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We The People American Voices “Here is not merely a nation but a teeming nation of nations." Walt Whitman 2 "Do justice, that you may live long upon earth." King of Heracleopolis, c. 2135 B.C. 3 "The basis of a democratic state is liberty.” Aristotle 4 " To none will we sell, to none deny or delay, right or justice. " Magna Carta, 1215 5 "Men are born and remain free and equal in rights...” Declaration of the Rights of Man, 1789 6 “We could not have known of your Declaration of Independence and not elected to join in the struggle to guarantee the people life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." Nelson Mandela 7 "Where, after all, do universal human rights begin? In small places, close to home…” Eleanor Roosevelt We are the 8 Spirit of America! 9 UNIT 1 Learning About Our World “A journey of a thousand miles must begin with a single step.” Lao-tzu 10 Theme Patterns in Diversity “ Learning about other cultures either across the country or on the other side of the world can help us understand how other people live so we will all get along.” Caity Brodeur, Sixth Grade Waitsfield, VT The world is beautiful and complicated, and we are forever trying to make sense of it. People who study the earth are called geographers. They understand the land by finding patterns in landforms, climates, or even languages. To understand people, we study their culture - the characteristics of a group of people that make them alike. We find patterns in the ways people live, and we come to know them better as a result. So begins a journey to understand our world. Theme Project Exploring Geography and Culture Pick two places in the world and compare and contrast them with each other. Make a compare/contrast poster that lists the similarities and differences between the two places. Create a travel poster for each place that highlights the features that would attract tourists to that place. Draw a map of each place and label the major geographic features. Write a one-page description of life in each place. Research: Look up facts about the history of each place you are studying. ---The city of Olvera in Andalusia, Spain. 11 UNIT 1 When & Where Atlas Studying the history and geography of the world is not an easy task. Apart from thousands of historical events, there are a multitude of peoples, religions, and languages to sort through. As you can guess, just keeping all the countries straight can be difficult. Understanding geography and culture can make the task easier. Knowing the geographic features of an area or the culture of the people who live there can help you make sense of the history and geography of that area. In this unit, you will learn more about geography and culture. You will read about the techniques geographers use to study physical and human geography. You will learn how studying culture can help shed light on history. By the end of the unit, you will know why geography and culture are essential tools for understanding world history. Unit 1 Chapters Chapter 1 The Shape of the Earth Chapter 2 A World of People Unit Timeline Incan Roads This rocky road is more than 500 years old, and people still use it. Chapter 1, Lesson 1 Marshall Islands Find out how Marshall Islanders mapped the ocean. Chapter 1, Lesson 1 12 Landforms What four landforms do you see here? Chapter 1, Lesson 2 Family Life Families spending time together in many ways — that's culture. Chapter 2, Lesson 1 An Archeological Dig Hidden in the earth, past cultures are waiting to be found. Chapter 2, Lesson 2 13 CHAPTER 1 The Shape of the Earth Chapter Preview: People, Places, and Events Captain James Cook A bold explorer and geographer, he was one of the first to map the Pacific. Lesson 1, Page 16 Satellite Maps Maps like these help geographers and other scientists learn about the world. Lesson 1, Page 16 Early Mapping How did early people use maps like these to find their way? Lesson 1, Page 19 14 Lesson 1 Exploring Our World Main Idea Geographers study the world by asking questions about it, measuring it with scientific tools, and making maps. Key Vocabulary atmosphere biosphere geography thematic map reference map The earth's six billion people share a planet that is 24,902 miles around — so large a supersonic jet would take more than 30 hours to circle it at top speed. Its surface area is over 196 million square miles. About 70 percent is underwater, mostly in vast oceans. These seas are so deep a two-pound steel ball would take over an hour to sink to their deepest point. All this water provides food, quenches thirst, and creates weather — making life on our amazing planet possible. Without protection from the sun's harmful rays and from the airless chill of space, all life on the earth would cease to exist. Fortunately, the earth is cloaked by a mixture of gases called the atmosphere. The atmosphere reaches about 310 miles above the earth's surface, then fades into space. Beneath this shield lies the biosphere, which includes the earth's surface and all the things that live on it. It is within the biosphere that geography — the study of the earth and its people — begins. ---The earth, photographed from space. Physical Regions What can a koala tell you about a region? Lesson 2, Page 23 Physical Regions Mountains like the Olgas, in Australia, can also set off a physical region. Lesson 2, Page 22 Human Regions This oil rig operates within a human region as well as a physical region. Lesson 2, Page 26 15 How Geographers See Our World Focus How do geographers study the world? Geographers study the biosphere — its heights and depths, its plants and animals, its people and environments, its regions and climates. They find ways to display what they have learned. To understand what it is that geographers do, it is important to know the kind of questions they ask. Geographers look at a particular location on the earth's surface and ask: Where is it in relation to other places? What is it like there? When was it formed? How did it get to be that way? By asking these questions, geographers learn about the earth and how humans interact with it. Just like any other scientist, geographers use tools to get the job done. Maps are one of the geographer's most important tools. Maps display information about the world. Throughout history, people all over the world have made many kinds of maps. Some civilizations built maps right into their cities. In South America, the ancient Inca capital of Cuzco (KOOZ koh) was a kind of map. Its buildings were laid out in lines that showed the movement of the sun. The map on the right shows how Inca roads made a kind of map of their empire. Biography James Cook Captain James Cook was one of the most adventurous — and successful — geographers in history. Beginning in 1768, Cook commanded three voyages of discovery. Through his careful map-making, Cook expanded human knowledge of the limits of the Pacific Ocean. He was also first to use a chronometer, a very accurate clock, to find his exact position at sea. Cook died at the hands of Hawaiian Islanders on a voyage in 1779. HIGH TECH TOOLS Today, geographers use the latest technology to create maps. Satellites miles above the earth take photographs that become detailed maps. These maps can show a city, a continent, the whole planet, or even other planets. Satellites also produce maps that show such things as weather, surface temperature, elevation, and vegetation. Computers play a role in mapmaking, too. By using Geographic Information Systems (GIS), computers can coordinate many layers of information to produce very complex maps. A GIS is at work, for instance, when a computer makes a map of how a noisy airport affects a neighborhood. Data about noise levels, the shape of the neighborhood, the size of the airport, and so on are all fed into a computer. It then makes a single map that displays all this information at once. Using a GIS, geographers can analyze more information and make maps more swiftly than ever before. As important as they are, maps are just one of many tools geographers use. Equally important are the special devices that allow them to learn such things as water temperature, elevation, latitude, and longitude. Whether it is by the maps they create, the instruments they use, or the questions they ask, geographers want to learn about the earth — both what it is like now and how it got that way. 16 ---Geographers are also interested in how animals are distributed across a given area. This condor — whose wingspan can be as much as 12 feet — is found only in the Andes. Ancient Inca Roads Maps can be used to help us investigate the past. This modern map of centuries-old Inca roads raises some questions. How were the roads built? Where do they lead? How do we know where they went? That's where geographers come in. By mapping these ancient highways, it is possible to discover the size and shape of the Inca Empire. The roads stretch over 2,500 miles, linking the great cities of what was once South America's largest empire. ---These Peruvian Indians are walking along one of the Inca highways shown on the map to the far right. The road is still in use after more than 500 years. Citizenship: Why might good roads be important to a nation? ---A satellite photo, taken miles above the earth, shows South America. Such photos can be used to make maps like those at right. 17 Using Maps as a Window on Our Past Focus How did people in the past use maps to describe the world? When people make maps, they take information they've learned and present it to others. For example, if you make a map showing the location of everything in your room, someone else can look at the map and get an idea of what your room is like. Maps can show something as small as a room or as large as a star system. Whatever the subject, maps describe a part of our world. Maps also say something about the mapmakers, who decide what information to include and how to present it. In this way, maps from long ago can tell us much about people who lived then. In the 1900s, a map made for European Christians showed Paradise somewhere to the east of Asia. Even though no living person had ever been to Paradise, the mapmakers believed it existed. They included it on the map. A map like this is called a thematic map because it has a theme to it — in this case, life after death. Another kind of map is called a reference map, which shows where things are located. A reference map might show you how to get from one town to another, or it might show the layout of your neighborhood. A reference map around 5,800 years old is shown below. This map shows an area in ancient Mesopotamia. ---This clay map from Mesopotamia is almost 6,000 years old. The illustration at left shows a translation of the ancient symbols. ---This map shows the estate of what must have been a rich Mesopotamian. 18 MAPS WITH SPECIAL USES People can use both reference and thematic maps to express their knowledge of the world. The Aztecs, an ancient people of Mexico, made reference maps showing the land and trees. They marked the roads by drawing footprints. The Aztecs also made thematic maps that showed how they viewed their place in the universe. The Aztecs based these maps on their religious beliefs. Traveling long distances calls for a special kind of reference map, the navigational map. The navigational map on this page was made by people of the Marshall Islands in the South Pacific. It is made of strips of wood tied together with coconut fiber, and uses shells to stand for islands. Although it may seem simple at first, it is actually a very complex map that shows many levels of important information. In addition to showing the relative position of the islands, the sticks indicate the direction and location of ocean currents and prevailing winds. When islanders set out on their voyages, they relied on maps like this one to guide them safely. Our world is vast. It is made up of many areas, each with its own history and character. Just as different students in a class have things in common, so it is with places on the earth. Maps help make us aware of the patterns shared by different areas. As you are about to learn, finding these common patterns can help clarify the world's complexity. ---Marshall Islanders used swift canoes to sail between islands. ---A Micronesian sailing chart of the Marshall Islands. Geography: What does a map like this say about the people who made it? What might it tell a geographer? LESSON REVIEW: GEOGRAPHY 1. KEY VOCABULARY: Use the following words in a sentence: atmosphere, biosphere, geography. 2. FOCUS: How do geographers study the world? 3. FOCUS: How did people in the past use maps to describe the world? 4. CRITICAL THINKING: COMPARING THEN AND NOW How might people have mapped the world long ago? 5. GEOGRAPHY: What would a map of your neighborhood have in common with a Marshall Islands stick map? 6. CITIZENSHIP/ART ACTIVITY: Draw a map of the route you take to school. In a group with two or three other students, compare your maps. How are they similar? How are they different? 19 Skills Workshop Comparing Map Projections Flattening the Earth What's similar about an orange and the planet Earth? They're both spheres. If you've ever peeled an orange and flattened out the peel, you'll know the problem mapmakers have when drawing the curved surface of the earth on flat paper. It's impossible to do without changing the shape. Mapmakers have found many ways to view the earth. These are called map projections. Each type of projection changes the shape of, or distorts, some part of the earth's surface. However, each projection serves a purpose. 1. HERE’S HOW Study the map projections on these pages. Find the name of each type of projection. In an atlas, the name often appears near the map legend. If there is no projection label, ask yourself: Are the longitude lines straight as in a Mercator projection? Do they curve as in equal-area projections? Are the latitude lines in circles as in polar projections? Compare the maps to a globe to find distortions in the size or shape of continents. Compare continents on the map projections. For example, how do Greenland and Africa compare in size in each projection? 2. THINK IT THROUGH How would Mercator, equal-area, and polar projections help you plan a trip? What kind of information would each map give? ---Equal-area projections divide the earth into equal areas. This allows you to accurately measure land area, but, as you can see, it creates distortions, especially near the edges of the map. 20 3. USE IT Which kind of map projection would you use to find out: 1. the correct size of Greenland 2. the shortest route between South America and Australia 3. the size of Antarctica 4. the shape of Africa 5. the compass setting to use if you wanted to sail from North America to Europe 6. the route to fly from a place in northern North America to northern Europe ----Mercator projections give an accurate view of land near the equator. However, land near the poles is distorted. Greenland, for example, looks as large as Africa. In fact, Africa is more than ten times larger! Because the latitude and longitude lines are straight, this projection is useful for navigating with a compass. ---The center of a polar projection is the North Pole or South Pole. Pilots use these maps to navigate. Often, the shortest distance between places is over one of the poles. What do you notice about the longitude and latitude lines? 21 Lesson 2 Regions of Our World Main Idea Geographers divide the world into regions in order to understand its complexity. Key Vocabulary region landform steppe tundra climate savanna In the spring of 1989, German students scrambled on top of a large concrete wall in Berlin. For years, the wall had divided their city. Now it was coming down. Tearing down the Berlin Wall meant the end of two regions — the countries of East and West Germany. These regions were not separated by mountains or rivers or even language. They were divided instead by politics. When the wall fell, so did the artificial barrier between the two nations. By 1990, Germany had become one again. PHYSICAL REGIONS Focus How do geographers define physical regions? A region is any area on the planet's surface that has a single common feature. Regions can be defined by physical characteristics, like mountains, or by the political allegiance or cultural identity of the people who live there. Dividing the earth into physical regions is one way to make sense of the natural world's incredible diversity. Physical regions are defined by one or more physical features such as landforms, animals and vegetation, or climate. ---German students wave the flag of a united Germany on the Berlin Wall. East German soldiers stand in the background. LANDFORMS One of the main building blocks of physical regions is the landform. A landform is a feature of the earth's surface. There are four types of landforms: mountains, valleys, plateaus, and plains. You can see what each of these landforms looks like in the illustrated diagram at the bottom of the opposite page. 22 A plateau (pla TOE) is a large, flat area that rises like a tabletop above the land around it. One large landform region is the Colorado Plateau; it stretches across parts of Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, and Arizona. A plain is a low, flat area of land that can cover thousands of miles. The Great Plains in the Midwest cover several states, making them one of this country's largest landform regions. ANIMALS AND VEGETATION Sometimes animals define a region. The koala, the kangaroo, and the wallaby are all members of the same family of animal, the marsupial. A pouch-bearing mammal, the marsupial is found almost exclusively on the continent of Australia. In this way, the presence of a type of animal helps set off Australia as a kind of physical region. Other animals, such as deer or mice, are found in certain areas on several continents. Vegetation — the plants that grow in a certain area — can also define a region. One vast plain covers part of Europe and Asia. This plain, called a steppe, was once completely covered with wild grasses. These grasses are what determines whether a given plain is a steppe. Similarly, Canada has huge regions covered with forests. Along the Arctic Circle is the tundra, a region with few or no trees. ---This koala and its baby are members of a family of animals that appear almost solely on the continent of Australia. ---The four types of landforms, shown below, are: mountains plains valleys plateaus 23 ---The Amazing Deep Deep beneath the waves lie dramatic landforms that would dwarf those on dry land. A few of these are indicated on the map at right. The Marianas Trench — 36,198 feet deep Mauna Kea — 33,480 feet tall Mid-ocean ridge — more than 30,000 miles long Curious Facts The wettest place on the planet is Mount Waialeale, Hawaii, where an average of 460 inches of rain falls every year. That's almost twice the annual rainfall of a tropical rain forest! CLIMATE Climate, or the typical weather condition of a given area, produces another pattern of regions. Two examples of regions defined by climate are deserts and savannas. Desert regions are extremely dry areas that receive less than 10 inches of rain per year. The Sahara, a desert in Africa, can get as little as one inch per year in some places. Temperatures there can easily jump past 100° F in the summer. At the same time, a savanna can get up to 60 inches of rain in a year, while being as hot as a desert. Because of the difference in rainfall, one area is practically barren while the other can be lush and green. The chart on the next page can give you an idea of how regions can be determined by climate, composed of temperature and precipitation. Looking carefully at the photographs next to the chart, you can also see how dramatically rainfall, or its absence, can affect a region. Note the differences in the plant and animal life in the two images. In addition, any location can belong to more than one type of physical region. A town in northern Maine might be considered part of a mountainous region in terms of landforms and part of a temperate region in terms of climate. At the same time, there are different types of desert or savanna depending on how much rain they get or how high their temperatures are. The type of savanna shown at right, for example, is a tropical savanna. 24 THE OCEAN FLOOR The map at left shows regions we can't see because they are below the ocean. Just like dry land, the ocean floor can be divided into physical regions. For example, the deep crevices in the ocean floor are regions known as trenches. One such trench, the Marianas, plunges more than seven miles below the surface of the Pacific Ocean. In the same ocean, the Hawaiian mountain Mauna Kea, if measured from base to peak, is taller than Mount Everest, the highest peak on land. The mid-ocean ridge, an underwater mountain chain, snakes more than 30,000 miles from the Arctic Ocean through the Atlantic, across the Pacific to the west coast of North America. This, too, is a physical region. Physical regions — whether based on landforms, vegetation, animals, or climate — are just one one way of dividing up the earth's area. Another equally important type of region is the human region. ---Below, the top photograph shows the Sahara. It has so little rainfall that almost nothing grows over most of the desert. The bottom photograph shows the savanna. As hot as the desert, the savanna receives large amounts of rain on a regular basis. Chart Skill: What climate factor changes between these two regions? What factor stays the same? --- see pictures and chart “Differences in Climate” on page 25 25 ---National borders are often difficult to monitor. This Canadian Mountie must protect his country's borders, which run for thousands of miles through difficult terrain and climate. Human Regions Focus How do people organize the world into human regions? A human region is an area defined by human activity. Whether it is an area in which people share a government, a language, a belief, or a culture, human regions are a vital part of geography. You're probably familiar with one common human region: a nation. The world has almost 190 nations. But nations can be broken down into even smaller human regions, such as a state, county, and town. A human region can also be larger than a nation. About 12 European countries have formed an alliance called the European Union (EU). More than 300 million people share a set of laws and close economic ties. Because Europeans also lead similar lifestyles, the EU can be said to share other connections, too. ---Human regions can easily change. Map Skill: How many years does this map cover? --- see map “Changing Borders: The Decline of the Ottoman Empire” on page 26 CHANGING REGIONS Human regions can change over time. The map below traces the Ottoman Empire as it shrank into what is now the modern nation of Turkey. Note that, as the borders of this empire dwindled, new nations sprang into being, while others increased in size. See, too, how the borders seemed to shift without regard to the physical features of the land. This is because borders were set according to political situa26 tions, national identities, or language differences of populations. Overlooking these important differences when setting national boundaries is a frequent source of conflict among peoples. No area of the globe is without political division of some kind. Even the high seas — symbol of freedom and adventure — are the subject of constant international squabbles. As countries look to the ocean for food, oil, and other natural resources, the question of who owns the sea and its riches becomes ever more fiercely debated. Ultimately, how regions are defined depends on who defines them and what they wish to accomplish. Defining regions helps geographers study the world. But defined regions are also necessary for nations and the people who live in them. The ability to keep track of how the earth's natural treasures are divided up depends on borders that can be made clear and distinct. Finally, and perhaps most importantly, defining human regions can also help us look at small groups of people and see the forces that shape their lives. This helps us to understand others. Now you should have a little better understanding of world geography. You're going to be a geographer, too, by studying the world's lands and people. You'll read how people lived in the past, how that history affects us today, and how you just might live tomorrow. ---The contest for control of the ocean's bounty has gone on since the first fishers set out to sea in rafts. Today, platform rigs like this one in the savage North Sea vie for the oil deep beneath the ocean floor. LESSON REVIEW: GEOGRAPHY 1. KEY VOCABULARY: Write a sentence about geography for each of these words: region, landform, steppe, tundra, climate, and savanna. 2. FOCUS: How do geographers define physical regions? 3. FOCUS: How do people organize the world into human regions? 4. CRITICAL THINKING: CLASSIFY Name or describe two regions — one physical and one human — that include your town. 5. THEME: PATTERNS IN DIVERSITY Regions can have many different things in common. What are some things regions might have in common that aren't mentioned in the text? 6. CITIZENSHIP/ART ACTIVITY: Make a collage about what makes the human region of the United States different from other human regions, and what it has in common with them. 27 Think Like a Geographer Places and Regions How Was the Soviet Union a Nation of Many Regions? For most of the twentieth century, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.) — also known as the Soviet Union — was the largest country in the world. Stretching some 6,000 miles (9,656 kilometers) from east to west, the U.S.S.R covered 11 time zones and made up more than one seventh of the world's total land area. Studying the regions of the Soviet Union clearly illustrates what a complex place it was. When viewed as a country, the U.S.S.R. could be considered a single region. But it actually contained dozens of overlapping human and physical regions. For example, each of the country's 15 republics was a separate political region. Each republic had different ethnic regions inside it. Because the U.S.S.R. spanned two continents, it also contained a European region and an Asian region. In addition, the U.S.S.R. contained many natural regions, including tundra, steppe (grasslands), mountains, and forests. 1. Latvia A Latvian Woman The U.S.S.R. contained more than 100 different ethnic groups. When it broke up in 1991, many groups that had been minorities in the U.S.S.R. — like Latvians — were the majority in the new countries. ---The natural geography of the U.S.S.R. contained great contrasts — from the mountains of Kazakhstan to the frozen plains of Siberia. 28 LANGUAGE ARTS CONNECTION In the U.S.S.R., as in many other countries, regional divisions contributed to differences in language. There were four major language groups in the country, and many smaller ones. While most of the population used Russian at least part of the time, many also spoke other languages, like Ukrainian, Armenian, or Kazakh. What are some different languages spoken by people in the United States? ---When the U.S.S.R. broke up in 1991, it created some unusual problems. Many people who considered themselves Russian found that they were living in a different country. Map Skill: After Russia, which of the 15 new nations was the largest? RESEARCH ACTIVITY The U.S.S.R was so big that each part of it could be divided into many smaller regions. 1. Choose a new country in the U.S.S.R. that interests you. 2. Make a list of that area's regions. Label the regions on your list as either physical regions or human regions. 3. Give an oral report about that area and its regions to the class. Explain how knowing about that area's regions can help you understand it better. 2. Moscow A Densely Populated City The population of the U.S.S.R. was not evenly distributed. More than twothirds of the people lived in the European region. What regions of the United States are the most densely populated? 29 From the Pages of countries of the World Languages Language is an important part of every culture. Language can unify people, but it can also divide them. Often a "stranger" is identified by the way he or she speaks. It's not likely that there will ever be just one language used everywhere on earth, but think how many problems could be solved if people everywhere were able to speak and understand the same language. Many people think that eventually, everyone on earth will be able to use and understand basic English. ---This map shows the chief language groups and where they are most widely spoken. Almost half the world's peoples speak Indo-European languages. This group originated among peoples living in the area from northern India to Europe. The world's people speak between 4,000 and 5,000 languages and dialects (local variations of a language). About 845 of these languages are spoken in India. The language spoken by the greatest number of people in the world is Mandarin Chinese. English is spoken in more countries than any other language. All languages change so long as people speak them. New words are added, others fall out of use. In a few hundred years, a language can change greatly. A language that is no longer spoken is called a dead language. 30 ALPHABETS ---An alphabet is a collection of letters or signs that stand for sounds in speech. Alphabets were developed from ancient picture-writing systems. The oldest letter is "0," unchanged in shape since it was used by the Phoenicians over 3,000 years ago. ---Egyptian hieroglyphs or picture-signs are about 5,000 years old. The earliest signs represented objects. --- see picture on page 31 THE WORLD'S MAJOR LANGUAGES Mandarin, or standardized northern Chinese, is spoken by more people than any other language. English is the language spoken in the most countries (Australia, Canada, the Caribbean, Ireland, New Zealand, the U.K., and the U.S.A.). English is also widely used in parts of Africa and Asia. Hindi is the most widely spoken language of India. Spanish and Portuguese are spoken in Latin America, as well as in Spain and Portugal. RESPONSE ACTIVITIES 1. Compare Words and Places How might looking at a globe showing the word's landforms help you understand why different languages formed? 2. Informative: Write a History Choose a present-day language. Research its history, then tell the story of where that language began and how it became a modern tongue. 3. Geography: Draw a Map Make your own fantasy map showing language regions. Include symbols showing how mountains, seas, or other obstacles divided off your regions. If you like, label your map with made-up names. 31 CHAPTER 1 Chapter Review SUMMARIZING THE MAIN IDEA 1. Copy the chart below and fill in the missing information to compare how different types of regions are defined. --- see chart on page 32 VOCABULARY 2. Using at least five of the following terms, write a letter to a geographer, explaining why you are qualified to be his or her assistant. atmosphere (p. 15) biosphere (p. 15) geography (p. 15) region (p. 22) Iandform (p. 22) steppe (p . 23) tundra (p. 23) climate (p. 24) savanna (p. 24) REVIEWING THE FACTS 3. What is the difference between the atmosphere 0 Name three ways physical regions can be and the biosphere? 4. What is the geographer's job, and how is it accomplished? 5. What is the difference between a thematic map and a reference map? Give some examples of each. 6. What is a region? Why do geographers divide the world into regions? 7. Name three ways physical regions can be defined, and give examples of each. 8. Define climate. 9. Describe some of the unique features of the ocean floor. 10. Name three ways human regions can be defined, and give examples of each. 32 SKILL REVIEW: Map Projections 11. What are the three map projections you learned about, and why are none of them completely accurate? 12. If you were a sea captain, which map projection would you use? GEOGRAPHY SKILLS 13. Look at the map of the ancient Inca roads on p. 17. The Inca Empire was a human region. Why do you think it had the shape it did? 14. Name three physical and two human regions that the area you live in belongs to. CRITICAL THINKING 15. Predict Describe what you think the world would be like if there were no oceans. 16. Cause and Effect Human regions are constantly changing. What do you think would cause physical regions to change? 17. Problem Solving You are a geographer and must divide your school into regions, both physical and human. How will you go about it? WRITING: Citizenship and Economics 18. Many nations are arguing over who owns the sea. Should the oceans belong to everyone? Or should they belong just to the nations whose coastlines border them? Write a letter to the United Nations and express your opinion. Activities GEOGRAPHY/RESEARCH ACTIVITY Many kinds of maps are mentioned in the chapter: temperature, navigational maps, and so on. Do research to find out what other kinds of maps there are. Bring in copies of different maps to share with the class. CULTURE/ARTS ACTIVITY Create a thematic map that reflects your personal or cultural heritage. This map can be a reflection of your own life, or a representation of your ancestry. Theme Project Check-In As you begin your theme project, use information you learned in this chapter about the things geographers study to understand places. What kind of maps will best represent your two locations? In what physical regions are these places located? What unique landforms, animals, and vegetation do they have? What is the climate in each place? In what human regions are these places located? Internet Option Check the Internet Social Studies Center for ideas on how to extend your theme project beyond your classroom. 33