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Night 2 Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories of Motivation Some Theories Of Motivation Need (or Content) Theories Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Alderfer’s ERG Theory McClelland’s Manifest Needs Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Process Theories Learning Theory Goal Setting Theory Equity Theory Expectancy Theory Next Learning Theories Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior produced by experience. Three types of learning: classical conditioning operant conditioning social learning Classical Conditioning Step 1: Before Conditioning Bell No Response and Food (Salivation) Response Classical Conditioning Step 2: During Conditioning Bell Followed by Food (Salivation) Response Classical Conditioning Step 3: After Conditioning Bell (Salivation) Response Operant Conditioning Stimulus Response Consequence Arranging Contingencies to Increase Desired Behaviors Positive Reinforcement Stimulus Desired Response Positive Consequence Escape Learning (Negative Reinforcement) Stimulus Desired Response Removal of Noxious Consequence Desired Response Avoidance of Noxious Consequence Avoidance Learning Back Functions of Goals Goals let employees know what they are expected to do. Goals relieve boredom. Reaching goals and getting positive feedback leads to increased liking for the task and satisfaction with job performance. Attaining goals leads to recognition by peers, supervisors, and others. Attaining goals leads to feelings of increased selfconfidence, pride in achievement, and willingness to accept future challenges. Important Goal Characteristics SPECIFIC GOALS GOAL ACCEPTANCE DIFFICULT GOALS MOTIVATION FEEDBACK ON PROGRESS COMPETITION PARTICIPATION IN GOAL SETTING GOAL COMMITMENT Management by Objectives Management by objectives (MBO) is a motivational technique in which the manager and employee work together to set employee goals. MBO combines many key goal setting principles, including setting of specific goals, participation in goal setting, and feedback on performance. MBO may be difficult and time consuming to implement, and may encourage focus on easilyquantifiable goals. 68 of 70 major studies showed MBO to result in productivity gains. The Bottom Line: Goal Setting Theory Use Employee Participation to Set Difficult and Specific Goals Ensure That the Employee UnderStands the Goals and is Committed to Achieving Them Link Appropriate Consequences to Goal Achievement Provide Management Support (Including Feedback) for Achievement of Employee Goals Assess Employee Job Performance Against Goals Back Why Be Fair? General Reasons When people experience a situation they feel is not fair, they experience an unpleasant state of tension. Some people try to be fair because they think others will reward them for being fair. Behaving fairly may bolster a person’s selfesteem. Most people find it comforting to believe that life is fair. Why Be Fair? Employers’ Reasons To conform to business norms. To attract superior workers to their company and weed out inferior workers. To motivate employees to produce. To develop trust. Equity Theory Equation Op Ip = Oo IO Restoring Equity (Underpaid Case) Raise actual outcomes Lower inputs Perceptually distort inputs and/or outcomes Perceptually distort comparison other’s inputs and/or outcomes Leave the situation Act to change the comparison other’s inputs and/or outcomes Change the comparison other The Bottom Line: Equity Theory Assess Employee Perceptions of Equity in Their Work Situations Identify Employees Who Perceive Inequities Implement Changes and Communicate Them to Employees Identify the Basis for Employee Perceptions of Inequity Evaluate Management Policies and Practices to Determine the Validity of Employee Perceptions Identify Specific Changes That Can Be Made to Address Employee Equity Concerns Back Second-Order Outcome 1 (e.g., Approval of Supervisor) with Valence V1 Second-Order Outcome 2 (e.g., Pay) with Valence V2 First-Order Outcome (e.g., Performance) INSTRUMENTALITIES Effort to Perform at a Certain Level EXPECTANCY The Components of Expectancy Theory Second-Order Outcome 3 (e.g., Esteem of Coworkers) with Valence V3 Second-Order Outcome 4 (e.g., Promotion Opportunities) with Valence V4 Second-Order Outcomes 5 to n (e.g., Job Security, Better Work Hours) with Valences V5 to Vn The Linkage of Effort to a FirstOrder Outcome Role Perceptions Ability First-Order Outcome Effort Situational Constraints Determinants of Effort to Perform Valence of Performance Expectancy Effort to Perform Implications of Expectancy Theory Recognize that three conditions are necessary for motivation to perform. Assess perceptions of each of these conditions. Identify gaps between employee and management perceptions. Make sure you are giving employees what they want. Ask what factors may be weakening expectancy perceptions. Ask what factors may be weakening instrumentality perceptions. If employees appear to be poorly motivated, work backward. The Bottom Line: Expectancy Theory Identify Desired Level of Employee Motivation Provide Training, Direction, and Opportunities to Succeed to Enhance Employee’s Belief that He/She Can Achieve High Job Performance Promote Managerial Support to Ensure That Employee Motivation Results in High Job Performance Promote Employee’s Belief that Job Performance Matters by Using Appropriate Reward Policies and Practices Use Organizational Reward Systems and Job Design to Link Positively Valued Consequences to Employee Job Performance in an Equitable Manner Back What is Leadership? Leadership is the ability to influence others toward the achievement of goals The Changing Look of Leadership “Old Look” “New Look” Traits Behaviors Universal Situational One-Way Influence Reciprocal Influence Uniform Dyadic Leading Subordinates Leading Everyone Transactional Transformational Emerging Perspectives on Leadership While early leadership approaches emphasized the traits of successful leaders -- who they are -- newer approaches ask how successful leaders behave -- what they do. Early approaches to leadership tended to take a universalistic perspective, asking, “What works?” Newer approaches, recognizing that characteristics of the situation, such as followers’ needs and skills and various aspects of the task must be considered, ask, “What works when?” Early approaches considered primarily one-way influence, how a leader influences followers. Newer approaches recognize that the influence process is reciprocal -- just as leaders are influencing followers, followers are influencing leaders. Emerging Perspectives on Leadership (Cont) While early approaches tended to assume that leaders treat their various followers in similar ways, more recent approaches recognize that leaders may -- for good or bad reasons -- treat different followers differently. While leadership approaches initially focused on the relationship of leaders to their subordinates, modern views are more inclusive; the “others” whom leaders influence may sometimes be team members or even hierarchical superiors. Most early approaches to leadership tended to consider how a leader might influence others through a series of transactions. Newer approaches look more broadly at how leaders take actions to transform followers and organizations. Leader Traits The earliest approach to the study of leadership was to try to identify characteristics, or traits, of successful leaders. Literally thousands of studies have now explored leadership traits. Of the traits, activity, intelligence, knowledge, dominance, and selfconfidence are most often found to be linked to leader success. Unfortunately, most reviews of studies relating to leadership traits have concluded that the trait approach has not been fruitful. Very few traits show up consistently across studies. Also, since traits are relatively stable, it is unlikely that leaders can develop them through training. So, attention has shifted from what successful leaders are to what they do. Autocratic and Democratic Styles Lower Autocratic Degree of Participation Higher Democratic Autocratic and Democratic Styles Autocratic leaders make decisions themselves, without inputs from subordinates. Democratic leaders let subordinates participate in decision making. Democratic style is consistently linked to higher levels of subordinate satisfaction. Democratic style is usually positively, but weakly, related to productivity. This weak link of democratic style to performance may be because many factors determine whether a democratic style is appropriate, including the nature of the tasks and the characteristics of subordinates. Autocratic and Democratic Styles (Continued) When tasks are simple and repetitive, participation has little effect, because “there is little to participate about.” When subordinates are intelligent and desire independence, participation is especially important. Participation is empowering and satisfying, and it generates enthusiasm for the decisions that are reached. Participation takes time, and people sometimes don’t like to participate, especially if they care little about the decision. Since leaders may give more productive followers more responsibility, the relationship between democratic style and performance could be due to the impact of performance on style rather than vice versa. Consideration and Initiating Structure Effective leaders show concern for both the task and the people they leader. Without concern for task, the job won’t get done. Without concern for people, satisfaction, motivation, and team spirit will suffer and performance will ultimately suffer. Two sets of leader behaviors -- consideration and initiating structure -- address these concerns. Consideration and initiating structure are not conflicting sets of behaviors. Skillful leaders should be able to exhibit both sets of behaviors, and they should use those behaviors as needed. Consideration and Initiating Structure (Continued) Consideration is behavior that shows friendship, mutual trust, respect, and warmth. Considerate leaders are friendly and approachable, look out for the personal welfare of team members, back up the members in their actions, and find time to listen to them. Initiating structure is behavior that helps clarify the task and get the job done. Initiating leaders provide definite standards of performance, set goals, organize work, emphasize meeting deadlines, and coordinate the work of team members. Sample Items To Measure Consideration and Initiating Structure Consideration Treats all work unit members as his or her equal Is friendly and approachable Does little things to make work pleasant Puts suggestions made by the work unit into operation Looks out for personal welfare of work unit members Initiating Structure Lets work unit members know what is expected of them Schedules the work to be done Encourages the use of uniform procedures Assigns work unit members to particular tasks Makes his or her attitudes clear to the group Path-Goal Theory The theory is called path-goal because its major concern is how the leader influences the followers’ perceptions of their work goals, personal goals, and paths to goal attainment. The theory suggests that a leader’s behavior is motivating or satisfying to the degree that the behavior increases follower goal attainment and clarifies the paths to these goals. Some Contingency Factors in the PathGoal Theory Some task contingency variables: degree of structure degree to which the task is intrinsically satisfying degree to which the task provides feedback concerning accomplishment Some follower contingency variables: need for independence ability, experience, training “professional” orientation Elements of Path-Goal Theory Subordinate Characteristics Leader Behaviors: • Directive • Supportive • Participative • AchievementOriented • Clarification of Paths to Goals • Increased Goal Attainment Task Characteristics Subordinate Responses: • Motivation • Performance • Satisfaction The Bottom Line: Applying Path-Goal Theory Assess the Situation Identify Task and Employee Needs Match Appropriate Leader Behavior to the Situation If This Does Not Work, Replace the Leader If This Does Not Work, Train the Leader to Change His/Her Behavior Change Leader Behavior If It Does Not Match the Situation Leader-Member Exchange Theory According to leader-member exchange theory, leaders establish a one-on-one relationship with each follower. These relationships vary in terms of the quality of the exchange. Some followers -- members of the in-group -- have a high-quality relationship with the leader, characterized by mutual trust, liking, and respect. They enjoy the confidence of the leader, are given interesting and challenging assignments, and in turn they work hard, are loyal, and support the leader. Other followers -- the out-group -- have a lower quality relationship with the leader. The leader tends to see them as lacking motivation or competence or loyalty, interacts with them less, and offers them fewer chances to demonstrate their capabilities. Out-group members may “live down” to the leader’s expectations, carrying out the tasks defined in their formal job descriptions and facing no real expectations of loyalty, creativity, or high performance. Leader-Member Exchange Theory (Cont.) Followers may sometimes find themselves as members of outgroups due less to their abilities and potential than to favoritism, stereotypes, and personal conflicts. In an ideal world there would be no in-groups and out-groups. In the real world, in-groups and out-groups are common and perhaps cannot be avoided. Leaders must do all they can to ensure that in-group membership is based on ability and motivation rather than favoritism and prejudice. They must also ensure that followers can move between the groups, having access to in-group membership when it is earned and falling from such status when it is no longer justified. The most recent focus of leader-member exchange theory is on the process of leadership making, which develops over time in three phases. Leader-Member Exchange Model S SA InGroup Leader SE SB SC S OutGroup S S SD S S S S S S Subordinate The Bottom Line: Applying the Leader-Member Exchange Model List the Employees in Your Work Unit Identify Employees Who You Feel Are Part of the “In-Group” Implement Leadership Strategies Identify Leaders Who You Feel Are Part of the “Out-Group” Develop Leadership Strategies for Moving Employees from the “Out-Group” to the “In-Group” Types of Leadership Transactional Leadership: Leadership based on transactions or exchanges -- the promise, and provision, of rewards for good performance and threats or discipline for poor performance. Transformational Leadership: Leadership which transforms followers and organizations by: broadening and elevating the interests of employees generating awareness and acceptance of the purposes and missions of the group stirring employees to look beyond their own self interest for the good of the group Elements of Transformational Leadership ATTRIBUTED CHARISMA INDIVIDUALIZED CONSIDERATION IDEALIZED INFLUENCE TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP INTELLECTUAL STIMULATION INSPIRATIONAL LEADERSHIP Transformational Leader Behaviors Attributed charisma. Charisma is a Greek word meaning “Divinely inspired gift.” Leaders are seen as charismatic when they display a sense of power and confidence, remain calm during crisis situations, and provide reassurance that obstacles can be overcome. Idealized influence. Leaders display idealized influence when they talk about their important values and beliefs; consider the moral and ethical consequences of their decisions; display conviction in their ideals, beliefs, and values; and model values in their actions. Intellectual stimulation. Intellectually stimulating leaders help followers recognize problems and find ways to solve them. They encourage followers to challenge the status quo. They champion change and foster creative deviance. Transformational Leader Behaviors (Continued) Inspirational leadership. Inspirational leaders give followers hope, energizing them to pursue a vision. They envision exciting new possibilities, talk optimistically about the future, express confidence that goals can be met, and articulate a compelling vision of the future. Individualized consideration. Transformational leaders show personal interest and concern in their individual followers, and they promote their followers’ selfdevelopment. They coach their followers, serve as their mentors, and focus them on developing their strengths. Skills Associated with Transformational Leadership ANTICIPATORY SKILLS SELFUNDERSTANDING SKILLS VISIONING SKILLS TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP EMPOWERMENT SKILLS VALUECONGRUENCE SKILLS The Language of Leadership Transformational leaders must be able to inspire; communicate their vision, ideals and beliefs; provide compelling reassurance; and challenge followers to think in new ways. To do all this, transformational leaders must be masters of communication; they must “speak the language of leadership.” Two aspects of the language of leadership -framing and rhetorical crafting -- are crucial. Reflections on Leadership Pay careful attention to your formal or informal leadership roles. Successful leaders draw on a variety of power bases. Referent power has the broadest range, and heavy reliance on coercive power can be dangerous. Control over resources, information, and the problem-solving process all serve to increase power. A leader must show concern for both task accomplishment and fulfillment of subordinate needs. The same style or behavior may not work in every situation. In deciding how to behave, consider the maturity and needs of your subordinates, the structure and other characteristics of the task, and the nature of the organization. Reflections on Leadership (Cont.) Leadership can be frustrating. Structured tasks, separation of superiors and subordinates, bureaucratic constraints, and other factors can sometimes handcuff the leader. Try to be aware of, and deal with, leadership substitutes and neutralizers. As a leader you should not accept situations as fixed. You may be able to change task structure, your power, relations with subordinates, and other dimensions. The models reviewed in this chapter show that leader sensitivity, critical thinking, and flexibility are crucial. Remember that vision and inspiration are important. Don’t ignore transformational aspects of the leadership role.
