Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Module V – Biodiversity conservation and management (6 hrs) Conservation strategies In situ, ex situ National parks, Sanctuaries and Biosphere reserves International efforts Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) IUCN- WCMC, UNEP Legal measures Wild life Protection Act, 1972 The Environment Protection Act, 1986 Forest (Conservation) Act1980, 1988 Biodiversity Act 2002 Biodiversity rule 2004 National biodiversity action plan People’s participation – Peoples biodiversity register (PBR) BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION STRATEGIES Biodiversity is essential for maintaining the ecological functions, including stabilizing of the water cycle, maintenance and replenishment of soil fertility, pollination and crossfertilization of crops and other vegetation, protection against soil erosion and stability of food producing and other ecosystems. Conservation of biological diversity leads to conservation of essential ecological diversity to preserve the continuity of food chains. Biodiversity provides the base for the livelihoods, cultures and economies of several hundred millions of people, including farmers, fisher folk, forest dwellers and artisans. It provides raw material for a diverse medicinal and health care systems. It also provides the genetic base for the continuous up-gradation of agriculture, fisheries, and for critical discoveries in scientific, industrial and other sectors. The rapid erosion of biodiversity in the last few decades has impacted on the health of the land, water bodies and people. The very survival of the human race is dependent on conservation of biodiversity. It is evident that this invaluable heritage is being destroyed at an alarming rate due to several reasons. Measures are being taken up at national and international levels to address this issue. The Earth Summit produced a plan of action on a number of issues (Agenda 21) including conservation of biodiversity during the 21st century. Conservation and sustainable use of biological resources 1 based on local knowledge systems and practices is ingrained in Indian ethos. The country has a number of alternative medicines, like Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha and Homeopathic systems which are predominantly based on plant based raw materials in most of their preparations and formulations. Herbal preparations for various purposes including pharmaceutical and cosmetic form part of traditional biodiversity uses in India. Spellerberg and Hardes (1992) stated that biodiversity conservation aims to ‘‘maintain the diversity of living organisms, their habitats and the interrelationships between organisms and their environment.’’ Article 2 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD, 1992) provides the following definition of these categories: Ex situ conservation means the conservation of components of biological diversity outside theirnatural habitats. In situ conservation means the conservation of ecosystems and natural habitats and the maintenance and recovery of viable populations of species in their natural surroundings and, in the case of domesticates or cultivated species, in the surroundings where they have developed their distinctive properties. There is an obvious fundamental difference between these two strategies: ex situ conservation involves the sampling, transfer, and storage of target taxa from the target area, whereas in situ conservation involves the designation, management, and monitoring of target taxa where they are encountered. The two basic be further subdivided into the following specific techniques: Ex Situ Seed/embryo storage In vitro storage Semen/ovule/pollen/DNA storage Field gene bank/livestock parks Botanic/zoological garden In Situ Genetic reserve On-farm 2 conservation strategies may I. Ex-situ Conservation Ex-situ conservation of plants and animals preserve/ or protect them away from their natural habitat. This could be in zoological parks and botanical gardens or through the forestry institutions and agricultural research centres. A lot of effort is under way to collect and preserve the genetic material of crops, animal, bird and fish species. In India, this work is being done by institutions such as the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi, the National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources, etc. Reintroduction of an animal or plant into the habitat from where it has become extinct is another form of ex situ conservation. For example, the Gangetic gharial has been reintroduced in the rivers of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan where it had become extinct. Seed banks, botanical, horticultural and recreational gardens are important centres for ex-situ conservation. Ex-situ conservation measures complement in-situ conservation. 1. Seed/Embryo Storage Conservation Ex situ seed/embryo collection and storage is the most convenient and widely used method of genetic conservation. Seeds and embryos are the natural dispersal, storage, or generative organs for the majority of species. This technique involves collecting samples from individuals or populations and then transferring them to a gene bank for storage, usually at subzero temperatures. The procedure used for the bulk of orthodox-seeded plant species is to dry the seeds or embryos to a suitable moisture content (5–6%) before freezing at 200C, but this method is only suitable for species that can be dried and stored at low temperature without losing viability. The advantages of this technique are that it is efficient and reproducible, and feasible for short-, medium-, and long-term secure storage. However, the disadvantages are that there are problems in storing recalcitrant-seeded plant species. The latter species cannot be dried and frozen in the way used for orthodox seeds, because they rarely produce seed or are normally clonally propagated 2. Botanical/Zoological Garden Conservation Historically, botanical or zoological gardens were often associated with physic or medicinal gardens or displays of single specimens of zoological curiosities, and as such they did not attempt to reflect the genetic diversity of the species. These gardens now hold living collections of species that were collected in a particular location and moved to the garden to be 3 conserved. The advantage of this method is that gardens do not have the same constraints as many other conservation agencies; they have the freedom to focus on wild species that may otherwise not be given sufficient priority for conservation. Yet there are two disadvantages to this technique. The first is that the number of species that can be genetically conserved in a botanical or zoological garden will always be limited because of the available space. The majority of these gardens are located in urban areas in temperate countries, and at their present sites most expansion would be prohibitively expensive. The majority of botanical and animal diversity is located in tropical climates, yet because most botanical and zoological gardens are in temperate countries, the collections must be kept in expensive greenhouses or other facilities, which also limits the space available. The second disadvantage is related to the first, namely, very few individuals of each species can be held, and this severely restricts the range of genetic diversity found in the wild that is protected. However, if the target species is very near extinction and only one or two specimens remain extant, this objection of course does not hold 3. In Vitro Conservation In vitro conservation involves the maintenance of explants in a sterile, pathogen-free environment, and it is widely used for vegetatively propagated and recalcitrant-seeded species. This method offers an alternative to field gene banks. It involves the establishment of tissue cultures of accessions on nutrient agar and their storage under controlled conditions of either slow or suspended growth. The main advantage is that it offers a solution to the long-term conservation problems of recalcitrant, sterile, or clonally propagated species. The main disadvantages are the risk of somaclonal variation, the need to develop individual maintenance protocols for the majority of species, and the relatively high-level technology and high cost required. The best answer for cheap, long-term in vitro conservation in the future may be cryopreservation (Hoyt, 1988), that is, the storage of frozen tissue cultures at very low temperatures, for example, in liquid nitrogen at 1960C. If this technique can be perfected to reduce the damage caused by freezing and thawing, it may be possible to preserve materials indefinitely. 4. Field Gene Bank/Livestock Park Conservation 4 The conservation of germplasm in field gene banks or livestock parks involves the collecting of plant or animal specimens from one location and the transfer and conservation at a second site. It has traditionally been the method for recalcitrant- (whose seeds cannot be dried and frozen without loss of viability) or sterile-seeded plant species or for those species for which it is preferable to store clonal material. Field gene banks are commonly used for species such as cocoa, rubber, coconut, mango, coffee, banana, cassava, sweet potato, and yam. Livestock parks or rare breed centers, as distinct from zoos, emphasize captive breeding programs and therefore genetic conservation. The advantages of field gene banks and livestock parks are that the species are easily accessible for utilization and evaluation can be undertaken while the material is being conserved. The disadvantages are that the material is restricted in terms of genetic diversity, is susceptible to pests, disease, and vandalism, and may require large areas of land. 5. Pollen/Semen/Ovule/DNA Conservation The storage of pollen grains is possible under appropriate conditions that allow their subsequent use for crossing with living plant material. It may also be possible in the future to regenerate haploid plants routinely from pollen cultures. The development of artificial insemination techniques in recent years has made semen and ovule storage routine, especially for domesticated animals. The storage of DNA under prescribed conditions can easily and inexpensively be achieved given the appropriate level of technology, but the regeneration of entire organisms from DNA cannot be envisaged at present, although single or small numbers of genes could subsequently be utilized. The advantage of pollen storage is that it is low cost and simple, but the disadvantage is that only paternal material would be conserved, and with DNA storage there are problems with subsequent gene isolation, cloning, and transfer. II. In-situ Conservation 1. On-Farm Conservation Farmer-based conservation involves the maintenance of traditional crop or animal breeds or cultivation systems by farmers within traditional agricultural systems. On traditional farms, what are generally known as ‘‘land-races’’ of plants are sown and harvested, and each season the farmers keep a proportion of harvested seed for re-sowing. Traditional breeds of domestic animal 5 are maintained by inter-breeding within and between local village stocks. Thus the land-race or breed is highly adapted to the local environment and is likely to contain locally adapted alleles that may prove useful for specific breeding programs. Home garden plant conservation is a closely related variant of on-farm conservation of landraces but on a smaller scale. It involves the cultivation of more species-diverse material in home, kitchen, backyard, or door-yard gardens. These home gardens focus on medicinal, flavoring, and vegetable species (e.g., tomatoes, peppers, digitalis, mint, thyme, parsley). The overall advantage of the on-farm technique is that it ensures the maintenance of highly adapted landraces and breeds and those wild species that traditional agriculture often depends on. 2. Genetic Reserve Conservation Conservation of wild species in a genetic reserve involves the location, designation, management, and monitoring of genetic diversity in a particular natural location. The established natural habitats are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Protected areas Wildlife sanctuaries National parks Tiger reserves Community reserves Biosphere reserves Protected Area A protected area is a clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values. (IUCN definition). Wildlife sanctuaries Wildlife sanctuaries are mainly intended to ensure natural conditions necessary to protect nationally significant species, biotic communities or physical features of the environment where these require specific human manipulation for their perpetuation. Each sanctuary has separate management plan and the extent of the sanctuary has been divided into zones with specific management prescriptions. Buffer zone will have limited forestry activity, tourism zone will 6 have tourist visit facilities and core zone will be the sanctum sanctorum and will not have activity except research and monitoring. The protection afforded to the sanctuaries has produced salutary effect on the increase of wild animal population. National Parks National Parks are large natural or near natural areas set aside to protect large-scale ecological processes, along with the complement of species and ecosystems characteristic of the area, which also provide a foundation for environmentally and culturally compatible, spiritual, scientific, educational, recreational, and visitor opportunities. The first such initiative was the establishment of the Corbett National Park in 1936. National Parks are highly protected by law. No human habitation, private land holding or traditional human activity such as firewood collection or grazing is allowed within the park. Tiger reserve Tiger reserves are constituted for giving special protection to the highly endangered tiger species which once abounded the forests in the country. Since the population has started dwindling it was found necessary to afford special protection to this species. Accordingly many protected areas, where tiger population was found satisfactory, were brought under the 'Project Tiger’. In Kerala Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary and Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary has been selected and declared as 'Tiger Reserves’. Community Reserve An area is declared as community reserve by the State Government for protecting flora and fauna, traditional or cultural heritage or values in the interests of an individual or society, in areas where there is no wildlife protection centre. Biosphere Reserves The idea of `Biosphere Reserves’ was initiated by UNESCO in 1973-74 under its Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme. Biosphere reserves are special environments for both people and the nature and are living examples of how human beings and nature can co-exist while 7 respecting each others’ needs. These areas are internationally recognized within the framework of UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere (MAB) programme, after receiving consent of the participating country. The world’s major ecosystem types and landscapes are represented in this network. Under this, a large area is declared as a Biosphere Reserve where wildlife is protected, but local communities are allowed to continue to live and pursue traditional activities within the Reserve. The Government of India has set up seven biosphere reserves: Nokrek (Meghalaya), Nilgiri (Kamataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu), Namdapha (Arunachal Pradesh), Nanda Devi (Uttar Pradesh), Sundarbans (West Bengal), Great Nicobar (Andaman & Nicobar Islands), Gulf of Mannnar (Tamil Nadu). Objectives: It may be noted that BRs are not a substitute or alternative, but a re-enforcement to the existing protected areas. The objectives of the Biosphere Reserve programme, as envisaged by the Core Group of Experts, are as follows: To conserve the diversity and integrity of plants and animals within natural ecosystems; To safeguard genetic diversity of species on which their continuing evolution depends; To provide areas for multi-faceted research and monitoring; To provide facilities for education and training; and To ensure sustainable use of natural resources through most appropriate technology for improvement of economic well-being of the local people. These objectives should be oriented in such a way that the BRs are the Units wherein the Biological, socio-economic and cultural dimension of conservation are integrated together into a realistic conservation strategy. Structure and Design of Biosphere Reserves: In order to undertake complementary activities of biodiversity conservation and development of sustainable management aspects, Biosphere Reserves are demarcated into three inter-related zones. These are (I) natural or core zone (ii) manipulation or buffer zone and (iii) A transition zone outside the buffer zone. 8 The Core Zone: The core zone is kept absolutely undisturbed. It must contain suitable habitat for numerous plant and animal species, including higher order predators and may contain centres of endemism. Core areas often conserve the wild relatives of economic species and also represent important genetic reservoirs. The core zones also contain places of exceptional scientific interest. A core zone secures legal protection and management and research activities that do not affect natural processes and wildlife are allowed. Strict nature reserves and wilderness portions of the area are designated as core areas of BR. The core zone is to be kept free from all human pressures external to the system. The Buffer Zone: In the Buffer Zone, which adjoins or surrounds core zone, uses and activities are managed in ways that protect the core zone. These uses and activities include restoration, demonstration sites for enhancing value addition to the resources, limited recreation, tourism, fishing and grazing, which are permitted to reduce its effect on core zone. Research and educational activities are to be encouraged. Human activities, if natural within BR, are likely to be permitted to continue if these do not adversely affect the ecological diversity. The Transition Zone: The Transition Zone is the outermost part of a Biosphere Reserve. This is usually not delimited one and is a zone of cooperation where conservation, knowledge and management skills are applied and uses are managed in harmony with the purpose of the Biosphere Reserve. This includes settlements, crop lands, managed forests and area for intensive recreation, and other economic uses characteristic of the region. In Buffer Zone and the Transition Zones, manipulative macro-management practices are used. Experimental research areas are used for understanding the patterns and processes in the ecosystem. Modified or degraded landscapes are included as rehabilitation areas to restore the ecology in a way that it returns to sustainable productivity. It may be noted that the BR is not intended to replace existing protected areas but it widens the scope of conventional approach of protection and further strengthens the Protected Area Network. Existing legally protected areas (National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuary, Tiger Reserve and reserve/protected forests) may become part of the BR without any change in their legal status. On the other hand, inclusion of such areas in a BR will enhance their national value. 9 It, however, does not mean that Biosphere Reserves are to be established only around the National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries. Protective areas in India For management and protection of wildlife and their habitat, protected area (PA) network consisting of National Parks (NP) and Wildlife (WL) Sanctuaries has been created in India covering the forests with relatively large populations of the target species and associated ecological components. First national park in India was declared in 1935, now famous as the Corbett National Park. Since then there has been a steady rise in the number of PAs and National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries after the enactment of the Wildlife Protection Act in 1972. In 1988, there were 54 national parks and 372 sanctuaries covering a total area of 109,652 sq km. By the year 2000, this number had increased to 566, covering 1, 53,000 sq km, or 4.66% of India's geographical area. There are currently 668 national parks and sanctuaries in India, encompassing 1, 61,221 sq. Km. country's geographical area. Protected areas are categorised as National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves. Apart from the protected areas system mandated under the Wildlife Protection Act (WPA) 1972, certain areas have also been declared as biosphere reserves by the Government of India. The purpose of the formation of the biosphere reserve is to conserve in situ all forms of life, along with its support system, in its totality, so that it could serve as a referral system for monitoring and evaluating changes in natural ecosystems. In all India have 512 Wildlife Sanctuaries 93 National Parks and 63 Zoos. Sl. No.. Category Sl Nos. Area.km 1 National park 102 39,888 2 Wildlife sanctuaries 515 1,19,930 3 Conservation reserves 47 1,382 4 Community reserves 4 21 Total 668 161221 Name of Sanctuaries & National Parks Area in 10 Year of District Km2. Formation 1 Periyar Tiger Reserve 925 1950 Idukki 2 Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary 128 1958 Thiruvananthpuram 3 Peechi - Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary 125 1958 Thrissur 4 Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary 285 1973 Palakkad 5 Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary 344.44 1973 Wayanad 6 Idukki Wildlife Sanctuary 70 1976 Idukki 7 Eravikulam National Park 97 1978 Idukki 8 Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary 53 1983 Thiruvananthpuram 9 Thattekkad Bird Sanctuary 25 1983 Ernakulam 10 Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuary 171 1984 Kollam 11 Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary 90.44 1984 Idukki 12 Chimmony Wildlife Sanctuary 85 1984 Thrissur 13 Silent Valley National Park 89.52 1984 Palakkad 14 Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary 55 1984 Kannur 15 Pampadum Shola National Park 1.318 2003 Idukki 16 Mathikettan Shola National Park 12.817 2003 Idukki 17 Anamudi Shola National Park 7.5 2003 Idukki 18 Mangalavanam Bird Sanctuary 0.027 2004 Ernakulam 19 Kurinjimala Sanctuary 32 2006 Idukki 20 Choolannur Pea Fowl Sanctuary 3.42 2007 Palakkad 21 Kadalundi Vallikunnu Community Reserve 1.5 2007 Kozhikkode&Malappuram 22 Malabar Wildlife Sanctuary 74.215 2010 Kozhikkode TOTAL AREA 2835.0284 1 Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve 1,701.00 2002 2 Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve 1,455.40 1986 Marine protected areas in India India has large coastal wetlands which cover an area of over 40,230 km . Among various types of marine ecosystems, tidal mudflats, mangroves, estuaries, lagoons, beaches, marshes, vegetated wetlands and coral reefs have a major share. A total of 97 major estuaries, 34 major lagoons, 31 mangroves areas and 5 coral reef areas have been mapped and identified in India for conservation and sustainable use. There are a total of 31 Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in India, primarily in marine environment, which cover a total area of 6271.2 km with an average size of 202.1 km 2. 11 Other Projects Several special projects have also been launched to save certain animal species which have been identified as needing concerted protection effort. These projects are designed to protect the species in situ, by protecting and conserving their natural habitat. Project Elephant, Save the Barasingha campaign are examples of this initiative. Other strategies include offloading pressure from reserve forests by alternative measures of fuel wood and fodder need satisfaction by afforestation of degraded areas and wastelands. A programme "Eco-development" for in-situ conservation of biological diversity involving local communities was initiated. It integrates the ecological and economic parameters for sustained conservation of ecosystems by involving local communities with maintenance of earmarked regions surrounding protected areas. Approximately, 4.2 % of the total geographical area of the country has been earmarked for extensive in-situ conservation of habitats and ecosystems. A protected area network of 85 national parks and 448 wildlife sanctuaries has been created. The results of this network have been significant in restoring viable population of large mammals such as tiger, lion, rhinoceros, crocodiles and elephants. International Conservation Strategies Conserving biodiversity is not an issue confined to any one country or community. It is a crucial global concern. Several international treaties and agreements are in place in the attempt to strengthen international participation and commitment towards conserving biodiversity. Some of these are: IUCN IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature, helps the world find pragmatic solutions to our most pressing environment and development challenges. IUCN’s work focuses on valuing and conserving nature, ensuring effective and equitable governance of its use, and deploying nature-based solutions to global challenges in climate, food and development. IUCN supports scientific research, manages field projects all over the world, and brings governments, NGOs, the UN and companies together to develop policy, laws and best practice. 12 IUCN is the world’s oldest and largest global environmental organisation, with more than 1,200 government and NGO Members and almost 11,000 volunteer experts in some 160 countries. IUCN’s work is supported by over 1,000 staff in 45 offices and hundreds of partners in public, NGO and private sectors around the world. IUCN at a glance 1. Founded in 1948 as the world’s first global environmental organisation 2. Today the largest professional global conservation network 3. A leading authority on the environment and sustainable development 4. More than 1,200 member organizations including 200+ government and 900+ nongovernment organizations 5. Almost 11,000 voluntary scientists and experts, grouped in six Commissions in some 160 countries 6. The Union’s headquarters are located in Gland, near Geneva, in Switzerland. 7. A neutral forum for governments, NGOs, scientists, business and local communities to find practical solutions to conservation and development challenges 8. Thousands of field projects and activities around the world 9. Governance by a Council elected by member organizations every four years at the IUCN World Conservation Congress 10. Funded by governments, bilateral and multilateral agencies, foundations, member organisations and corporations 11. Official Observer Status at the United Nations General Assembly 12. Conserving biodiversity is central to the mission of IUCN The IUCN Red List Categories The IUCN Red List is a catalogue of taxa that are facing the risk of extinction. It is important to understand that the Red List aims to impart information about the urgency and scale of conservation problems to the public and policy makers. The uses of the Red Lists are: (1) Developing awareness about the importance of threatened biodiversity; (2) identification and documentation of endangered species; (3) providing a global index of the decline of biodiversity; (4) defining conservation priorities at the local level and guiding conservation action. 13 The World Conservation Union (formerly known as International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, IUCN) has recognized eight Red List Categories of species: Extinct, Extinct in the Wild, Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable, Lower Risk, Data Deficient, and Not Evaluated. The species which are threatened with extinction are included in Vulnerable, Endangered, or Critically Endangered category. Species with small world populations that are not at present endangered or vulnerable but are at risk are called rare. These species are usually localized within restricted geographical areas or habitats or are thinly scattered over a more extensive range. The IUCN Red List System was initiated in 1963 and since then evaluation of the conservation status of species and subspecies is continuing on a global scale. The 2000 IUCN Red List is the most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status ofplant and animal species. It uses a set of criteria, relevant to all species and all regions of the world, to evaluate the extinction risk of species and subspecies. The 2000 Red List contains assessments of more than 18,000 species, 11,000 of which are threatened. The Red List also provides information to international agreements such as the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. Status of threatened species There are 11,046 species (5,485 animals, and 5,611 plants) listed as threatened (Critically Endangered, Endangered, or Vulnerable) on the 2000 Red List. Of these, 1,939 are listed as Critically Endangered (925 animals, and 1,014 plants). The percentages of threatened species of Angiosperms and four vertebrate groups categorized as Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable and at Lower Risk are shown in Figure 4.5 Of the species evaluated for risk in these major groups, 17-22% are critically endangered, and 34-51% are vulnerable. According to the Red List, in India, 44 plant species are critically endangered, 113 endangered and 87 vulnerable. Amongst animals, 18 are critically endangered, 54 endangered and 143 vulnerable. The IUCN Threat Categories A taxon is Extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died. 14 A taxon is Extinct in the wild when exhaustive surveys in known and/or expected habitats, have failed to record an individual. A taxon is Critically Endangered when it is facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild in the immediate future. A taxon is Endangered when it is not Critically Endangered but is facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild in the near future. A taxon is Vulnerable when it is not Critically Endangered or Endangered, but is facing a high risk of extinction in the wild in the medium-term future. A taxon is Lower Risk when it has been evaluated and does not satisfy the criteria for Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable. A taxon is Data Deficient when there is inadequate information to make a direct, or indirect, assessment of its risk of extinction. A taxon is Not Evaluated when it has not yet been assessed against the above criteria. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): The CBD (United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity) is an international treaty that came into force on December 29, 1993. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) changed the fundamental concept of ownership of “biodiversity” from the “common heritage of humankind” to the “sovereign right” of each country. The convention has three main objectives: 1. The conservation of biological diversity 2. The sustainable use of the components of biological diversity 3. The fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources The CBD requires all member states to develop a national biodiversity strategy and action plan as the primary mechanism for the implementation of its strategic plan. To date, 172 of the 193 signatory countries have adopted their plans or equivalent instruments (CBD 2011). The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES): This is an international treaty which is designed to protect wild plants and animals affected by international trade. The treaty, in force since 1975, controls the export, import and reexport of endangered and threatened wildlife. 15 The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance: This Convention, also known as the Ramsar Convention, was signed in Ramsar (Iran) in 1971 and came into force in December 1975. It provides a framework for international cooperation for the conservation of wetland habitats which have been designated to the 'List of Wetlands of International Importance'. Legal measures Formal policies and programmes for conservation and sustainable utilisation of biodiversity resources dates back to several decades. The concept of environmental protection is enshrined in the Indian constitution in articles 48a and 51a (g). Major central acts relevant to biodiversity include: 1. Wild life Protection Act, 1972 2. The Environment Protection Act, 1986 3. Forest (Conservation) Act1980, 1988 4. The Coastal Regulation Zone Act 1991 5. Biodiversity Act 2002 6. Biodiversity rule 2004 The various central Acts are supported by a number of State laws and statutes concerning forests and other natural resources. The policies and strategies directly relevant to biodiversity include National Forest Policy amended in 1988, National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement for Environment and Sustainable Development, National Agricultural Policy, National Land Use Policy, National Fisheries Policy, National Policy and Action Strategy on Biodiversity, National Wildlife Action Plan and Environmental Action Plan. Wild life Protection Act 1972 It was enacted in 1972 1. Objectives area. To protect the wild animals, Birds and plants (rare and fast disappearing sps.) b. Provides restrictions in trade of animals and animal products like horns, skins, hides and so on. c. Regional offices of the wild life directorate (Mumbai, Kolkatha, New Delhi and Chennai) are responsible for the enforcement of the Act. 2. Salient features a. Section 9 of the Act prohibits hunting of all wild life specified in schedules I,II,III and IV of the Act 16 b. Hereafter hunting, trapping, licenses cannot be issued for any of these species, where already issued, such licenses are to be cancelled c. Bans commercial felling and exploitation of wildlife in sanctuaries and national parks d. Fresh fire arm licences will not be issued to persons residing within ten kilometers of a sanctuary without the concurrence of the CWW of the state. e. The vehicles, vessels, weapons etc. used for committing an offence under the Act will be seized and will become Govt property. f. Trade in imported ivory and products carved from it are banned with effect from 2 April 1992. g. Transportation of wild life or products is banned except those with permission of the CWW or authorized officers. h. Setting up of a Zoo Authority of India- will monitor and make improvements in the condition of Indian Zoos. i. The Act was amended in 1991 so as to make it more effective and free from loopholes with effect from 2 October. j. As per the amendment Act, non officials can directly take instances of violation of this Act to the court. Earlier they would report the matter to the officials. k. Any person or NGO can give a notice to the CWW of the state or the Central Govt. and if action is not taken within 60 days, a case can be filed in a competent court of law. Environment (Protection) act 1986 1. Background: Bhopal Disaster in 1984 claiming over 3000 lives. 2. Came into force in whole India on 19 November 1986 3. Section 3-the central Govt shall have the power to take all such measures for purpose of protecting and improving the quality of the environment and preventing, controlling and abating environmental pollution. 4. Only 11 pages with 26 sections, and four chapters 5. Chapter I preliminary 6. Chapter II general powers of central Govt. 7. Chapter III prevention, control and abatement of pollution 8. Chapter IV miscellaneous provisions and rule making power of Central govt. 9. SECTION 3-Proteting and improving the quality of the environment and preventing, controlling and abating environment pollution. 10. Environment means- water, air, land, exists between water, air, human beings, microorganisms and property. 11. May lay down standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants from various sources 12. Section 5-issue directions in writing to any person, officer or authority and such authority is bound to comply with such directions. 13. Power to direct the closure, prohibition or regulation of any industry operation or process or stoppage or regulation of the supply of electricity or water or any other service. 17 14. Empowers the central govt to make rules necessary in respect of all or any of the matters relating to the protection of the environment. 15. Section 9- imposes a duty on every person to take steps to prevent or minimize the environmental pollution 16. Section 15- imposing penalties on the violation of any provision of the Act or the direction issued under the Act. 17. The right to approach a court of law, in the event of the violation of any of the provisions in the Act. 18. Amendments 19. Ist amendment in 1987 (Rule 1) 20. Manufacturers rules 1989 ( manufacture, storage, import of hazardous chemicals) 21. Hazardous waste rules 1989 22. Rules for manufacture, use, import, export and storage of hazardous microorganisms or genetically modified organisms or cells 1989. 23. The coastal zone regulation notification 1991 24. Environment audit/statement rule, 1993. Forest (Conservation) Act 1980 1. The Indian forest Act of 1927 was adopted to consolidate the law relating to forests, including reserved forests, village forests, protected forests and Non-governmental forests. 2. With a view to strengthen the protection measures, the forest (Conservation) ordinance of 1980 was adopted which required prior approval of the central govt. for de-reservation of forests and use of forests land for non-forest purpose. 3. Provision for the constitution of an advisory committee. 4. The ordinance was replaced by the forest (conservation) Act 1980 and is applicable to whole of India except Jammu and Kashmir. 5. The entire power of diversion of forest land has been withdrawn from state authorities and vested in central authorities; only the forest management rests with the state government. 6. It is directly helpful in maintaining the ecosystems and the biological diversity. The Coastal Regulation Zone Act 1991 The Coastal Regulation Zone Act 1991 was enacted by the Government of India to protect the Indian coasts from degradation. The area influenced by tidal action up to 500 m from High Tide Line (HTL) and the land between the Low Tide Line (LTL) and the HTL has been declared as Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ). As per classification system of the CRZ, coastal zone has been divided into four categories for regulating developmental activities and conserving marine ecosystems: 1. CRZ Category-I Ecologically sensitive areas like mangroves, coral reefs, marine national parks and sanctuaries between LTL and HTL. 18 2. CRZ Category-II Developed areas close to shore mainly urban or built-up area. 3. CRZ Category-III Undistributed areas and those areas, which do not belong to Category-I and II. 4. CRZ Category-IV Coastal stretches in Andaman and Nicobar, Lakshadweep and small islands. Biological Diversity Act, 2002 India is party to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) 1992 which recognizes the sovereign rights of states to use their own Biological Resources. In order to help in realizing the objectives of CBD, India has enacted an umbrella legislation called the biological Diversity Act 2002(No.18 of 2003) aimed at conservation of biological resources and associated knowledge as well as facilitating access to them in a sustainable manner and through a just process. Salient features:1. To regulate access to biological resources of the country with the purpose of securing equitable share in benefits arising out of the use of biological resources; and associated knowledge relating to biological resources; 2. To conserve and sustainably use biological diversity; 3. To respect and protect knowledge of local communities related to biodiversity; 4. To secure sharing of benefits with local people as conservers of biological resources and holders of knowledge and information relating to the use of biological resources; 5. Conservation and development of areas of importance from the standpoint of biological diversity by declaring them as biological diversity heritage sites; 6. Protection and rehabilitation of threatened species; 7. Involvement of institutions of state governments in the broad scheme of the implementation of the Biological Diversity Act through constitution of committees. National Biodiversity Authority In exercise of the powers conferred by Sub-Section (1) (4) of Section 8 of the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 (18 of 2003), the Central Government has established a body called the National Biodiversity Authority, on and from the 1st day of October, 2003. The main functions of the Authority are: 19 1. To lay down procedures and guidelines to govern the activities provided under Section 3, 4, and 6. (Permission to foreigners/NRI’s foreign companies) a) For obtaining any biological resource (Section -3). b) For transferring the results of any research (Section -4). c) Certain collaborative research projects exempted (Section 5). 2. To advice the Government of India. Specific areas mentioned as per the Act are the following: a) Notifications of threatened species (Section -38). b) Designate institutions as repositories for different categories of biological resources (Section -39). c) Exempt certain biological resources, normally traded as commodities (Section -40) 3. To encourage setting up State Biodiversity Boards 4. To build up database and documentation system 5. To create awareness through mass media a) Training of personnel b) Necessary measures in the areas of Intellectual Propriety Rights. Community Participation in Biodiversity Conservation It is being recognized that no legal provisions can be effective unless local communities are involved in planning, management and monitoring conservation programmes. There are several initiatives to do this, both by government as well as non-governmental organizations. For example, the Joint Forest Management philosophy stresses involvement of village communities in regenerating and protecting degraded forest land in the vicinity of villages. Successful conservation strategies will have to have the confidence and participation of the local communities. Recording Indigenous Knowledge The lives of local communities are closely interwoven with their environment, and are dependent upon their immediate resources for meeting their needs. These communities have a vast knowledge about local flora and fauna which is very important for biodiversity conservation. Much of this knowledge is orally passed on from generation to generation. Such 20 indigenous knowledge needs to be recorded and preserved before it is lost. Several organizations have recognized this and are working to record the knowledge and preserve it for posterity. Biodiversity Register Students can inventory and maintain records of all living beings in their locality. A biodiversity register is a compilation of day-to-day observations of the immediate environment. It is a documentation of knowledge of diversity of life known to local people. It is a means of recording the wealth of biodiversity of a region. The register may include minute details about plants and animals, both wild and domesticated. The record may include traditional knowledge regarding use of the various species. A biodiversity register has many uses. It helps make the complete inventory of all organisms of an area. It makes us familiar with the biodiversity of an area. It helps understand the inter-linkages between plants and animals and the direct and indirect benefits they offer to humans. It allows us to analyze the reasons for depletion of biodiversity and plan conservation measures. Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) is an internationally recognized program addressing threatened species and habitats and is designed to protect and restore biological systems. The original impetus for these plans derives from the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). As of 2009, 191 countries have ratified the CBD, but only a fraction of these have developed substantive Biodiversity Action Plan documents. The principal elements of a BAP typically include (a) preparing inventories of biological information for selected species or habitats; (b) assessing the conservation status of species within specified ecosystems; (c) creation of targets for conservation and restoration; and (d) establishing budgets, timelines and institutional partnerships for implementing the BAP. Keystone species is a species that has a disproportionate effect on its environment relative to its biomass. Such species plays a critical role in maintaining the structure of an ecological community, affecting many other organisms in an ecosystem and helping to determine the types and numbers of various other species in the community. 21 Umbrella species are species selected for making conservation related decisions, typically because protecting these species indirectly protects the many other species that make up the ecological community of its habitat. Umbrella species can be used to help select the locations of potential reserves, find the minimum size of these conservation areas or reserves, and to determine the composition, structure and processes of ecosystems. Flagship species is a species chosen to represent an environmental cause, such as an ecosystem in need of conservation. These species are chosen for their vulnerability, attractiveness or distinctiveness in order to engender support and acknowledgment from the public at large. Thus, the concept of a flagship species holds that by giving publicity to a few key species, the support given to those species will successfully leverage conservation of entire ecosystems and all species contained therein. Examples of flagship species include the Asiatic lion and the Bengal tiger of India, the giant panda of China, the golden lion tamarin of Brazil, the African elephant, the mountain gorilla of central Africa, the polar bear of Canada, and the orangutan of southeast Asia Biodiversity Institutes and Regional Information Centres ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity (ACB) Central African Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE) CIFOR (Centre for International Forestry Research) Conabio (Comisión nacional para el conocimiento y uso de la biodiversidad) European Centre for Nature Conservation IISD International Institute for Nature Conservation (ECNC) INBio - Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad, Costa Rica IPGRI (International Plant Genetics Resources Institute) NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (USA) Smithsonian Institute (Monitoring and Assessment of Biodiversity) South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (Panama) The Natural Resources Institute (UK) International Biodiversity Non-governmental Organizations BirdLife International Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) Conservation International Earthwatch Institute Fauna and Flora International (FFI) 22 Global Coral Reef Alliance IUCN - The World Conservation Union Plantlife Species Survival Commission TRAFFIC The Nature Conservancy Wetlands International World Resources Institute World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) Intergovernmental Organizations and Programmes United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) International Tropical Timber Organization (IITO) International Whaling Commission South Asia Co-operative Environmental Programme Biodiversity Information Networks Canadian Biodiversity Information Network GBIF - Global Biodiversity Information Facility an initiative of the OECD Megascience Form Working Group on Biological Informatics NBII National Biodiversity Information Infrastructure ODINCARSA Ocean Data and Information Network for IOCARIBE and South America ODINAFRICA Ocean Data and Information Network for Africa Small Islands Information Network SIDSnet (Small Islands Developing States Network) GCRMN The Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network ICRAN International Coral Reef Action Network ICRI International Coral Reef Initiative United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is an agency of the United Nations that coordinates its environmental activities, assisting developing countries in implementing environmentally sound policies and practices. It was founded by Maurice Strong, as a result of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in June 1972 and has its headquarters in the Gigiri neighborhood of Nairobi, Kenya. UNEP also has six regional offices and various country offices. Its activities cover a wide range of issues regarding the atmosphere, marine and terrestrial ecosystems, environmental governance and green economy. It has played a significant role in 23 developing international environmental conventions, promoting environmental science and information and illustrating the way those can be implemented in conjunction with policy, working on the development and implementation of policy with national governments, regional institutions in conjunction with environmental non-governmental organizations (NGOs). UNEP has also been active in funding and implementing environment related development projects. World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) The UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre was established in 2000 as the world biodiversity information and assessment centre of the United Nations Environment Programme. In 1988 the independent, non-profit World Conservation Monitoring Centre was founded jointly by IUCN, WWF and UNEP. A high level Scientific Advisory Council is being established to guide the Centre's work, which is closely linked to the UNEP Programme on Environmental Information, Assessment & Early Warning. 24