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Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Chapter 2 Genetic and Environmental Foundations Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Genotype and Phenotype Genotype An individual’s genetic information Phenotype An individual’s directly observable characteristics © szefei/Fotolia Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Genetic Foundations Chromosomes Rodlike structures within the cells that store and transmit genetic information DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid, the chemical substance that makes up chromosomes Gene Segment of DNA along the length of the chromosome Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Mitosis and Meiosis Mitosis Process by which DNA duplicates itself Produces new body cells containing the same genetic information Meiosis Process by which gametes (sex cells) are formed Halves the number of chromosomes normally present Leads to genetic variability Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Autosomes, Sex Chromosomes, and Sex Cells Autosomes 22 matching pairs of chromosomes Sex chromosomes 23rd pair of chromosomes (XX = female, XY = male) Gametes Sex cells: sperm and ovum Zygote Formed when sperm and ovum unite Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Twins Fraternal/Dizygotic Result from release and fertilization of two ova Identical/Monozygotic Result when a single zygote separates to form two individuals © Blend Images/Shutterstock Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Alleles Two forms of the same gene, one inherited from each parent homozygous (both alleles are alike) heterozygous (alleles differ) Occur at the same place on both chromosomes in a pair Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Dominant–Recessive Inheritance Only the dominant allele affects children’s phenotypic characteristics Carriers: heterozygous (have one recessive allele) can pass recessive trait to their children Many serious diseases are product of recessive alleles Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Incomplete Dominance Both alleles are expressed in the phenotype Possible results: combined trait trait that is intermediate between the two Example: sickle cell anemia Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk X-Linked Inheritance Figure 2.4 Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Genomic Imprinting, Mutation, and Polygenic Inheritance Genomic imprinting: chemical marker activates one allele in a pair often temporary; may not occur in all individuals Mutation: sudden, permanent change in a segment of DNA may affect one or two genes, or many Polygenic inheritance: characteristics influenced by many genes Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Chromosomal Abnormalities Down syndrome: caused by problems with 21st chromosome Sex chromosome abnormalities: caused by problems with X or Y chromosome often not recognized until adolescence © Denis Kuvaev/Shutterstock Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Reproductive Choices © Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock Genetic counseling Prenatal diagnosis and fetal medicine Reproductive technologies Adoption Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Reproductive Technologies Donor insemination In vitro fertilization Surrogate motherhood New technologies © Burlingham/Shutterstock Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Genetic Counseling Helps couples assess chances of hereditary disorders choose best course of action in view of risks and family goals Recommended when couple has had difficulties bearing children known genetic problems exist woman is over 35 Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Prenatal Diagnostic Methods Amniocentesis Chorionic villus sampling Fetoscopy Ultrasound Maternal blood analysis Ultrafast magnetic resonance imaging Preimplantation genetic diagnosis © PhotographyByMK/Shutterstock Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Adoption Trends: international adoption adoption of older children adoption of children with known developmental problems © Vitalinka/Shutterstock Children typically exhibit some difficulties, but most fare well Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Environmental Contexts for Development Family Socioeconomic status and family functioning Neighborhoods, towns, and cities Cultural context © Mat Hayward/Fotolia Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Family Influences on Development © auremar/Fotolia Direct influences Indirect influences: effects of third parties Adaptation to changes within and outside the family Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Socioeconomic Status (SES) Social status: years of education prestige of one’s job and skill it requires Economic status: income © Yanming Zhang/Shutterstock Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Socioeconomic Status and Family Functioning SES is linked to: timing of marriage and parenthood family size values and expectations for children parents’ education and economic security communication and discipline styles investment in children’s cognitive development Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Poverty Who Is Poor? 46 million Americans (15%) are poor Those hit hardest are: parents under age 25 with young children, especially single mothers older adults who live alone, especially women children, especially AfricanAmerican, Native-American, © gcelebi/Shutterstock and Hispanic children Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Homelessness Most homeless families are women with children under age 5 Many homeless children suffer from: developmental delays chronic emotional stress 25% to 30% of school-age homeless children do not attend school Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Affluence What Are the Risks of Affluence? Alcohol and drug use High levels of anxiety and depression Unavailable parents: © Beata Wawrzyniuk/Shutterstock lack of emotional closeness and supervision excessive demands for achievement Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Importance of Regularly Eating Dinner as a Family Figure 2.6 (Adapted from Luthar & Latendresse, 2005.) Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Beyond the Family Benefits of Strong Community Ties Neighborhoods: resources and social ties that promote development Towns and cities: mold children’s and adults’ daily lives Small towns: promote connection and participation © Petrenko Andriy/Shutterstock Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Cultural Context Cultural values and practices: shape daily life within and outside the family Subcultures: cooperative family structures help protect members from harmful effects of poverty collectivism vs. individualism Public policies: laws and programs designed to improve current conditions Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Extended Families Three or more generations living together More common in many minority cultures Benefits: reduce stress of poverty provide assistance for all generations create strong family bonds transmit culture to next generation © Hasloo Group Production Studio/Shutterstock Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Individualistic and Collectivist Societies Individualistic Collectivist People define People define themselves as themselves as part separate entities of a group Independent self Interdependent self Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Indicators of Children’s Health and Well-Being Table 2.5 (Sources: Canada Campaign 2000, 2009; OECD 2010; U.S. Census Bureau, 2012; U.S. Department of Education, 2012.) Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Percentage of Older Adults Living in Poverty Figure 2.7 (Adapted from Luxembourg Income Study, 2011.) Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Behavioral Genetics How Much Does Heredity Contribute to Behavior? Heritability Estimates Obtained from kinship studies Provide an estimate of proportion of individual differences in a trait attributable to heredity Range from 0 to 1.00 Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Gene–Environment Interaction Individuals respond differently to same environment because of genetic makeup Similar responses can result from different gene–environment combinations © atikinka/Shutterstock Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Canalization Tendency of heredity to restrict development of some characteristics to just one or a few outcomes Ensures development of species-typical skills under many rearing conditions © photomak/Shutterstock Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Gene–Environment Correlation Passive correlation Evocative correlation Active correlation: niche-picking © szefei/Shutterstock Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Epigenesis Development results from bidirectional exchanges between heredity and all levels of environment Genes affect behavior and experiences Experiences and behavior affect gene expression Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk The Epigenetic Framework Figure 2.10 (Adapted from Gottlieb, 2007.) Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Readers may view, browse, and/or download material for temporary copying purposes only, provided these uses are for noncommercial personal purposes. Except as provided by law, this material may not be further reproduced, distributed, transmitted, modified, adapted, performed, displayed, published, or sold in whole or in part, without prior written permission from the publisher. Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.