd lbcria_richln *ine, silSJ"l vcr, and goltl-rnd uscd thosc "ii, financc .;";;.;," continucd inrpcrial cxpansion. Shortly rftcr thc bcginning of the Carthaginian Ronrc bccam....U.o#a t";;rfil !n$.., with thc Antigonids and thc Sclcucids l" ,h; ;;*r" r . -r.i .::,:.2:+i ;t :ij_; Mcdircr- ranean. Benvccn 2lf l4g r.c.r., Rome fought five major wars, mosdv inT9 Maccdon *,ia"rirrra, against these opponen*..L I resutt of *r.r" emerged as the preemincnt po*., as the western Mediterrancan by the ond cenrurv B.c.E. .".Ai.,", Rome i,'tt. .it rr, ., *[ ;dA;A;,*_ Fnona Repueuc ro ts. un qu al dis tri bu ti-on as bcne- ;i ;;; ;;g;;;",. a .r tcnsions and gavc risc to conflict "r, ou."r"poiiti."t ,rra social policics. Meanwhif., tr,. conquered lands efficiently "..J,ila_inir,.. straincd tt. .Jpr.iti., of the republican constitufr"". orJ"g century B.c.E. and the first century c.r., Roiran civil and mile il il. :,,y..[10:*gradualry.dis-*,r.J*.I"*ti."n.on_ sururron and imposcd a ccntralized i_p*irf form of governmcnr on the city of Romc and its .rnpir.. lmperial Expansion and Domesflc problems In Ronrc, as in classical China and Grcecc, pafterns ofland distribution causcd serious pofi-j..f rcnsions. Conquercd tanas reP forr Th Iuli and fcri B.C. sPe r Spe t wilr EMptRE Imperial expansion brought wealth and Rome, but thesc broughtirobl;;;r-;:il power to fi ina: La.o.irf fcliarglty;;; tc nanas and mer hclg irrg Gau gro\ j itsel man mac him rath Cac, and catc, tov laun way Ld6, (ll lAl)'f l:R tl | [{l]l)11'}.RK{NEAN SO(lt}:'t'r LrNl)l.l,R THE GRIiIiKS AND THE RO[L,Ur$ 147 of rvcalthl,clitcs, u,ho organizcd cnorntous plantari<rns kn<xvrt .ts latifundia. Bccausc thcy cnjoycd cconontics <ll-scrrlc and oftcn cn'rprlot'cd slavc lab<lr, ()\\'r'rcrs <tf latiJitrdia opcratcd ar l()\.er costs than did ()\r'ncrs of snrrllcr holdings, u'h<> ottcn had to scll out r() thcir u'caltlricr ncighbors. Drrring thc sccond and first ccnturics B.(:.8,., rchtions bcnvccn thc classcs bccamc so straincd that thcy lcti to violcnt social conflict and civil rvar. Ctvtl war Ronrarl politicians and gcncrals jockeycd fbr p()\\'cr in support of eithcr social rcfirrm or thc privilcgccl prosition of'thc u'calthv clircs, rvith bloodv rcsults on both siclcs. By'thc middlc of thc first ccnrur), R.c.r.., it had bcconrc incrcasinclv clear that thc Roman rcpublic \\,as not suitablc fbr a large and grouing empire . In rhis chaotic contcxr Gaius ]ulius Cacsar inauguratcd thc process by rvhich Rome replaccd its rcprublican constitution.,:s{th a ccntralizcd imperial tirrnr of govcnln)cnt. The Foundation of Empire fivc inst rnle ,r,ell jcc- to leass nd ter of rry ril,n- of ns )ulius Caesar recognized the need for social reform and favored liberal policies that would ease the suf- ring of the poor. During the decade of the 60s B.c.E., he played an active role in Roman politics. He spent enormous sums of money sponsoring public fe spectacles-such as battles between gladiators and wild animals-which helped him build a r€putation and win electioh to posts in the republican government. This activiry kept him in the public eye and helped to publicize his interest in social reform. During the next decade Caesar led a Roman army ro Gaul, which he conquered and brought into the stillgrowing Roman empire. In 49 s.c.r. Caesar turned his army toward Rome itself after conservative leade rs in the city sought to maneuver him out of power. By early 46 s.c.r. he had made himself master of the Roman state and named himself dictator-an office that he claimed for life rather than for the constitutional six-month term. Caesar then centralized military and political functions and brought them under his ou,n control. He confiscated property from conservatives and distributed it to veterans of his armies and other supporters. He launched large -scale building projects in Rome as a way to provide employment for the urban poor. He ;al ls latifundia ( lah-tee-FOON-dya) A bust oflulius Cacsar dcpicts a rim conqucror a canny political leader. also extended Roman citizenship to pcoples in the imperia.l provinces. Caesar never had the chance to conrclidate his goverrunent, however, because in 44 s.c.r. members ofthe - in thc A*$aa*s Insread, Roman elite stabbed him to dcath hopes of reestablishing the republic. they plunged Rome into thirtecn more )'qlrs of civil conflict. When the struggles *a.a, po\rrcr bclonged to Octavian, Caesar's nephew and adoptcd son. In a naval batde at Actium in Greece (31 r.c.e.), Octavian dcfeated his principal rival, MarkAntony t{ro had joined forces with Cleopatra, last of the Ptolemaic rulers of E$pt. He then moved quickly to consolidate his rule . In 27 s.c.e. the Senate bestowcd on him dre tide Augustus, a term with strong religious connotations suggesting the divine or semi-divine nature of its holder. Augustus's government wa$ a monarchy disguised as a republic. F{e preserved uaditional republican offices and forms of government and included members of the Roman elite in 74'*-lusttls's A4r6trrtf,tratton rus goverruIent whrle at the sarne tune fundamentally altering the nature of that goverrunent. r48 PART 2 I THE FORMATION OF CI.{SSICAL SOCIETIES, 5OO g.C.r. TO He accum 'leted vast powers for himself and ulti_ mately took responsibility for all important govern_ mentel functbns. He reorganized the military system, creating a nry shnding army with gommanders who o-wed zllegiarc directly to himself. He also was care_ ful to place individuals loyal to him in i_por,".r. positions. his forty-five years of "ii virtu"lly .r.r_ Brirg opposed rulc,Augustus fashioned an imperial gov_ ernmetrt thatguided Roman affairs for the next three ccnturies. Continuing Expansion and lntegration of the Empire During thc tryo centuries following Augustus,s rule, conquered distant l;ds ;d;tegrated P*T r-"i? S:* a hrger economy and society. a, i., frigt, poin: T9 eri:rg$. *ly sccond cenrury ,t. Roman empirecmbra d mugh ofBriain *a ".i., .""ri"."al Eu_ n rope as 5OO C.r,. well as a con_ tinuous belt of al posses_ of the Roman srons surrounding the Mediterranean and ex- e, a tending to rich agricultural regions inland, including Mesopotamia. Within the boundaries of the Roman empire it_ self,.a long era of peace-fu1o*., tt.J-ni ro*rrn, or "Roman peacer'_fa6ilitated ",a.o_ ''--Rowan Roa* 1om]c and political integration from the first to the middle ofih" third centu.y c.r. Like their Persian, Chinese, Indian, *a H.fl..irtic coun_ terparts, the Romans integrated their empire by building networl$ of transportation and communica_ tion. Indeed, roads linked all parts no_* .*_ " stritchcd"iat more than hiqfrway llf:o:. Kilometers":,1bj: (1,554 miles) along 2,500 the northeast imperial frontier from the Black Sea to-,h. Nortt S.", parallel to the Danube and Rhine rivers. fn. ,*a, f.rmitted urgent travel and mcssages to proceed L Rot, r( ri d ci al le L B n C( ei with remark_ E T 1 si s( b tl S( L. tr I P tr I ,A c a Cot fut' t r ' \t )- MaP &5 t''itori.t of thc Roman anpirc about I l7 c.8- comparc this mrp with Maps g.3 md g.{. Noticc that in this pcriat domiaotcd thc cntirc thc Romrn cmpirc Mcditcrrancan' and-'<omptcmcntcd by its sy,stcmr ur of roaos-flctlratcd roads-frciriratcd conncctions and placcs &om Briqin to Egypt. conn, among Jroplcs ( I (:llAP'rFlR I I Mt:t)I]'b:RRANt'lAN s(xtlt,'t alrlc sprcctl: 'l'itrcrius, succcssor of Augustus as Ronttn cntpcr()ri ()ncc travclcd 290 kil<lnrcters (180 nrilcs) in singlc tliu'ovcr Rontan roads. As lrnrics sprcad Rontirn influcncc throughout thc trtctlitcrrrrnclrr, jurists also s'<lrkccl t() construct a rarional body of larv that would applv to all Romatt Intt, l)c()plcs undcr Rr>rtran rulc. f)uring drc latc rcpublic rntl cspccially during tlrc crrrpirc, thc jurists arriculatcc.l sr:r nchrds of jusricc and grad ual applicd thcm \, throughorrt lkrman tcrritory. Thcv establishcd thc principlc th:rt tlctl'udants rverc innoccnt until provcn guiln,, and tho,cnsurcd that dcfcndants had a right to challcngc thcir rccuscrs bcfbrc a judgc in a courr of lirrr.. Like transl'rr)rtation and communication ncnvorks, Rr>man hrv helped to integratc the divcrsc lands that madc upr rlrc enrpire, and the principles of Roman larv continucd to shape Mediterrancan and European s<xicn'long rftcr tlte ernpire had disappeared. rr ;lutlinu pirc it')rtutilfi) ,rLrt Roe& t,. l.ikc -'c()un- 'irc b), :rrrnica- iln cnl2,500 'npcrial r parallel 'nritted crnark- Ecoruorvry AND SoctETy lN THE ROMAN MEDffERRAN.EAN The rapid expansion of Roman influence and the imposition of Rornan imperial rule brought economic and social cl'ranges to peoples *roughout the Mediterranean basin.'Good roails and the pax rl?na.nfi encouraged trade betu.,een regions. Existing cities benefited handsomely from r}te wealth generated by trade, and in the lands they conquered, the Romans founded new ciries to serve as links betrveen local regions and the larger Med.iterranean economy. Meanwhile, like most other peoples of classical times, rhe Romans built a strictly patriarchal society and made extensive use of slave labor. Trade and Urbanization As.the Roman empire became more integrated, agricultural production grew increasingly commercialized u,ell as specialized. Because it was possible to import grain at favorable prices from lands that Comruercial routinely produced large surpluses, other Agricultare regions could concentrate on the cultivation of fruits and vegetables or on the production of rnanuthctured items. Greece, for example, concentrated on olives and vines, and Italy became a center for the production of poftery,, glassrvare, and bronze goods. Specialized production of agricultural commodiries and manufactured goods set the stage for vigorous trade . Sea lanes linked ports from Syria and palestine to as inplre rple s Y LINI)F.R't'ttF. (iul,l,KS ANI) T'ilt n()lt.{N\ 149 S1'rlin ancl north Aliicrr. Ronran nrilitan'and rraval [x)\\'cr kcpt thc sc.as lergclv ticc of pin:cs s{} rhrt sizablc calrq()cs cotrld rtrovc s.rtl.lr' ovcr long Mtd"cffd"ca't distrrrrccs. Irrtlcccl, r1.,. trl.j.lit.r..,r.rir ['rc'crrrrc csscntiallv a Ronrln lekc, u'hidr Tradt tlrc ltrrnrlns callcd rran' uostrurn 1'oursc-a-). itlrrch of tlrc lrrofir tionr trlcditcrr.rnran tratlc to Ronrc, s'hcrc it tirclcd rcnrarkablc ur6en dcvclopnrcnt. In thc first ccrrturr'(..1..i s(lnrc Tbc Ci4' tcn tlr()usirnd statucs rrrrtl scvcrr hrrndretl gx* fl<lrvcr'l tlccrrrrrrcr.l tlrc cin'. 'l-lrc l{ornln statc thc construction ol' financc,l of Ronrt tcnrplcs. barh houscs, prtrblic buildings, st:r- diurns, irnd, pcrhol'rs nrost inrportant of all, irquctlucts-built sirh concrctc inventccl bv Rornan enqinccrs-that brought trcsh $'atcr int() thc cin'fionr rhc ncighkrirg mounr.rins. In addition to thc spccrircular gro\\th of Ronrc. urban grou'th and dcvc.k)pnrcnt took placc in cidcs ell over thc cmpirc. And, ls u,calth c()nccrtrated irr the cities, urban residents carne Roman Citics and rbcir to expect a variery of comfbrts not avallAt*nctiotts able in rurai areas. nor,rr,, .i.i., ;ilr'.d abundant supplies of fiesh warer and claborate se\\age and plumbing systems. All sizable citics and cten man\smgller towns had public barhs and oftcn srimming pools and gymnasia as rvell. Enormom circures, stadiums, and amphittreaters provided sitesbr thc cntertain- ment of the urban masses. Entertainment in stadiums often took forms now,considered cmrse and cruelbatdes to the death benveen gladiators ox benvcen humans and wild animals-but urban populations flocked to such events, u,hich thev looked oc as exciting diversions from dailv rourine. T}r Ronran Colosseum, a magnificent marble stadium and sporr arena opened in 80 c.r., provided seating forabourEln- thousand spectators. Family and Society in Roman Tirnes Roman law vested immense authoriw in ma_le heads of families, knou,n as the pater fami'lias-*farher of the fhnil,l'." Roman law gave the poterfamfra.'the authorio, to arrange marriages for his children. determine the rvork or duties thev would Tbe Pater Fomitias perform, and punish ,h.;fir;"4;*r:;; had rights also to sell them into slaverv and er-en to execute them. pa*r fami I ias ( PAH-tehr f ah-MEE-lvas) I5O . PART 2 I THE FORMATION OF CT,{SSICAI SOCIETIES, Although the pater fanilias was legally endowed with extraordinary powers, women or,l"ily supervised domcstic affairs in Rgman households,'andby the time they reached middle age they g.r.r"lly *ietaea considerablc influence within their families. Also, al_ though Roman law placed strict limits on rhe aUitity ofwomen to receive inheritances, clever individuals foundwa5nsto evade the law. During the third and sec_ ond senturics B.c.E. dear f, f;:h:1T:"ffiT:'j :flX; the orp.operty,# worncn supervised financial affairs of family busi_ md urcalthy estates. Roman rcciety made cxtensive use of slave labor: nesscs tt. second century c.E., slaves may have repre_ *::.d:r much as one_third of tire population Slopery - ot rtc t(oman empire. In the countryside they by workcd moody on lntifandia,under extremely harsh conditions, often chained togcther in teams. in fact, discoatcnt among ru4 slavcsled to several large_scale rcvglts, cspccially durtng the second and firit cen_ turies s-c.r- During the most serious uprising, in 73 B.^c.E-, the cscaped slave Sparacus ir, ,r-y "rr.-bl.d of sevcnty thousand rebillious slaves. The Roman cight legions, comprising more than I-y$""lred forty rhousand wcll-equippcd, -veterrri ooopr,,o qucll ttc rcrolt. In the cities, conditions were much lcss difficult. Fcmah slarcs cornmonly worked as domesdc servants while rnalcs toiled as servants, laborcrs, craftsm€n, sloekecrs, or busincss agents for their owners. As in Greecgslarcswho had an education orpossessed som. particuhr talcnt had the potential to lead comfortable livcs. In urban arcas it was also common, O""gf, mandatory, for masters to free slaves about "* the time thcy rcachcd thirty ycan of age . Until frceJ, howevcr, slavcs remaincd undcr thc striL authority of their mas_ I.,:t" hd thc right to scll them, arrangc their frm_ ily-affairs, punish thcm, and .u.n'.*..r",e them for serious offcnscs. THe Cosr*opoltrAN M eorennANEAN Thc inegration of thc Mcditcrancan basin had i*por_ tant cfftrts mt only for thc tradc and economy of the Roman cmpfoc but also for its cultural and rcligious na_ ditions. Roads and communication n"*uo.k! favorccl thc sprcad popular rcligions. Most important a.kl:,h.{".*, long run uas Christianity, of wtrictr bccamc thc official rctigion of thc Roman cmpirc *J-,h. pr"dominant faidr ofthe Meditcrranean blin. ?_, -.--_*"_-qra, 5OO r.C.r. TO 5OO C.E. Creek Philosophy and Religions of Salvation During.the .ily a"y, of their history, the Romans ogruzed many gods and goddess.r, rec_ *ho they believed intervened directly in human was the "ffhi.r. Irri*. principal god,lord of the heave.rr. *j ' Rorrran _ Deities Mars was the god of war, Ce.es the goddess,of grain, Janus the god who watched the tfueshold of individual houses,-and Vesta the goddess of the hearth. In addition to those m4o, a.iti.r, most Roman households hon-ored t,rt.l"iy deities, gods who looked after the welfare of individlal a_m.r. As the Romans expanded their political influence and built an empire, they encountercd the religious and cultural traditions of other peoples. Often theiadopted the deitics of other peoples and used tfr.foi tfrei, o*r, purposes. From the Etruscans, for example, they learned of |uno, the moon goddess, and Miierva, thc goddess ofwisdom, as well as certain religious practices, such as divination of the future through Ixamination tfre intcmal organs of ritually sa..ifi.ei of ""i"; fr._ ,h. The Romans also drew-decp inspiratio., Gre:k tradition of rational tt o"ghi *Jpiito.opfry, espccially Stoicism. The Stoics, d-esire : Greeh rnflaence to identift a set of universal -orJ standards based on nature 4nd reason appealcdstrongly to Roman intellectuals.-Indeed, thinkers such as Marcus Tullius Cicero (106_43 ,i."i.l readily adopted Stoic valucs. His letters *d t ."tir., empha_ sized ttre individual,s duty to live in *itt, naturc and reason. He.ar$ued that "c.o.arrr.. the pursuit ofjus_ tice was thc individual,s highest public'J,rty, n. scorned thos_e who sought to accumulate "rra wealth or to becomc powerfi,rl ttrough.imm"rd, ifi.gJ, or unjusr meanr Through his specches *a .rp.J"Uv tris wrlt_ ings, Cicero hclped to cstablish St"iiirilJ rhc most prominenr school of moral philosophy in Rome . Whcreas educated thinicrs a."* inrpiotion from rhe Greeks, thc masscs found comfort il-r.iigiors of salvation thar cstablishcd their pr.r.n.. --' throughout thc Mcditcrrancan basin and Sabarton beyond. Thesc rcligions bccamc pron.,i- of^!.c!igion nent fcatures in Romc during th" Lrc republic as wcll as under-thc cmpirc. Malf o.ign.t"a in tt Ar_R,rng rcalnrs of.rhc cmpirc, includinjth. pop.rt"r "anatolian c-trlt of lvlithras, thc Anatotian lult rn",t.r gddcss Cybclc, and thc Egyptian cult "i,f,. of thc gJaers lsis. . Thc.Mithraic rcligion provided divineLction for nunlan trtc and cspccially for purposefut moral bchavior. It brought togcther a communiry that wclcomed ."-+ .i. -$ & $ ii an( fer. .Mitht Mir un scll Ple cm an( an( lati, ten dcr. C*lt o lno lar ficr. (;H.{P.l.llR tt I l\tltDfr[RMNF.AN S()(:lt;I.t" trNl)!.lt'l-H11 CRF:];XS ANI)'rHf: Isis throrrs.lr()ut thc Ronran cnrpirc, and tlrcl'rdorcd thc tgr'ptiirn uoddcss as a bcncvolcnt and protcctivc dcitv u'ho nurtured hcr s'orshipcrs and hclpcd thcm copc u'ith tlrc strcsscs of lifc in cosnropolitrn srrcicn'- rcc- '\'cd Likc thc llirhr.ric rcligion, thc cult of Isis and orhcr rc- thc ligions of srrlvirtion attractcd tirllorvers in Rome and otlrcr citics rhroughout thc N{cditcrrancan basin. Thc inrnrcnsc 1',o1'rrrhrity of thcsc rcligions of sahrtion proviclcs ir c()r)tc\t that helps to cxplain thc rcmarkablc Dcirtcs thc lcss succcss of (lhristianiry in the R<rn'ran cmpirc. rost ods Judaisnr and Early Christianity llcc After thc tlissolution of thc md ish ;rco1'rlc nrlintained thcir )\vn hey the ces, iof the hY' Built bctween I l8 and 125 c.r., rhe Pantheon in Rome rch it survives as one of the outstanding cxamples of Roman architccture. With a diamcter of 43 meters (l4f feet), the building's dome tily was the largest consrructed undl thc nvendeth century. led was a templc h<lnoring all gods, and ha- ith us- he to -rst 'it- )st )m of gions q.fion. ell rg tn dis. cr :d Jcu"ish kingdorn ot David and Sokrnron in the early tenth ccntury B.C.E, the |cu'- )ted luence ROMANS l5f and nurtured like-minded indir-iduals. Finally, it offered hope for individuals who conscientiously obthe cult's teachings by promising Mithraism ' sert,ed them ecstatic and mysterious union with Mithras-who was strongly associated with military virnres such as strength, courage, and discipline-himself. During the late republic, Nfithraic altars and temples appeared in military garrisons throughout t}te empire. During the early centuries c.r., administrators and merchants also became enchanted with Mithras, and his cult attracted follorvers among the male populations of all sizable communities and commercial centers in the Roman empire. The cult ofMithras did not adrnit u,omen, but cults dedicated to the Anatolian mother goddess Cvbele, the Egyptian goddess Isis, and other deities Cult of Isis made -J ---a place for both men and women. Indeed, the cult of Isis may have been the most popular of all the Mediterranean religions of salvation before the rise of Christianity. Devotees built temples to fiitlr and thcircoarmuni- tics undcr r'.rrious inrpcrial rcgin'rcs. At tinres, fcr'isl', ..rnl*.r.,iti., .l"i'h.d r,,ith T7* Jevs cnd their inrprcrial ovcrlords, cspccially be- tb Empire cause m()notheistic |cws rcfused to revere empcrors as gods.,\s the Ron.rans extended their empire in drc easrern Mediterranean and brought the Iews in Falestinc under their control, relations berween the tno kcamc especiallv tense. Between 66 and 7A c.n.,rehtions deteriorated to such a point that Palestinian Jcws rosc in rebellion against the Romans in what became known the Jeu,ish War. The ]ews were decisively defcated in the rrar, which prompted some ]ews to found new sccts dlat looked for saviors to deliver them from Rofa*of Nawredt man rule so tiey.""H;;;;.;';;ir faith u,ithout interference . The early Christians were one such sect. The Christians formed their communinaround Jesus of Nazarerh, a charismaric Jewi*r t€acher u'hom they recognized as their savior. Born about the year 4 B.c.E., Jesus grew up at a time of high tcnsion betu'cen Roman overlords and their Iewish subiectsHe was a peaceful man who taught devotioc to God and love for fellow human beings. He atrracted large crorvds because of a reputation for *tsdom urd rdraculous poucrs, especially the abfin, to heal the sick. as Yet |esus alarmed the Romans because he also taught that "the kingdom of God is at haod." To Jesus, the kingdom of God rvas a spiritual rcatrm in u'hich God s,ould gather those faithful to him. To Roman adrninistrators, holvever, his message xrunded like a threat to Roman rule in Palestine, espreciallrsince crou'ds routinely accompanied |esus. In an et-fort to forestall a new round of rebellion, Roman administrators executed |esus by fixing him to r cross in the earlv 30s c.B. I52 PART 2 I THE FORMATION OF CI,{SSICAL SOCIETIES, 5OO N.C.r. TO 5OO C.r,. Jesus'crucifixion did not put an end to his move_ ment. Ey€n after his execution |esus, close followers sSolgly felt his presence and proclaimed Trsw, Earh Fottowri' that he had triumphed over death by ris_ ing from his grave. They called him pervisors, known as bishopsrwho oversaw priests and governed their jurisdictions according to their own best understanding of Christian do._ " a result, until the emergence Early Cbristian "T:.A" conaruunities oj Rome as the principal ,.I, or :hy.l, authority in the third century c.r., Christians held doctrinal "Christ,o mcaning ..the.anointed oner, the savior yh: agdd bring individuals into the kingdom of views and followed pr".ti.., tt varied God. Thcy taught that he was the son of God and considerably from one community to the "t Some next. that his sacrifice served to offset the sins of those who religious ledders taught that Jesus had literally risen had faith fu him. They taught further that, like from the dead and come back to life, for example, Jesus, and the faithftl would survive death and would experi_ others held that his resurrectio, *", a spiritual rather ence eterml lifc in the spiritual kingdom of God. pol_ than physical matter. Only graduaUy ala believers lowing |csus'teachings, the early Cfuistians observed agree to recognize ccrtain texts as auihoritative scrip_ a demanding noral code and devoted themselves un_ ture-the New Testament_and adopt them as funda_ compromisingly to God-. They also compiled a body mental guides for Christian doctrineLd practice. of writings-accounts of lesur; Iif., r.port" of his fol_ Like the ]ews from whose rant<s ttrey had sprung, lowers'wuks, and letters outlining ihrirti* teach_ the early Cfuistians refirsed to honor tt. io** st"t ings-thatgained recognition as thl Ncw Testament. cults or revere the emperor as a god. Togethcr rrith the Jelvs' He brew scriprures, which As a result, Roman impiriat auttrorities The Gropth Christiansrcfemed to as the Old Testarneng of Eorly the New launched sporadic ."-i"ign ofp..r.*_ Testamcntbeome the holy book of Cfuistianity. tio,r designied to elimina,""chri#;q, ; . chriaianity Jesus and his earliest followers wcre all 1ews. ne_ -a.threat tg thc empire. ginning about the middle of the first century |n spite ofthis repression, Cfuis_ c.E., tial nu1!er1 grew rapidly. During thc^firsi three cen_ howevcr, some Christiaos avidly r""ghi Paal of turies of the faith,s existence, Chris-tianiry - Tarrs converts from found its way non-]ewish communities to almost all parts of thc Roman empire; and in the Helhni*ic world and thc Roman empire. ChrisThe tians established tfuiving communities throughorrt th..* principal fturc in the expansion of Chriitianity beMediterrancan basin *d f.rth., easr in MJopot"_i, 1,ond Judaim rras paul of Tarsus, a Jew from Anatolia and Iran. The remarkable growth of CUisiianity who.zealously preached his faith, especially re_ in thc flected rhe new faith,s appcil p*ti."f*lv io the lower Greek-spceting castern rcgion of tt. Rorn* empire. classes, r1Pll pop"lations, and womeri. Christianity Paul taught a Christianity that attracted thc urban accorded horior and dignity to individuals who did not masses in thc same way as other religions of salvation that spread ridcly in thc Roman .-lir.. ?"y hi.+ standing in Roman sociqry, and it endowed His doctrine of spiritual freedom.".. _."rri.,g_ called ficr individuals to observe high moral *:T^yl ",sense standards tnaS wedth, power, or_social prominence. It taugf,t and to placc tlrcir faith ahcad of pirsonal ryt and family thc sp-iritual equality of the ,"*., *.lcomed the inrcrests. }[s tcaching also explained the rvorld and contributions of both mcn and womcn. ""J And it pro_ human hisrnry as rhe result, oiGod', purposeful aclded a promise of futurc gtory for tt o* *no placcd tlnr it provided a framework of mcaning for :i"i!::" their faith in |esus. fhus, J&ough Chrisd;;ity i n di vid u als' f,vcsorigiFu rthcrmorc, paul's doctrinc prom nated as a minor sect of populations in fudair-,Lb* iscti a glorious futrrre cxistcncc for those rvho consci_ thc.Roman empire embraced tt. cnri()uslv ohcrrrd thc faith. *ith ,u.h enthusiasm that by thc third ccnrury ".* zuri ci it had bc_ )tt fbr rrro crnrurics aftcr thc crucifixion of fcsus, most dynamicand influcntial rcligircus tlrcrc rvas roccntral authoriry fbr thc flcdgling :"T. faith 1h_. church. in thc Mediterranean basrn. Retl'rcr, indiyllud comrnunities sclccted jrcir orvn su_ St Ur so, M, sti lar thl. ab eC( th. Br. co SPI in sor tin we (lllAI'l'l:R tl I rlFll)11'F.R&{NI':AN s(x;lFlT'\' trNt)ttR THIi GREHKS .rntl )\\'n ristian Surr,tmnnv unitics iirrts riccl )nlc tscll .rtrrl Ircr . crs ri1't- rtllt- llg' i lltc lrowtb 'Early ianity ns- cnvay risthe nia rever ,it,v rot 'ed rg- {hr he 'oed oi- in ch )e- .rh Lirrdcr (ircck artd Roman influcncc, l'lctlitcrrancan lands becanrc a tightly intcgratcc{ s()cict\'. Although thc Grecks clicl not build a ccntralizcd cmpirc, thcy rJotticl thc lr'lcditcrrancatr and Black Sca slrorclincs rvith- thcir colonics, ancl thcir rr.rcrchant flccts stinrulatctl troth c<>mmcrcial ancl cultural intcractions bc$vccn pcoplcs of distant l:rnds. (ircck tncrchants, soldicrs, rnd administrators also playcd 1'rrrlnrincnt rolcs in the cxtcnsivc cttrpircs of Alcxandcr irntl thc Hellcnistic rulers, and tlrcy, lcft a rcnrirrk:rblv rich attcl ctrtlttring cultural lcrrlrcr'. Building in part on lroth thc cultural antl t5c ccononric lcglcics of the Grceks, thc Ilonrlns procccded to coltstruct a republic,:rp{ thcu alr ctnpirc, that cvcntualh'irclrninistcred lands as distant as Mesopotamia a6tl Ilritain. Highlv organized tradc ncrrvorks cnabled peoples throughout thc cmpirc t<r c()nccntratc on spccialized agrictrltural or industrial production. Popular religions sprcad u'iclelt' and attracted entl'rusiastic converrs. Like Confucianism and Buddhisnt in classical China and India, rational philosophy and Christianin'bccanrc prominent sourccs of intcllcctual and religious authoriq, in the classical Meditcrranean and continued to influence cultural development in the Mediterranean, Europe, and southu,est Asia ovcr the long term. ANt)'rHli RoMANs f 53 I54 PART 2 I THE FORMAIION OF CII,SSICAI SOCIETIES, 5OO S.C.r. TO 5OO C.r. M, ry}FTE! iw*tli tI;rffi{i*'! a ,i.-u. ,1 '*f..'I :l;!il:r:li: Fon FunmrER READTNG Martin Bcrnal. Nack Athcnr: Thc Aftoasiatic Civilintiot.2 Roots of Clarsicel vols. to datc. N"* l.unr*i.t, iSiZ_. froro..tivc erd controvcrcial study arguing fo. fg;,i.n'"nrI Scmitic influcmcs oo certy Grcck socicty. Hcnry C. Borcn. Rorzaz Sa cbty.2nicd. t cxington, - 1992. An au_ rynrhcsis that piaccs social and .'."n"_i. history in its politkrt r:ontcxt. lGith & Badlcy. Discovcring Roaea Fanily: S*dics fodadvc &,cial Roman tb in Romen enelysis of Hktq. Ncw y_ork, 1991. A p-ro.",lu. 6milf lifi *ith illustrations &o_ irOJaJ*p"A.n.o. PctcrBtorm. Risc of Watcrn -TIz siar, A-D.20$-lArr\.2ntl cd. Chri*adw* Triiai saA DivcrOrford, 2003. A tan'iiart analysis -.-'.-"1--'"-*--:" "_€F-a".i'."'.v ofcarly Christian history that incorporatcs thc findings ofrcccnt scholanhip. F. M. Cornford. Bcforc and aJtcr Socrates.Cambridgc, 1965. A short but brilliant svrrthcsis of classical Grcl[ piili_pr,v. M. I. Finlcy. Ancicnt Sievctl cnd Modcrtt tar-olrfy.'i'ip"ndetl cd. Princcton, 199g. prcscnts a thoughtfirl I.#l:.',"'.., in tight of mod.."' ur,.t ".r"(ir.-ricr".f ,r.r"r/.ili .on,._po.rry Frcdcrick C. (irant, cd. Hclbnistic Rcligiont: Tbc r$c of Smcntbte. Indianagr>lis, r9s3. Fr*nrting coflcction of translercd <rocurcrigious fnlo*pr,i. ffill,:["j,:il:',1:i;1ffi :*, -' "nJ I CHAPTHR I Michacl Grant. CiriarolVatrius: Pompcii atd 8 | MEDITERRANTAN S()(:ll;r1' Hcrculanct nt.Lnn- don, 1971. Faxinating glimpsc ol'Rontrn socictl, as rcconsructcd by archacologists u,orking rt sitcs dcstrovcd hv thc cruption o[Vcsuvius in 79 t:.r. Naphtali lrwis and Mcycr Rcinhold, ccls. Ilorzar Cbili:arion: Schctcd Rcadings.2 vols. 3rd cd. Ncrv Y<rrk, 1990. A rich collcc. e- A d. rd ry w. u- ri- Lrn-l)t-:R THr: (;RFtt:KS ANt)'rHl: R()l\tANS r55 tiorr ol'translatcd tcrts and d<xunrcnts thirt illuminrtc Romen historr' ;rntl srricn. Sar,rh ll. l-orrrcror'. (ioddcsscs, llTronr, [1ilr.r, ard Slaws: Wc;,ca in Clnxi,ll Autiqrir. Ncs'l'orh, 1995. ()utstanding study enrlvzinq thc st:rtus and rolc ols'orncrr in chssicrl Grtccc end Rontt'.