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Module V – Biodiversity conservation and management (6 hrs)
Conservation strategies
In situ, ex situ
National parks, Sanctuaries and Biosphere reserves
International efforts
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
IUCN- WCMC, UNEP
Legal measures
Wild life Protection Act, 1972
The Environment Protection Act, 1986
Forest (Conservation) Act1980, 1988
Biodiversity Act 2002
Biodiversity rule 2004
National biodiversity action plan
People’s participation – Peoples biodiversity register (PBR)
BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION STRATEGIES
Biodiversity is essential for maintaining the ecological functions, including stabilizing of
the water cycle, maintenance and replenishment of soil fertility, pollination and crossfertilization of crops and other vegetation, protection against soil erosion and stability of food
producing and other ecosystems. Conservation of biological diversity leads to conservation of
essential ecological diversity to preserve the continuity of food chains. Biodiversity provides the
base for the livelihoods, cultures and economies of several hundred millions of people, including
farmers, fisher folk, forest dwellers and artisans. It provides raw material for a diverse medicinal
and health care systems. It also provides the genetic base for the continuous up-gradation of
agriculture, fisheries, and for critical discoveries in scientific, industrial and other sectors. The
rapid erosion of biodiversity in the last few decades has impacted on the health of the land, water
bodies and people.
The very survival of the human race is dependent on conservation of biodiversity. It is
evident that this invaluable heritage is being destroyed at an alarming rate due to several reasons.
Measures are being taken up at national and international levels to address this issue. The Earth
Summit produced a plan of action on a number of issues (Agenda 21) including conservation of
biodiversity during the 21st century. Conservation and sustainable use of biological resources
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based on local knowledge systems and practices is ingrained in Indian ethos. The country has a
number of alternative medicines, like Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha and Homeopathic systems which
are predominantly based on plant based raw materials in most of their preparations and
formulations. Herbal preparations for various purposes including pharmaceutical and cosmetic
form part of traditional biodiversity uses in India.
Spellerberg and Hardes (1992) stated that biodiversity conservation aims to ‘‘maintain
the diversity of living organisms, their habitats and the interrelationships between organisms and
their environment.’’ Article 2 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD, 1992) provides
the following definition of these categories:
Ex situ conservation means the conservation of components of biological diversity
outside theirnatural habitats.
In situ conservation means the conservation of ecosystems and natural habitats and the
maintenance and recovery of viable populations of species in their natural surroundings
and, in the case of domesticates or cultivated species, in the surroundings where they
have developed their distinctive properties.
There is an obvious fundamental difference between these two strategies: ex situ
conservation involves the sampling, transfer, and storage of target taxa from the target area,
whereas in situ conservation involves the designation, management, and monitoring of target
taxa
where
they
are
encountered.
The
two
basic
be further subdivided into the following specific techniques:
Ex Situ
Seed/embryo storage
In vitro storage
Semen/ovule/pollen/DNA storage
Field gene bank/livestock parks
Botanic/zoological garden
In Situ
Genetic reserve
On-farm
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conservation
strategies
may
I. Ex-situ Conservation
Ex-situ conservation of plants and animals preserve/ or protect them away from their
natural habitat. This could be in zoological parks and botanical gardens or through the forestry
institutions and agricultural research centres. A lot of effort is under way to collect and preserve
the genetic material of crops, animal, bird and fish species. In India, this work is being done by
institutions such as the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi, the National
Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources, etc. Reintroduction of an animal or plant into the habitat
from where it has become extinct is another form of ex situ conservation. For example, the
Gangetic gharial has been reintroduced in the rivers of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and
Rajasthan where it had become extinct. Seed banks, botanical, horticultural and recreational
gardens are important centres for ex-situ conservation. Ex-situ conservation measures
complement in-situ conservation.
1. Seed/Embryo Storage Conservation
Ex situ seed/embryo collection and storage is the most convenient and widely used
method of genetic conservation. Seeds and embryos are the natural dispersal, storage, or
generative organs for the majority of species. This technique involves collecting samples from
individuals or populations and then transferring them to a gene bank for storage, usually at subzero temperatures. The procedure used for the bulk of orthodox-seeded plant species is to dry the
seeds or embryos to a suitable moisture content (5–6%) before freezing at 200C, but this method
is only suitable for species that can be dried and stored at low temperature without losing
viability. The advantages of this technique are that it is efficient and reproducible, and feasible
for short-, medium-, and long-term secure storage. However, the disadvantages are that there are
problems in storing recalcitrant-seeded plant species. The latter species cannot be dried and
frozen in the way used for orthodox seeds, because they rarely produce seed or are normally
clonally propagated
2. Botanical/Zoological Garden Conservation
Historically, botanical or zoological gardens were often associated with physic or
medicinal gardens or displays of single specimens of zoological curiosities, and as such they did
not attempt to reflect the genetic diversity of the species. These gardens now hold living
collections of species that were collected in a particular location and moved to the garden to be
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conserved. The advantage of this method is that gardens do not have the same constraints as
many other conservation agencies; they have the freedom to focus on wild species that may
otherwise not be given sufficient priority for conservation. Yet there are two disadvantages to
this technique. The first is that the number of species that can be genetically conserved in a
botanical or zoological garden will always be limited because of the available space. The
majority of these gardens are located in urban areas in temperate countries, and at their present
sites most expansion would be prohibitively expensive. The majority of botanical and animal
diversity is located in tropical climates, yet because most botanical and zoological gardens are in
temperate countries, the collections must be kept in expensive greenhouses or other facilities,
which also limits the space available. The second disadvantage is related to the first, namely,
very few individuals of each species can be held, and this severely restricts the range of genetic
diversity found in the wild that is protected. However, if the target species is very near extinction
and only one or two specimens remain extant, this objection of course does not hold
3. In Vitro Conservation
In vitro conservation involves the maintenance of explants in a sterile, pathogen-free
environment, and it is widely used for vegetatively propagated and recalcitrant-seeded species.
This method offers an alternative to field gene banks. It involves the establishment of tissue
cultures of accessions on nutrient agar and their storage under controlled conditions of either
slow or suspended growth. The main advantage is that it offers a solution to the long-term
conservation problems of recalcitrant, sterile, or clonally propagated species. The main
disadvantages are the risk of somaclonal variation, the need to develop individual maintenance
protocols for the majority of species, and the relatively high-level technology and high cost
required. The best answer for cheap, long-term in vitro conservation in the future may be
cryopreservation (Hoyt, 1988), that is, the storage of frozen tissue cultures at very low
temperatures, for example, in liquid nitrogen at 1960C. If this technique can be perfected to
reduce the damage caused by freezing and thawing, it may be possible to preserve materials
indefinitely.
4. Field Gene Bank/Livestock Park Conservation
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The conservation of germplasm in field gene banks or livestock parks involves the
collecting of plant or animal specimens from one location and the transfer and conservation at a
second site. It has traditionally been the method for recalcitrant- (whose seeds cannot be dried
and frozen without loss of viability) or sterile-seeded plant species or for those species for which
it is preferable to store clonal material. Field gene banks are commonly used for species such as
cocoa, rubber, coconut, mango, coffee, banana, cassava, sweet potato, and yam. Livestock parks
or rare breed centers, as distinct from zoos, emphasize captive breeding programs and therefore
genetic conservation. The advantages of field gene banks and livestock parks are that the species
are easily accessible for utilization and evaluation can be undertaken while the material is being
conserved. The disadvantages are that the material is restricted in terms of genetic diversity, is
susceptible to pests, disease, and vandalism, and may require large areas of land.
5. Pollen/Semen/Ovule/DNA Conservation
The storage of pollen grains is possible under appropriate conditions that allow their
subsequent use for crossing with living plant material. It may also be possible in the future to
regenerate haploid plants routinely from pollen cultures. The development of artificial
insemination techniques in recent years has made semen and ovule storage routine, especially for
domesticated animals. The storage of DNA under prescribed conditions can easily and
inexpensively be achieved given the appropriate level of technology, but the regeneration of
entire organisms from DNA cannot be envisaged at present, although single or small numbers of
genes could subsequently be utilized. The advantage of pollen storage is that it is low cost and
simple, but the disadvantage is that only paternal material would be conserved, and with DNA
storage there are problems with subsequent gene isolation, cloning, and transfer.
II. In-situ Conservation
1. On-Farm Conservation
Farmer-based conservation involves the maintenance of traditional crop or animal breeds
or cultivation systems by farmers within traditional agricultural systems. On traditional farms,
what are generally known as ‘‘land-races’’ of plants are sown and harvested, and each season the
farmers keep a proportion of harvested seed for re-sowing. Traditional breeds of domestic animal
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are maintained by inter-breeding within and between local village stocks. Thus the land-race or
breed is highly adapted to the local environment and is likely to contain locally adapted alleles
that may prove useful for specific breeding programs. Home garden plant conservation is a
closely related variant of on-farm conservation of landraces but on a smaller scale. It involves the
cultivation of more species-diverse material in home, kitchen, backyard, or door-yard gardens.
These home gardens focus on medicinal, flavoring, and vegetable species (e.g., tomatoes,
peppers, digitalis, mint, thyme, parsley). The overall advantage of the on-farm technique is that it
ensures the maintenance of highly adapted landraces and breeds and those wild species that
traditional agriculture often depends on.
2. Genetic Reserve Conservation
Conservation of wild species in a genetic reserve involves the location, designation,
management, and monitoring of genetic diversity in a particular natural location. The established
natural habitats are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Protected areas
Wildlife sanctuaries
National parks
Tiger reserves
Community reserves
Biosphere reserves
Protected Area
A protected area is a clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and
managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long term conservation of nature
with associated ecosystem services and cultural values. (IUCN definition).
Wildlife sanctuaries
Wildlife sanctuaries are mainly intended to ensure natural conditions necessary to protect
nationally significant species, biotic communities or physical features of the environment where
these require specific human manipulation for their perpetuation. Each sanctuary has separate
management plan and the extent of the sanctuary has been divided into zones with specific
management prescriptions. Buffer zone will have limited forestry activity, tourism zone will
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have tourist visit facilities and core zone will be the sanctum sanctorum and will not have
activity except research and monitoring. The protection afforded to the sanctuaries has produced
salutary effect on the increase of wild animal population.
National Parks
National Parks are large natural or near natural areas set aside to protect large-scale
ecological processes, along with the complement of species and ecosystems characteristic of the
area, which also provide a foundation for environmentally and culturally compatible, spiritual,
scientific, educational, recreational, and visitor opportunities.
The first such initiative was the establishment of the Corbett National Park in 1936.
National Parks are highly protected by law. No human habitation, private land holding or
traditional human activity such as firewood collection or grazing is allowed within the park.
Tiger reserve
Tiger reserves are constituted for giving special protection to the highly endangered tiger
species which once abounded the forests in the country. Since the population has started
dwindling it was found necessary to afford special protection to this species. Accordingly many
protected areas, where tiger population was found satisfactory, were brought under the 'Project
Tiger’. In Kerala Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary and Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary has been
selected and declared as 'Tiger Reserves’.
Community Reserve
An area is declared as community reserve by the State Government for protecting flora
and fauna, traditional or cultural heritage or values in the interests of an individual or society, in
areas where there is no wildlife protection centre.
Biosphere Reserves
The idea of `Biosphere Reserves’ was initiated by UNESCO in 1973-74 under its Man
and Biosphere (MAB) Programme. Biosphere reserves are special environments for both people
and the nature and are living examples of how human beings and nature can co-exist while
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respecting each others’ needs. These areas are internationally recognized within the framework
of UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere (MAB) programme, after receiving consent of the
participating country. The world’s major ecosystem types and landscapes are represented in this
network.
Under this, a large area is declared as a Biosphere Reserve where wildlife is protected,
but local communities are allowed to continue to live and pursue traditional activities within the
Reserve. The Government of India has set up seven biosphere reserves: Nokrek (Meghalaya),
Nilgiri (Kamataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu), Namdapha (Arunachal Pradesh), Nanda Devi (Uttar
Pradesh), Sundarbans (West Bengal), Great Nicobar (Andaman & Nicobar Islands), Gulf of
Mannnar (Tamil Nadu).
Objectives:
It may be noted that BRs are not a substitute or alternative, but a re-enforcement to the
existing protected areas. The objectives of the Biosphere Reserve programme, as envisaged by
the Core Group of Experts, are as follows:
To conserve the diversity and integrity of plants and animals within natural ecosystems;
To safeguard genetic diversity of species on which their continuing evolution depends;
To provide areas for multi-faceted research and monitoring;
To provide facilities for education and training; and
To ensure sustainable use of natural resources through most appropriate technology for
improvement of economic well-being of the local people.
These objectives should be oriented in such a way that the BRs are the Units wherein the
Biological, socio-economic and cultural dimension of conservation are integrated together into a
realistic conservation strategy.
Structure and Design of Biosphere Reserves:
In order to undertake complementary activities of biodiversity conservation and
development of sustainable management aspects, Biosphere Reserves are demarcated into three
inter-related zones. These are (I) natural or core zone (ii) manipulation or buffer zone and (iii) A
transition zone outside the buffer zone.
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The Core Zone:
The core zone is kept absolutely undisturbed. It must contain suitable habitat for
numerous plant and animal species, including higher order predators and may contain centres of
endemism. Core areas often conserve the wild relatives of economic species and also represent
important genetic reservoirs. The core zones also contain places of exceptional scientific interest.
A core zone secures legal protection and management and research activities that do not affect
natural processes and wildlife are allowed. Strict nature reserves and wilderness portions of the
area are designated as core areas of BR. The core zone is to be kept free from all human
pressures external to the system.
The Buffer Zone:
In the Buffer Zone, which adjoins or surrounds core zone, uses and activities are
managed in ways that protect the core zone. These uses and activities include restoration,
demonstration sites for enhancing value addition to the resources, limited recreation, tourism,
fishing and grazing, which are permitted to reduce its effect on core zone. Research and
educational activities are to be encouraged. Human activities, if natural within BR, are likely to
be permitted to continue if these do not adversely affect the ecological diversity.
The Transition Zone:
The Transition Zone is the outermost part of a Biosphere Reserve. This is usually not
delimited one and is a zone of cooperation where conservation, knowledge and management
skills are applied and uses are managed in harmony with the purpose of the Biosphere Reserve.
This includes settlements, crop lands, managed forests and area for intensive recreation, and
other economic uses characteristic of the region.
In Buffer Zone and the Transition Zones, manipulative macro-management practices are
used. Experimental research areas are used for understanding the patterns and processes in the
ecosystem. Modified or degraded landscapes are included as rehabilitation areas to restore the
ecology in a way that it returns to sustainable productivity.
It may be noted that the BR is not intended to replace existing protected areas but it
widens the scope of conventional approach of protection and further strengthens the Protected
Area Network. Existing legally protected areas (National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuary, Tiger
Reserve and reserve/protected forests) may become part of the BR without any change in their
legal status. On the other hand, inclusion of such areas in a BR will enhance their national value.
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It, however, does not mean that Biosphere Reserves are to be established only around the
National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries.
Protective areas in India
For management and protection of wildlife and their habitat, protected area (PA) network
consisting of National Parks (NP) and Wildlife (WL) Sanctuaries has been created in India
covering the forests with relatively large populations of the target species and associated
ecological components. First national park in India was declared in 1935, now famous as the
Corbett National Park. Since then there has been a steady rise in the number of PAs and National
Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries after the enactment of the Wildlife Protection Act in 1972. In
1988, there were 54 national parks and 372 sanctuaries covering a total area of 109,652 sq km.
By the year 2000, this number had increased to 566, covering 1, 53,000 sq km, or 4.66% of
India's geographical area. There are currently 668 national parks and sanctuaries in India,
encompassing 1, 61,221 sq. Km. country's geographical area. Protected areas are categorised as
National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves.
Apart from the protected areas system mandated under the Wildlife Protection Act
(WPA) 1972, certain areas have also been declared as biosphere reserves by the Government of
India. The purpose of the formation of the biosphere reserve is to conserve in situ all forms of
life, along with its support system, in its totality, so that it could serve as a referral system for
monitoring and evaluating changes in natural ecosystems. In all India have 512 Wildlife
Sanctuaries 93 National Parks and 63 Zoos.
Sl. No.. Category
Sl
Nos. Area.km
1
National park
102
39,888
2
Wildlife sanctuaries
515
1,19,930
3
Conservation reserves 47
1,382
4
Community reserves
4
21
Total
668
161221
Name of Sanctuaries & National Parks
Area in
10
Year of
District
Km2.
Formation
1
Periyar Tiger Reserve
925
1950
Idukki
2
Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary
128
1958
Thiruvananthpuram
3
Peechi - Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary
125
1958
Thrissur
4
Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary
285
1973
Palakkad
5
Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary
344.44
1973
Wayanad
6
Idukki Wildlife Sanctuary
70
1976
Idukki
7
Eravikulam National Park
97
1978
Idukki
8
Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary
53
1983
Thiruvananthpuram
9
Thattekkad Bird Sanctuary
25
1983
Ernakulam
10
Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuary
171
1984
Kollam
11
Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary
90.44
1984
Idukki
12
Chimmony Wildlife Sanctuary
85
1984
Thrissur
13
Silent Valley National Park
89.52
1984
Palakkad
14
Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary
55
1984
Kannur
15
Pampadum Shola National Park
1.318
2003
Idukki
16
Mathikettan Shola National Park
12.817
2003
Idukki
17
Anamudi Shola National Park
7.5
2003
Idukki
18
Mangalavanam Bird Sanctuary
0.027
2004
Ernakulam
19
Kurinjimala Sanctuary
32
2006
Idukki
20
Choolannur Pea Fowl Sanctuary
3.42
2007
Palakkad
21
Kadalundi Vallikunnu Community Reserve
1.5
2007
Kozhikkode&Malappuram
22
Malabar Wildlife Sanctuary
74.215
2010
Kozhikkode
TOTAL AREA
2835.0284
1
Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve
1,701.00
2002
2
Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve
1,455.40
1986
Marine protected areas in India
India has large coastal wetlands which cover an area of over 40,230 km . Among various
types of marine ecosystems, tidal mudflats, mangroves, estuaries, lagoons, beaches, marshes,
vegetated wetlands and coral reefs have a major share. A total of 97 major estuaries, 34 major
lagoons, 31 mangroves areas and 5 coral reef areas have been mapped and identified in India for
conservation and sustainable use. There are a total of 31 Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in
India, primarily in marine environment, which cover a total area of 6271.2 km with an average
size of 202.1 km 2.
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Other Projects
Several special projects have also been launched to save certain animal species which
have been identified as needing concerted protection effort. These projects are designed to
protect the species in situ, by protecting and conserving their natural habitat. Project Elephant,
Save the Barasingha campaign are examples of this initiative. Other strategies include offloading
pressure from reserve forests by alternative measures of fuel wood and fodder need satisfaction
by afforestation of degraded areas and wastelands.
A programme "Eco-development" for in-situ conservation of biological diversity
involving local communities was initiated. It integrates the ecological and economic parameters
for sustained conservation of ecosystems by involving local communities with maintenance of
earmarked regions surrounding protected areas.
Approximately, 4.2 % of the total geographical area of the country has been earmarked
for extensive in-situ conservation of habitats and ecosystems. A protected area network of 85
national parks and 448 wildlife sanctuaries has been created. The results of this network have
been significant in restoring viable population of large mammals such as tiger, lion, rhinoceros,
crocodiles and elephants.
International Conservation Strategies
Conserving biodiversity is not an issue confined to any one country or community. It is a
crucial global concern. Several international treaties and agreements are in place in the attempt to
strengthen international participation and commitment towards conserving biodiversity. Some of
these are:
IUCN
IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature, helps the world find pragmatic
solutions to our most pressing environment and development challenges. IUCN’s work focuses
on valuing and conserving nature, ensuring effective and equitable governance of its use, and
deploying nature-based solutions to global challenges in climate, food and development. IUCN
supports scientific research, manages field projects all over the world, and brings governments,
NGOs, the UN and companies together to develop policy, laws and best practice.
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IUCN is the world’s oldest and largest global environmental organisation, with more than
1,200 government and NGO Members and almost 11,000 volunteer experts in some 160
countries. IUCN’s work is supported by over 1,000 staff in 45 offices and hundreds of partners in
public, NGO and private sectors around the world.
IUCN at a glance
1. Founded in 1948 as the world’s first global environmental organisation
2. Today the largest professional global conservation network
3. A leading authority on the environment and sustainable development
4. More than 1,200 member organizations including 200+ government and 900+ nongovernment organizations
5. Almost 11,000 voluntary scientists and experts, grouped in six Commissions in some 160
countries
6. The Union’s headquarters are located in Gland, near Geneva, in Switzerland.
7. A neutral forum for governments, NGOs, scientists, business and local communities to
find practical solutions to conservation and development challenges
8. Thousands of field projects and activities around the world
9. Governance by a Council elected by member organizations every four years at the IUCN
World Conservation Congress
10. Funded by governments, bilateral and multilateral agencies, foundations, member
organisations and corporations
11. Official Observer Status at the United Nations General Assembly
12. Conserving biodiversity is central to the mission of IUCN
The IUCN Red List Categories
The IUCN Red List is a catalogue of taxa that are facing the risk of extinction. It is
important to understand that the Red List aims to impart information about the urgency and scale
of conservation problems to the public and policy makers. The uses of the Red Lists are: (1)
Developing awareness about the importance of threatened biodiversity; (2) identification and
documentation of endangered species; (3) providing a global index of the decline of biodiversity;
(4) defining conservation priorities at the local level and guiding conservation action.
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The World Conservation Union (formerly known as International Union for the
Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, IUCN) has recognized eight Red List Categories
of species: Extinct, Extinct in the Wild, Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable, Lower
Risk, Data Deficient, and Not Evaluated. The species which are threatened with extinction are
included in Vulnerable, Endangered, or Critically Endangered category. Species with small
world populations that are not at present endangered or vulnerable but are at risk are called rare.
These species are usually localized within restricted geographical areas or habitats or are thinly
scattered over a more extensive range.
The IUCN Red List System was initiated in 1963 and since then evaluation of the
conservation status of species and subspecies is continuing on a global scale. The 2000 IUCN
Red List is the most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status ofplant and
animal species. It uses a set of criteria, relevant to all species and all regions of the world, to
evaluate the extinction risk of species and subspecies. The 2000 Red List contains assessments of
more than 18,000 species, 11,000 of which are threatened. The Red List also provides
information to international agreements such as the Convention on Biological Diversity and the
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora.
Status of threatened species
There are 11,046 species (5,485 animals, and 5,611 plants) listed as threatened (Critically
Endangered, Endangered, or Vulnerable) on the 2000 Red List. Of these, 1,939 are listed as
Critically Endangered (925 animals, and 1,014 plants). The percentages of threatened species of
Angiosperms and four vertebrate groups categorized as Critically Endangered, Endangered,
Vulnerable and at Lower Risk are shown in Figure 4.5 Of the species evaluated for risk in these
major groups, 17-22% are critically endangered, and 34-51% are vulnerable. According to the
Red List, in India, 44 plant species are critically endangered, 113 endangered and 87 vulnerable.
Amongst animals, 18 are critically endangered, 54 endangered and 143 vulnerable.
The IUCN Threat Categories
A taxon is Extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died.
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A taxon is Extinct in the wild when exhaustive surveys in known and/or expected
habitats, have failed to record an individual.
A taxon is Critically Endangered when it is facing an extremely high risk of extinction
in the wild in the immediate future.
A taxon is Endangered when it is not Critically Endangered but is facing a very high risk
of extinction in the wild in the near future.
A taxon is Vulnerable when it is not Critically Endangered or Endangered, but is facing
a high risk of extinction in the wild in the medium-term future.
A taxon is Lower Risk when it has been evaluated and does not satisfy the criteria for
Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable.
A taxon is Data Deficient when there is inadequate information to make a direct, or
indirect, assessment of its risk of extinction.
A taxon is Not Evaluated when it has not yet been assessed against the above criteria.
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): The CBD (United Nations Convention on
Biological Diversity) is an international treaty that came into force on December 29, 1993. The
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) changed the fundamental concept of ownership of
“biodiversity” from the “common heritage of humankind” to the “sovereign right” of each
country.
The convention has three main objectives:
1. The conservation of biological diversity
2. The sustainable use of the components of biological diversity
3. The fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources
The CBD requires all member states to develop a national biodiversity strategy and
action plan as the primary mechanism for the implementation of its strategic plan. To date, 172
of the 193 signatory countries have adopted their plans or equivalent instruments (CBD 2011).
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna
(CITES): This is an international treaty which is designed to protect wild plants and animals
affected by international trade. The treaty, in force since 1975, controls the export, import and reexport of endangered and threatened wildlife.
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The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance: This Convention, also known as
the Ramsar Convention, was signed in Ramsar (Iran) in 1971 and came into force in December
1975. It provides a framework for international cooperation for the conservation of wetland
habitats which have been designated to the 'List of Wetlands of International Importance'.
Legal measures
Formal policies and programmes for conservation and sustainable utilisation of
biodiversity resources dates back to several decades. The concept of environmental protection is
enshrined in the Indian constitution in articles 48a and 51a (g). Major central acts relevant to
biodiversity include:
1. Wild life Protection Act, 1972
2. The Environment Protection Act, 1986
3. Forest (Conservation) Act1980, 1988
4. The Coastal Regulation Zone Act 1991
5. Biodiversity Act 2002
6. Biodiversity rule 2004
The various central Acts are supported by a number of State laws and statutes concerning
forests and other natural resources. The policies and strategies directly relevant to biodiversity
include National Forest Policy amended in 1988, National Conservation Strategy and Policy
Statement for Environment and Sustainable Development, National Agricultural Policy, National
Land Use Policy, National Fisheries Policy, National Policy and Action Strategy on Biodiversity,
National Wildlife Action Plan and Environmental Action Plan.
Wild life Protection Act 1972
It was enacted in 1972
1. Objectives area. To protect the wild animals, Birds and plants (rare and fast disappearing sps.)
b. Provides restrictions in trade of animals and animal products like horns, skins,
hides and so on.
c. Regional offices of the wild life directorate (Mumbai, Kolkatha, New Delhi and
Chennai) are responsible for the enforcement of the Act.
2. Salient features
a. Section 9 of the Act prohibits hunting of all wild life specified in schedules I,II,III
and IV of the Act
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b. Hereafter hunting, trapping, licenses cannot be issued for any of these species,
where already issued, such licenses are to be cancelled
c. Bans commercial felling and exploitation of wildlife in sanctuaries and national
parks
d. Fresh fire arm licences will not be issued to persons residing within ten kilometers
of a sanctuary without the concurrence of the CWW of the state.
e. The vehicles, vessels, weapons etc. used for committing an offence under the Act
will be seized and will become Govt property.
f. Trade in imported ivory and products carved from it are banned with effect from 2
April 1992.
g. Transportation of wild life or products is banned except those with permission of
the CWW or authorized officers.
h. Setting up of a Zoo Authority of India- will monitor and make improvements in
the condition of Indian Zoos.
i. The Act was amended in 1991 so as to make it more effective and free from
loopholes with effect from 2 October.
j. As per the amendment Act, non officials can directly take instances of violation of
this Act to the court. Earlier they would report the matter to the officials.
k. Any person or NGO can give a notice to the CWW of the state or the Central
Govt. and if action is not taken within 60 days, a case can be filed in a competent
court of law.
Environment (Protection) act 1986
1. Background: Bhopal Disaster in 1984 claiming over 3000 lives.
2. Came into force in whole India on 19 November 1986
3. Section 3-the central Govt shall have the power to take all such measures for purpose
of protecting and improving the quality of the environment and preventing,
controlling and abating environmental pollution.
4. Only 11 pages with 26 sections, and four chapters
5. Chapter I preliminary
6. Chapter II general powers of central Govt.
7. Chapter III prevention, control and abatement of pollution
8. Chapter IV miscellaneous provisions and rule making power of Central govt.
9. SECTION 3-Proteting and improving the quality of the environment and preventing,
controlling and abating environment pollution.
10. Environment means- water, air, land, exists between water, air, human beings,
microorganisms and property.
11. May lay down standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants from
various sources
12. Section 5-issue directions in writing to any person, officer or authority and such
authority is bound to comply with such directions.
13. Power to direct the closure, prohibition or regulation of any industry operation or
process or stoppage or regulation of the supply of electricity or water or any other
service.
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14. Empowers the central govt to make rules necessary in respect of all or any of the
matters relating to the protection of the environment.
15. Section 9- imposes a duty on every person to take steps to prevent or minimize the
environmental pollution
16. Section 15- imposing penalties on the violation of any provision of the Act or the
direction issued under the Act.
17. The right to approach a court of law, in the event of the violation of any of the
provisions in the Act.
18. Amendments
19. Ist amendment in 1987 (Rule 1)
20. Manufacturers rules 1989 ( manufacture, storage, import of hazardous chemicals)
21. Hazardous waste rules 1989
22. Rules for manufacture, use, import, export and storage of hazardous microorganisms
or genetically modified organisms or cells 1989.
23. The coastal zone regulation notification 1991
24. Environment audit/statement rule, 1993.
Forest (Conservation) Act 1980
1. The Indian forest Act of 1927 was adopted to consolidate the law relating to forests,
including reserved forests, village forests, protected forests and Non-governmental
forests.
2. With a view to strengthen the protection measures, the forest (Conservation) ordinance of
1980 was adopted which required prior approval of the central govt. for de-reservation of
forests and use of forests land for non-forest purpose.
3. Provision for the constitution of an advisory committee.
4. The ordinance was replaced by the forest (conservation) Act 1980 and is applicable to
whole of India except Jammu and Kashmir.
5. The entire power of diversion of forest land has been withdrawn from state authorities
and vested in central authorities; only the forest management rests with the state
government.
6. It is directly helpful in maintaining the ecosystems and the biological diversity.
The Coastal Regulation Zone Act 1991
The Coastal Regulation Zone Act 1991 was enacted by the Government of India to
protect the Indian coasts from degradation. The area influenced by tidal action up to 500 m from
High Tide Line (HTL) and the land between the Low Tide Line (LTL) and the HTL has been
declared as Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ). As per classification system of the CRZ, coastal
zone has been divided into four categories for regulating developmental activities and conserving
marine ecosystems:
1. CRZ Category-I Ecologically sensitive areas like mangroves, coral reefs, marine national
parks and sanctuaries between LTL and HTL.
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2. CRZ Category-II Developed areas close to shore mainly urban or built-up area.
3. CRZ Category-III Undistributed areas and those areas, which do not belong to Category-I
and II.
4. CRZ Category-IV Coastal stretches in Andaman and Nicobar, Lakshadweep and small
islands.
Biological Diversity Act, 2002
India is party to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) 1992 which recognizes
the sovereign rights of states to use their own Biological Resources. In order to help in realizing
the objectives of CBD, India has enacted an umbrella legislation called the biological Diversity
Act 2002(No.18 of 2003) aimed at conservation of biological resources and associated
knowledge as well as facilitating access to them in a sustainable manner and through a just
process.
Salient features:1. To regulate access to biological resources of the country with the purpose of securing
equitable share in benefits arising out of the use of biological resources; and associated
knowledge relating to biological resources;
2. To conserve and sustainably use biological diversity;
3. To respect and protect knowledge of local communities related to biodiversity;
4. To secure sharing of benefits with local people as conservers of biological resources and
holders of knowledge and information relating to the use of biological resources;
5. Conservation and development of areas of importance from the standpoint of biological
diversity by declaring them as biological diversity heritage sites;
6. Protection and rehabilitation of threatened species;
7. Involvement of institutions of state governments in the broad scheme of the
implementation of the Biological Diversity Act through constitution of committees.
National Biodiversity Authority
In exercise of the powers conferred by Sub-Section (1) (4) of Section 8 of the Biological
Diversity Act, 2002 (18 of 2003), the Central Government has established a body called the
National Biodiversity Authority, on and from the 1st day of October, 2003.
The main functions of the Authority are:
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1. To lay down procedures and guidelines to govern the activities provided under Section
3, 4, and 6. (Permission to foreigners/NRI’s foreign companies)
a) For obtaining any biological resource (Section -3).
b) For transferring the results of any research (Section -4).
c) Certain collaborative research projects exempted (Section 5).
2. To advice the Government of India. Specific areas mentioned as per the Act are the
following:
a) Notifications of threatened species (Section -38).
b) Designate institutions as repositories for different categories of biological resources
(Section -39).
c) Exempt certain biological resources, normally traded as commodities (Section -40)
3. To encourage setting up State Biodiversity Boards
4. To build up database and documentation system
5. To create awareness through mass media
a) Training of personnel
b) Necessary measures in the areas of Intellectual Propriety Rights.
Community Participation in Biodiversity Conservation
It is being recognized that no legal provisions can be effective unless local communities
are involved in planning, management and monitoring conservation programmes. There are
several initiatives to do this, both by government as well as non-governmental organizations. For
example, the Joint Forest Management philosophy stresses involvement of village communities
in regenerating and protecting degraded forest land in the vicinity of villages. Successful
conservation strategies will have to have the confidence and participation of the local
communities.
Recording Indigenous Knowledge
The lives of local communities are closely interwoven with their environment, and are
dependent upon their immediate resources for meeting their needs. These communities have a
vast knowledge about local flora and fauna which is very important for biodiversity
conservation. Much of this knowledge is orally passed on from generation to generation. Such
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indigenous knowledge needs to be recorded and preserved before it is lost. Several organizations
have recognized this and are working to record the knowledge and preserve it for posterity.
Biodiversity Register
Students can inventory and maintain records of all living beings in their locality. A
biodiversity register is a compilation of day-to-day observations of the immediate environment.
It is a documentation of knowledge of diversity of life known to local people. It is a means of
recording the wealth of biodiversity of a region. The register may include minute details about
plants and animals, both wild and domesticated. The record may include traditional knowledge
regarding use of the various species. A biodiversity register has many uses. It helps make the
complete inventory of all organisms of an area. It makes us familiar with the biodiversity of an
area. It helps understand the inter-linkages between plants and animals and the direct and indirect
benefits they offer to humans. It allows us to analyze the reasons for depletion of biodiversity
and plan conservation measures.
Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) is an internationally recognized program addressing threatened
species and habitats and is designed to protect and restore biological systems. The original
impetus for these plans derives from the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). As of
2009, 191 countries have ratified the CBD, but only a fraction of these have developed
substantive Biodiversity Action Plan documents. The principal elements of a BAP typically
include (a) preparing inventories of biological information for selected species or habitats; (b)
assessing the conservation status of species within specified ecosystems; (c) creation of targets
for conservation and restoration; and (d) establishing budgets, timelines and institutional
partnerships for implementing the BAP.
Keystone species is a species that has a disproportionate effect on its environment relative to its
biomass. Such species plays a critical role in maintaining the structure of an ecological
community, affecting many other organisms in an ecosystem and helping to determine the types
and numbers of various other species in the community.
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Umbrella species are species selected for making conservation related decisions, typically
because protecting these species indirectly protects the many other species that make up the
ecological community of its habitat. Umbrella species can be used to help select the locations of
potential reserves, find the minimum size of these conservation areas or reserves, and to
determine the composition, structure and processes of ecosystems.
Flagship species is a species chosen to represent an environmental cause, such as an ecosystem
in need of conservation. These species are chosen for their vulnerability, attractiveness or
distinctiveness in order to engender support and acknowledgment from the public at large. Thus,
the concept of a flagship species holds that by giving publicity to a few key species, the support
given to those species will successfully leverage conservation of entire ecosystems and all
species contained therein. Examples of flagship species include the Asiatic lion and the Bengal
tiger of India, the giant panda of China, the golden lion tamarin of Brazil, the African elephant,
the mountain gorilla of central Africa, the polar bear of Canada, and the orangutan of southeast
Asia
Biodiversity Institutes and Regional Information Centres
ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity (ACB)
Central African Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE)
CIFOR (Centre for International Forestry Research)
Conabio (Comisión nacional para el conocimiento y uso de la biodiversidad)
European Centre for Nature Conservation
IISD International Institute for Nature Conservation (ECNC)
INBio - Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad, Costa Rica
IPGRI (International Plant Genetics Resources Institute)
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (USA)
Smithsonian Institute (Monitoring and Assessment of Biodiversity)
South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP)
Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (Panama)
The Natural Resources Institute (UK)
International Biodiversity Non-governmental Organizations
BirdLife International
Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI)
Conservation International
Earthwatch Institute
Fauna and Flora International (FFI)
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Global Coral Reef Alliance
IUCN - The World Conservation Union
Plantlife
Species Survival Commission
TRAFFIC
The Nature Conservancy
Wetlands International
World Resources Institute
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)
Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS)
Intergovernmental Organizations and Programmes
United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
International Tropical Timber Organization (IITO)
International Whaling Commission
South Asia Co-operative Environmental Programme
Biodiversity Information Networks
Canadian Biodiversity Information Network
GBIF - Global Biodiversity Information Facility an initiative of the OECD Megascience
Form Working Group on Biological Informatics
NBII National Biodiversity Information Infrastructure
ODINCARSA Ocean Data and Information Network for IOCARIBE and South America
ODINAFRICA Ocean Data and Information Network for Africa
Small Islands Information Network
SIDSnet (Small Islands Developing States Network)
GCRMN The Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network
ICRAN International Coral Reef Action Network
ICRI International Coral Reef Initiative
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is an agency of the United Nations
that coordinates its environmental activities, assisting developing countries in implementing
environmentally sound policies and practices. It was founded by Maurice Strong, as a result of
the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in June 1972 and has its headquarters
in the Gigiri neighborhood of Nairobi, Kenya. UNEP also has six regional offices and various
country offices.
Its activities cover a wide range of issues regarding the atmosphere, marine and terrestrial
ecosystems, environmental governance and green economy. It has played a significant role in
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developing international environmental conventions, promoting environmental science and
information and illustrating the way those can be implemented in conjunction with policy,
working on the development and implementation of policy with national governments, regional
institutions in conjunction with environmental non-governmental organizations (NGOs). UNEP
has also been active in funding and implementing environment related development projects.
World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC)
The UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre was established in 2000 as the world
biodiversity information and assessment centre of the United Nations Environment Programme.
In 1988 the independent, non-profit World Conservation Monitoring Centre was founded jointly
by IUCN, WWF and UNEP. A high level Scientific Advisory Council is being established to
guide the Centre's work, which is closely linked to the UNEP Programme on Environmental
Information, Assessment & Early Warning.
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