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Social Psychology Chapter 13 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Social Psychology Social psychology is the scientific study of how the individual is influenced by the thoughts, feelings, and behaviours of other people 13-2 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Attitudes Attitudes are feelings and beliefs about other people, ideas, or objects that are based on a person’s past experiences, and shape future behaviour 13-3 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Dimensions of Attitudes The cognitive dimension of an attitude consists of thoughts and beliefs The emotional dimension of an attitude involves evaluate feelings (such as like or dislike) The behavioural dimension of an attitude involves how beliefs and evaluations are demonstrated 13-4 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Does Behaviour Determine Attitudes? It is possible that behaviour shapes attitudes A dramatic demonstration of this was the “Stanford Prison Experiment” in which well-adjusted college students were asked to act and dress as prisoners or guards 13-5 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Does Behaviour Determine Attitudes? Within days, “guards” were harassing “prisoners” and prisoners were caving in and becoming obedient The study showed a person may quickly adopt attitudes consistent with one’s roles 13-6 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Persuasion: Changing Attitudes Carl Hovland was one of the first social psychologists in the 1950s to identify the key components of attitude change To be persuasive, the communicator must show integrity, credibility, and trustworthiness Perceived power, prestige, prominence, modesty, celebrity, and attractiveness are also extremely important 13-7 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Communication The means by which a communication is presented is called its “medium” Openness to attitude change is related in part to age and education Change is far more likely if the person doing the persuading is a friend 13-8 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. The Elaboration Likelihood Model The elaboration likelihood model recognizes that people want to hold attitudes that will be helpful in day-today life It suggests that attitude change can be accomplished via two routes: central and peripheral 13-9 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Figure 13.2 Elaboration Likelihood Model 13-10 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. The Elaboration Likelihood Model The central route to attitude change emphasizes conscious, thoughtful consideration of arguments about an issue The peripheral route emphasizes more emotional, superficial evaluations of a message 13-11 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Cognitive Dissonance Cognitive dissonance is a state of mental discomfort that arises from a discrepancy between two or more of a person’s beliefs, or between beliefs and behaviour Leon Festinger believed that people try to reduce cognitive dissonance by changing one’s attitudes or behaviours 13-12 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Figure 13.3 Cognitive Dissonance 13-13 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Self-Perception Theory Daryl Bem claims that people do not change their attitudes due to dissonance Self-perception theory proposes that people infer their attitudes and emotional states from behaviour The theory holds that people are unaware of their attitudes until they examine their behaviour 13-14 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Reactance Theory According to Jack Brehm, reactance arises when people feel their freedom is being restricted, they are motivated to reestablish it Reactance theory focuses on how people try to re-establish their feeling of free choice 13-15 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Social Cognition Social cognition is the process of analyzing and interpreting events, other people, oneself, and the world Impression formation is the process by which a person uses the behaviour and appearance of others to infer their intentions 13-16 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Mental Shortcuts To help make decisions, people develop pragmatic rules of the thumb One of these is representativeness, that individuals or events that seem representative of other members of a group are classified as belonging to it 13-17 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Mental Shortcuts Availability means that the easier it is to bring to mind instances of a category or idea, the more likely it will be used to describe an event A third shortcut is the false consensus effect, in which people assume others hold the same beliefs as they do 13-18 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Mental Shortcuts In framing, the way information is presented determines how easily people accept it 13-19 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Assessing the World Using Nonverbal Communication Impression formation often begins with nonverbal communication, the communication of information by physical cues or actions, facial expressions, body language, and eye contact 13-20 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Facial Expressions Across cultures, six basic emotions are distinguished in facial expressions When a person smiles, both the muscular activity around the eyes and the smile help determine if the person is happy, or masking another feeling 13-21 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Body Language Information about moods and attitudes is conveyed through body language Gestures and aspects of body language have different meanings in different societies 13-22 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Eye Contact The eyes convey a surprising amount of information about feelings People tend to judge others based on the eye contact they engage in 13-23 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Inferring the Causes of Behaviour: Attribution Attribution is the process by which a person infers other people’s motives or intentions Attribution must take into account internal as well as external causes of behaviour 13-24 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Attribution Harold Kelly’s theory suggests that people take three factors into account in making attributions: consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness 13-25 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Figure 13.5 Attributional Thinking 13-26 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Why People Make Attributions People use attributions to maintain a sense of control over their environment Knowledge about the causes of events helps predict and control similar events in the future 13-27 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Errors in Attribution Errors or bias can occur in making attributions about the behaviour of others Sometimes errors occur because people use mental shortcuts that are not accurate 13-28 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. The Fundamental Attribution Error When people commit the fundamental attribution error, they assume people’s behaviour is caused by their internal dispositions and situational influences are underestimated 13-29 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. The Actor-Observer Effect The actor-observer effect is the tendency to attribute the behaviour of others to internal causes One’s own behaviour is attributed to situational causes 13-30 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. The Self-Serving Bias The self-serving bias is the tendency for people to feel their positive behaviours are due to their internal traits At the same time, they blame their failures and shortcomings on external, situational factors 13-31 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Stereotype Threat People are highly concerned about how they appear to others When minority group members concentrate on scholastic tasks, they worry about confirming negative stereotypes of their group Stereotype threat is concern with confirming stereotypes may drag down their performance 13-32 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Prejudice Prejudice is a negative evaluation of a group, typically based on unfavorable (and often wrong) stereotypes about the group and little or no experience with the group Stereotypes are fixed, overly simple, often false ideas about the traits, attitudes, and behaviours of a group’s members 13-33 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Prejudice Prejudice translated into behaviour is called discrimination Discrimination is behaviour targeted at individuals or groups, intended to hold them apart and treat them differently 13-34 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Prejudice Sometimes people are prejudiced, but do not show that attitude in behaviour People sometimes show reverse discrimination Reverse discrimination involves showing favoritism to a group that is otherwise discriminated against 13-35 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Prejudice In tokenism, people make superficially positive actions toward members of a group they dislike Tokenism has negative consequences for the self-esteem of the person it is applied to 13-36 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Social Learning Theory Social learning theory says children learn to be prejudiced They observe other people in acts of discrimination and expressing stereotypes 13-37 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Motivational Theory Motivational theory is based on the idea that people compete for scarce resources It states that people dislike individuals who are competing against them 13-38 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Cognitive Theory Cialdini argues that the world is so complex, people cannot analyze all relevant data about any one thing One such shortcut is stereotyping Mental shortcuts cause illusory correlations to develop between social groups and behaviours 13-39 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Cognitive Theory Such shortcuts lead to distinctions between the in-group and the outgroup The division of the world into “us” and “them” is called social categorization 13-40 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Personality Theory A common personality type is the authoritarian personality These are people who may have been raised by cold, unloving parents They blame others for their problems, and feel prejudice toward those they blame 13-41 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Social Influence Social influence refers to the ways people alter the attitudes or behaviours of others 13-42 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Conformity When a person changes her or his attitudes or behaviours so they are consistent with those of other people or norms, the person is exhibiting conformity 13-43 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Conformity Asch found that people in a group adopt its standards Seven to nine people were asked to judge which of three lines matched a standard line Only one group member, the “naïve” participant, was really unaware of the purpose of the study 13-44 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Conformity The other “participants” deliberately gave false answers Asch found some naïve participants would go along with the group, even when the answer they gave was obviously wrong 13-45 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. How Do Groups Cause Conformity? One factor that leads to conformity is the amount of information available when a decision is made When people are uncertain of how to behave in an ambiguous situation, they seek the opinions of others 13-46 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. How Do Groups Cause Conformity? Another important variable is the relative competence of the group Conformity increases if people feel group members are more competent than they are 13-47 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. How Do Groups Cause Conformity? Position within a group also affects behaviour The more secure one’s status, the more independently one will behave 13-48 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. How Do Groups Cause Conformity? The public nature of behaviour also determines behaviour People are more likely to make decisions inconsistent with the group if decisions are private 13-49 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Why Do People Conform? The social conformity approach states that people conform to avoid the stigma of being wrong or deviant Attribution also explains conformity When a person can identify causes for group behaviour they disagree with, conformity decreases 13-50 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Why Do People Conform? Independence can explain conformity (or lack of it) But, independence can be risky, and be seen as deviant Last, conformity can be due to expediency It is efficient to go along with people one trusts 13-51 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Not Conforming Dissenting opinions help counteract group influence and conformity A consistent opposing voice can exert subtle influence It can foster a sense of liberation, even when the opposition has little status or power 13-52 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Obedience Obedience is compliance with the orders of another person or group Classic studies of obedience were performed by Stanley Milgram Milgram told participants they would be participating in a study of the effects of punishment on learning 13-53 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Obedience Their task was to administer electric shock to a “learner,” but in reality, the “learner” was a confederate Milgram found that 65% of all participants could be coaxed to deliver every level of shock 13-54 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Figure 13.7 Milgram’s Obedience Study 13-55 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Explaining Milgram’s Results Milgram may have found high obedience because his participants were volunteers Other researchers found that obedience to authority is not specific to Western culture, and that it applies to men and women, and younger and older individuals 13-56 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Ethical Issues Milgram’s study raised ethical issues To ensure that there are no long-lasting ill effects from participating in a study, participants are debriefed Debriefing means informing participants about the true nature of a study after its completion 13-57 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Groups: Sharing Common Goals A group is two or more people working with a common purpose, characteristics, or interests 13-58 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Social Facilitation Social facilitation is a change in behaviour when people are (or believe they are) in the presence of others Social facilitation can improve or inhibit a person’s ability to perform a task 13-59 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Social Facilitation Zajonc (1965) feels the presence of others increases arousal Increased arousal then leads to a greater likelihood a particular response will occur 13-60 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Social Loafing Social loafing is a decrease in individual effort as a result of working in a group This happens when individual performance cannot be evaluated Social loafing is minimized when the task is attractive and when the group is cohesive and committed to reaching a goal 13-61 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Group Polarization The risky shift is when people in groups may be more willing to take chances they would not take if making decisions alone Exaggerations in group members’ attitudes or behaviours may also occur after a discussion Shifts in attitudes or behaviours are called group polarization 13-62 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Group Polarization One explanation says this occurs because people initially view themselves as more extreme than other group members When people discover they are similar to the other members, they shift and become more extreme Changes in the individual are called the choice shift 13-63 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Group Polarization The persuasive argument explanation is a different view This says people’s attitudes become polarized when they hear others in the group express similar attitudes 13-64 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Group Polarization Another view is called diffusion of responsibility This says individual group members feel they cannot be held responsible for the group’s actions This feeling may allow members to make more extreme decisions than they would individually 13-65 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Group Polarization Social comparison may also play a role in group polarization This says that people compare their views to those they respect 13-66 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Groupthink: Collective Wisdom? Groupthink is the tendency for group members to seek concurrence with one another It occurs when members reinforce shared beliefs in the interest of getting along 13-67 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Figure 13.9 Groupthink: Development and Results 13-68 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Unrestrained Group Behaviour In groups, normally thoughtful people can exhibit irrational behaviour, like mob violence The process of loss of self-awareness and distinctive personality in a group is called deindividuation 13-69 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Aggression and Violence Aggression is any behaviour intended to harm another person or thing The frustration-aggression hypothesis by Dollard says aggression occurs if goal-directed behaviour is frustrated Berkowitz said frustration creates a readiness for aggression, rather than actual aggression 13-70 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Cognitive Psychology Leonard Eron (1987) conducted a 22- year longitudinal study of aggression Eron was interested in studying what might cause children to interpret the world in ways that make them aggressive Eron found that aggressive children saw the world as a violent place and responded in kind 13-71 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Cognitive Psychology Another explanation of aggression is Zillman’s “excitation transfer theory” Zillman feels arousal caused by some events dissipates slowly Zillman feels that aggression involves misattribution of one’s arousal as being due to a new event 13-72 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Television Violence Viewers of TV violence become more fearful of becoming victims of violent acts But television can have positive effects; shows such as Sesame Street may encourage prosocial behaviour 13-73 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Gender Differences in Aggression Many researchers have observed that men are more physically aggressive than women However, both men and women use psychological aggression like verbal abuse and gestures 13-74 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Prosocial Behaviour Prosocial behaviour is behaviour that benefits someone else or society that offers no obvious benefit to the person performing it and may involve personal risk or sacrifice Altruism is helping for which there is no discernible reward, recognition, or appreciation 13-75 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Altruism Wilson founded the field of sociobiology based on the premise that behaviours are determined by natural selection Social behaviours that contribute to the survival of a species are genetically passed from one generation to the next 13-76 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. The Bystander Effect The bystander effect is that as the number of people present at an emergency increases, people often watch, but do not help Latané and Darley found that before deciding to help, people must decide if there is actually an emergency 13-77 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. The Bystander Effect People may also experience diffusion of responsibility (feeling they cannot be held responsible for not helping) 13-78 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Relationships and Attraction Interpersonal attraction is the tendency of one person to evaluate another in a positive way 13-79 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Proximity Decades of research show that the closer people are geographically, the more likely they will become attracted to one another 13-80 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Physical Attractiveness Many studies show that people are romantically attracted to those they find physically attractive People assume attractive individuals have more positive traits and characteristics More power, status, and competence is ascribed to physically attractive individuals 13-81 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Attitude Similarity and Attraction If you perceive someone’s attitudes as similar to your own, the probability of liking that person increases 13-82 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Intimate Relationships and Love Intimacy is a state in which each person in a relationship is willing to selfdisclose and express important feelings and information to the other person The process of disclosure makes each person feel valued and cared for 13-83 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc. Intimate Relationships and Love Men tend to be more self-disclosing with a woman than another man Men are less likely to be selfdisclosing and intimate 13-84 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc.
