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CHAPTER 19
THE BEGINNINGS OF MODERNIZATION:
INDUSTRIALIZATION AND
NATIONALISM IN THE 19th C
Focus Question
• What were the basic features of the new
industrial system created by the industrial
revolution?
• What effects did the new system have on
urban life, social classes, family life and
standards of living?
The Beginnings of Modernization
• Industrial production.
– Coal and steam replaced wind and water as new
sources of energy
– New machines.
– new ways of organizing human labor
– factories replaced workshops and home
workrooms
• Shift from agriculture & handicraft based
economy to manufacturing
Impact of Industrialization
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Migration from rural living into urban centers
Creation of wealthy industrial middle class
Huge working industrial class
Altered how people related to nature
Created an environmental crisis that in the
20th C was finally recognized as a danger to
human existence
Industrial Revolution: Factors
• Factors that contributed to Great Britain’s Industrial
revolution, 1750
• Food Supply & population boom
– Improvements in agricultural practices/production
• Labor supply
• pool of surplus (exploitable) labor
• Capital investment
• ready supply of capital to invest in machines and factories
• Profits gained from trade and the cottage industry
• Effective central bank
• Well developed flexible credit facilities
• Values and Ideology
• Profit motive by individuals
Industrial Revolution: Factors
• Ample supply of mineral resources:
• coal and iron ore needed in the manufacturing
process
• Government support
• Parliament contributed to the favorable business
climate
• passed laws that protected private property
• Wealth and markets generated from colonies or
Common Wealth
• British exports quadrupled between 1660 and 1760
The Steam Engine, Steve Watt (1760)
•Technological advances transformed industries
& Ushered in factory system
© Oxford Science Archive/HIP/Art Resource, NY
Railroad Line from Liverpool to
Manchester
© Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images
The Industrial Factory
• The Factory created a new labor system
– Laborers worked regular hours and in shifts to
keep the machines producing at a steady rate
• Created a system of work discipline
– Employees became accustomed to working
regular hours and overtime
• work load increased compared to their rural
agricultural life style
British Cotton Factory, 1851
•new system of discipline that forced them to work
regular hours under close supervision.
© CORBIS
The Spread of Industrialization: on the
Continent
• IN 1815 Belgium, France and German States were still largely
agrarian.
• Obstacles to Industrialization
– lack of good roads
– problems with river transit
– customs barriers along state boundaries increased in costs and
prices of goods
– lack of technical knowledge
• Borrowed British techniques and practices
• Gradually the continent achieved technological independence as
local people learned all the skills their British teachers had to
offer
The Industrialization of Europe by
1850
The Spread of Industrialization
United States
1815-1860
Focus Questions
• What marked the increasing industrialization
in the United States economy between
1815 – 1860?
• How and why did inequalities increase
among the rich, the middle class and the
working class?
Identifications
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Transportation, Market & Industrial Revolutions
Immigration and Scapegoat
Status of artisan
Rhode Island and Waltham System
Cult of Domesticity
Purity Crusade
Universal White Male suffrage
2nd Great Awakening
American Demography
• 1800 America
– 6 of 7 workers were farmers
– No city exceeded 100,000 people
• 1860 America
– Population sextupled to 30 million people
– 9 cities exceeded 100,000 people
– 50% of American workers were farmers
Changes that allowed for the Industrial
Revolution
• Transportation Revolution
– Improvements in transportation made that transformation
possible
• Federal, state and corporate investments in transportation
improvements
• Roads, Canals, Railroads
• Market Revolution
– Transition from domestic markets to for distant markets
• Industrial Revolution
– Domestic hand labor to machine and factory output
• Immigration
– Cheap and exploitable labor
Immigration
• Political turmoil and Famine brought Massive
immigration
– Irish Potato Famine 1845-1846
• 2.5 Million (30% of Ireland’s population)
– German immigration 1840-60
• 4.2 Million
• Provided Cheap/Exploitable Labor
• Used to scapegoat political, economic & social issues
“The Bog Trotters”
The Poor House from Galway
“The Irish fill our prisons,
our poor houses, scratch
a convict or a pauper, and
the chances are that you
tickle the skin of an Irish
Catholic. Putting them on
a boat and sending them
home would end crime in
this country”
The Great Fear of the Period
That Uncle Sam is Swallowed by
Foreigners
The Problem Solved
Thomas Nast
Cartoon, 1870
Expresses the
worry that the
Irish Catholics
threatened
American
Freedom
Early Industry
• The northeast led Americans industrial revolution
– Household and small workshop production
– Putting-out system
• Local merchants furnished or put out raw materials to rural
households and paid at a piece rate for the labor that
converted those raw materials into manufacture products. The
supplying merchant then marketed and sold these goods.
Artisan Status
• Status of Artisan:
– Owned tools of production
– Owned shops
– Managed time and produce
– skilled workers
– Independence
– prestige
Shoe Makers
Industrial Espionage
• Slater’s Rhode Island System
– Water powered spinning machine
– Richard Arkwright -1769 (inventor)
– Samuel Slater - 1790 Imported the plans to
Patuxet, Rhode Island
– The Rhode Island System
• The countryside factory towns
• Labor of Farmer’s daughters
• Mill Villages
Waltham System
• Lowell’s Waltham System
• Machines that turned raw cotton into finished cloth
• Francis Cabot Lowell Toured factories in England in
1811
– Boston Associates Co. 1813
• Fully mechanized
• By the 1830s - Unskilled, female labor
Mill Girl
Middlesex Company Woolen Mills 1848
Urban Industry
• Industrial Revolution and the Widening gap
between the rich and the poor
– By 1835 cities were serving commercial
agriculture and factory towns that produced for
largely rural domestic market.
• Creation of the Urban working class
– In the cities there was little concern for creating a
classless industrial society.
Stratification of Class Hierarchy
• The richest men
– importers and exporters and took control of banks and insurance
companies and made great fortunes in urban real estate
• Growing middle class
– Commercial Class
• Wholesale and retail merchants,
• lawyers, salesmen, auctioneers, bookkeepers and accountants
• clerks on the bottom creating a white-collar class to cater to the new
emerging consumer society.
Middle Class Ideal
Consumer goods
Symbols of their
middle class status
Notions of gentility
 distinction
between manual
and non manual
work
“The Hands”
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Producers of consumer goods
The “hands”
Growth in Demand
Growth in Working class
– Shoemaking, tailoring and the building trade were divided
into skilled and semiskilled segments and farmed out to
subcontractors who could turn a profit by cutting labor
costs
Rising Standard of Living
• After 1815
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–
–
–
per capita income doubled
living standards rose
Houses: larger, better furnished, heated.
Food: more plentiful and varied
• The cost:
– Half of all adult white males without land
– wealth had become more concentrated.
• In 1800 the richest 10 percent of Americans owned 40-50% of
the national wealth, by the 1850s they owned 70%. In the
cities they owned over 80%.
Evangelical Crusades
• Early 19th C ministers bolstered doctrine of separate
spheres
– Clerical endorsement of female moral superiority in
exchange for women’s activism
• Decline of clerical authority in society
• Opposed forces that seemed to act against women’s
interests
– Materialism
– Intemperance
– Licentiousness
Redefinition of female character
• Appropriate to elevated status
– Home idealized as bastion of feminine values
– Piety, morality, affection, self-sacrifice
– Iconography of Motherhood
– Elevated importance & significance of the home
Cult of Domesticity
Seperation of “work” and “home”
Biological difference
A construct that determined
separate social roles for men and
women.
– Men:
• strong, aggressive and
ambitious, intelligent
• Place in business and
politics.
– Women:
• Kind, pure, emotional, moral
• Place to preserve religion
and morality in the home
and family
Purity Crusade
• Traditionally: both men and women wee
sexual beings, women weaker willed, lustful
and licentious and insatiable
• Purity Crusade: women lacked sexual feeling,
lust and carnality became a part of men’s
sphere
– Etiquette manuals counseled to deter male
advances
Professional Medicine & Women’s
Sexuality
• Women were Asexual beings
– Defined by their sex & sexual roles, yet did not desire it
– Dr Alcott, “Women, as is well known, in a natural
state…seldom if ever makes any of those advances, which
clearly indicates sexual desire and for this very plain
reason, she does not feel them.”
– Only “low” women suffered from the indignity of sexual
desire
• Long periods of abstinence proper
• Masturbation damaged future offspring, and caused
“mania” and “idiocy” on the guilty party
Lowered Standard of Living
• First Slums appeared in the mid 1800s
– Huge influx of immigrants and creation of
exploitable labor force
– Overcrowded Housing
– Contaminated water supplies
– Lack of Sewage
– Disease and high mortality rates
• Cholera and Typhus
Five Points District
Limiting the Spread of
Industrialization to the Rest of the
World
• Deliberate policy of preventing the growth of
mechanized industry.
– India : one of the worlds greatest exporters of
cotton cloth produced by hand labor.
• under the control of the British East Indian Company.
• British textiles displaced thousands of Indian Spinners
and handloom weavers
Social Impact of the Industrial
Revolution
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Population Growth and Urbanization
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Rapid population growth
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1850 European population 266 million
Rapid urbanization
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50% of British population lived in cities
Miserable living conditions
Tenement housing, 5 or 6 to a bed
Lack of sewage or sanitation
Coal blackened towns and cities
•
Deaths outnumbered births
Social Impact: Industrial Middle Class
• People who constructed factories, purchased
machines, established markets
– Profit incentive
– Value in the accumulation of surplus of wealth
• Sought to reduce disparity between
themselves and the landed elite
• Separate themselves from the laboring classes
below them
Industrial Working Class
• Proletariat – the factory workers and majority
of the working class
• Wretched working conditions
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12 – 16 hour work week/ 6 days a week
½ hour for lunch and dinner
No job security
No minimum wage
Hot, dirty, dusty and unhealthy conditions
Women and Children in the Mines
•Men dug coal, while women and children hauled coal carts on
rails to the lift
•Cave –ins, explosions, gas fumes
•Cramped tunnels, 4 ft high
•Ruined lungs and overall health
© SSPL/The Image Works
Women and Children in the Mines
•Child Labor: exploited in textile mills and coals mines
•Paid 1/6 to 1/3 the wage of a man
•Women paid half that of a man or les
© SSPL/The Image Works
Socialism
• Early 1800’s conditions of the slums, mines
and factories
– gave rise to social movements that demanded an
improvement in workers conditions
• Early Socialism (Utopian Socialists)
– product of intellectuals who believed in the equity
of all people
– Wanted to replace competition with cooperation
in industry
Utopian Socialist
• Robert Owen, A British Cotton Manufacturer
– believed that humans would show their true
natural goodness if they lived in a cooperative
environment.
• New Lanark, Scotland, he transformed a squalid factory
town into a flourishing healthy community
• New Harmony, Indiana, USA (1820s) , failed
Trade Unions
• An organized movement for change
– Goals
• to improve working conditions
• Gain decent wages
• Associations were formed by skilled workers
• Some conducted strikes to win gains for
workers
– Iron works
– Coal miners
National Trade Union
• 1820s and 1830s: Movement to create a
national trade union
• The Amalgamated Society of Engineers (1851)
– Britain
– Won generous unemployment benefits in return
for small weekly payment
The Growth of Industrial Prosperity
• Focus Questions: What was the Second
industrial revolution, and what effects did it
have on economic and social life? What were
he main ideas of Karl Marx, and what role did
they play in politics and the union movement
in the late 19th C ad early twentieth centuries?
An Age of Progress
1837 - 1897
•‘‘The most striking . . .
evidence of progress during
the reign is the ever
increasing speed which the
discoveries of physical
science have forced into
everyday life.
•Steam and electricity have
conquered time and space
to a greater extent during
the last sixty years than all
the preceding six hundred
years witnessed.’’
Photo courtesy private collection
New Products after 1870
• After 1870 the western world experienced a
dynamic boom in material prosperity.
– New industries
– New sources of energy
– The new goods of the second industrial revolution
• All this led people to believe that their material
progress reflected human progress.
• The Second Industrial Revolution led many Europeans
to believe that most human problems would be solved
through scientific achievements.
New Industry
• transformed American
from Agrarian nation to
Industrial power
– Technology
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Steam engines
Electricity
Edison’s light bulb
Radio
streetcars and subways
Conveyor belts, cranes,
machines,
– Modern Corporations
– Industrial labor
– Exploitation
– Unionization
11
Kitty Hawk, (1903) brothers Orville ad Wilbur Wright made the first flight in
a fixed wing airplane
1919 first passenger air service established
Technology
Advancements in:
– Railroads
– Steel Mills
– Telephone
– Electricity: light & generator
– Typewriter
– Elevators and skyscrapers
– Entertainment: phonographs and
motion picture
– Household items: refrigerators,
washing machines
– Internal Combustion engine leads to
6 automobiles and first flight (Wright
Brothers)
(c) 2003 Wadsworth Group All rights reserved
New Patterns
• Germany replaced Britain as the industrial
leader of Europe.
• 1900 Europe divided into 2 economic zones
– Advanced industrial core with high standard of
living
• Great Britain, Belgium, France, Netherlands, Many
Western part of Austro-Hungarian Empire, Northern
Italy
– Little industrialized
• Southern Italy, most of Austria-Hungary, Spain,
Portugal, Balkan Kingdoms and Russia
The Industrial Regions of Europe at the
End of the Nineteenth Century
•steelmaking, electricity,
petroleum, and chemicals
• spurred substantial
economic growth and
prosperity in western and
central Europe
•sparked economic and
political competition
between Great Britain
and Germany.
Spread of Industrialization
• Governments of Russia and Japan fostered
industrialization
– Russia, 1890s, Sergei Whitte, Minister of Finance
• Rail road construction
• Modern steel and coal industry
– 1900 4th largest producer of steel
• Half of the worlds oil production
– Japan
• Financed industries, built RR, Universal education system
based on science
• Key industries of tea, silk, armaments shipbuilding
Women and Work: New Job
Opportunities
• Reality vs. Rhetoric of Ideal family and
expectations of womanhood
– Myth of domestic spheres
– Reality of women needing employment to support
families
• Only opportunity available was low wage work of labor
part time in sweat shops
Women and Work: New Job
Opportunities
• 2nd industrial revolution opened the door to
new jobs for women.
– Service, white collar job the new stratified
commercial class.
– Increased demand for white collar workers at
relatively low wages coupled with a shortage of
male workers led employers to hire women
• Big Businesses, retail shops: Clerks, secretaries, file
clerks, sales clerks
Women and Work: New Job
Opportunities
• New opportunities
– Expansion of Government services
• secretaries and telephone operators
• health and social services
– Compulsory education
• necessitated more teachers
– Development of modern hospital services opened
the way for an increase in nurses
• Women remained limited in what careers they could
pursue – lack of equal education
Organizing working classes
• After 1870 people began to organize
– Conditions of labor class
– Socialist political parties
– Socialist labor unions
• 1848, Karl Marx & Fredreich Engels had
developed a theory that explained social
struggle, Communist Manifesto.
Marxism
• Marxist theory:
– argued that history is a history of class struggle
between the working people who depended on
others the means of production, and the
oppressors who owned the means of production
and thus had the power to control government
and society
Marxism
• The Bourgeoisie and the proletariat
– predicted that eventually the two groups would
break into open revolution
• For a while the proletariat would form a dictatorship in
order to organized the means of production
– the end result would be a classless society since
classes themselves arose from economic difference
that have been abolished.
• The state which he perceived as an instrument of
bourgeois interests would whither away
‘‘Proletarians of the World,
Unite’’
• To improve their working
and living conditions, many
industrial workers, inspired
by the ideas of Karl Marx,
joined working-class or
socialist parties.
• Pictured here is a socialistsponsored poster that
proclaims in German the
closing words of The
Communist Manifesto:
‘‘Proletarians of the World,
Unite!’’
© Photo courtesy private collection
Socialist Parties
• Working class leaders after 1870 began to pick
up on Marx’s theory.
– The German Social Democratic Party, 1875
• espoused revolutionary Marxist Rhetoric we organizing
itself as a mass political party competing in elections for
the Reichstag or lower house of parliament.
• By 1912 it became the largest party in Germany due to
its work to improve conditions for the working class
Socialist Parties
• The Second International was an association
of national socialist groups that would fight
against capitalism world wide:
– May Day or May 1st
– International labor holiday due to the
associations coordinated actions
Revisionism & Trade Unions
• Marxist partied divided over the issue of
revisionism.
– Pure Marxist’s : believed in the imminent collapse of
capitalism ad the need for socialist ownership of the
means of production.
– Revisionists: rejected revolutionary socialism and argued
that workers must organize mass political parties and
work together with other progressive elements to gain
reform.
• With suffrage, could achieve their aims through democratic
channels
– Revolution through democratic means, not by revolution would
Reaction and Revolution:
The Growth of Nationalism
• Focus Question:
– What were the major ideas associated with
conservatism, liberalism, and nationalism
– What role did each ideology play in Europe
between 1800 and 1870?
– What were the causes of the revolutions of 1848,
and why did these revolutions fail?
A meeting of the
Congress of Vienna
1814
•After the defeat of
Napoleon European
rulers moved to restore
much of the old order.
•Goal of Great Britain,
Austria, Prussia and
Russia
•final peace settlement
after the Napoleonic
wars.
© Scala/Art Resource, NY
Conservative Order
• The leader of the congress, Austrian Prime
Minister Prince Klemen’s von Metternich
claimed he was guided by the principle of
legitimacy.
– To reestablish peace and stability in Europe he
considered it necessary to restore the legitimate
monarchs ho would preserve traditional
institutions.
• Had already been done in France
Conservative Order
• Conservatism:
– favored obedience to political authority,
– believed that organized religion was crucial to
social order,
– hated revolutionary upheavals,
– unwilling to accept either liberal demands for civil
liberties and representative of governments or the
nationalistic aspirations generated by the French
Revolutionary era.
Conservative Backlash
• The peace arrangements were the beginning
of a conservative reaction determined to
contain the liberal and nationalist forces
unleashed by the French Revolution.
• This political philosophy of Conservatism
– supported by hereditary monarchs,
– government bureaucracies,
– landowning aristocracies,
– revived churches
• forces were dominant after 1815
Concert of Europe
• Method used by the great powers to maintain
the new status quo
• Concert of Europe
– Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, Austria and later
France
• agreed to meet periodically in conference to take steps
that would maintain the peace in Europe.
• adopted the principle of intervention,
– asserting the right to send armies into countries where there
were revolutions to restore the legitimate monarchs to their
throne.
Europe After the Congress of Vienna, 1815
• Monarchs were restored in France, Spain, and other
states recently under Napoleon’s control, and much
territory changed hands, often at the expense of
small and weak states.
Forces for Change: Liberalism
• Liberalism
– people should be from as much restraint as
possible
• owed much to the enlightenment of the 18th C. and the
American and French revolutions
• Common set of beliefs:
– protection of civil liberties, or the basic rights of
the people, should be guaranteed b a written
document
Civil Liberties
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Equality before the law
Freedom of assembly, speech and press
Freedom from arbitrary arrest
Religious toleration for all
Separation of church and state
Demanded the right of peaceful opposition of
government in and out of parliament
• making of laws by a representative assembly
or legislature elected by qualified voters
Liberalism
• Many believed in a constitutional monarchy or
constitutional state with limits on the powers of
government
– to prevent despotism and in written constitutions
that would guaranteed these rights
• Liberals were not democrats:
– they thought that the right to vote and hold office
should be open only to men who owned property
– Adopted by middle class men, Industrial bourgeoisie
who favored voting rights for themselves
• share power with the land owning societies
Forces for Change: Nationalism
• Arose out an awareness of being part of a
community that has common institutions,
traditions, language, and customs.
• This community is called a nation, and the
primary political loyalty of individuals would
be a nation.
– become a popular force for change following the
French Revolution.
– believed that each nationality should have its own
government.
Nationalism
• German’s who were not united, wanted
national unity in a German nation state with
one central government.
• Subject peoples such as Hungarians wanted
the right to establish their own autonomy
rather than be subject to a German minority
in the multinational Austrian empire.
Nationalism
• Threat to the existing political order.
– A united Germany for example would upset the
balance of power established at Vienna in 1815
– An independent Hungarian state would mean the
breakup of the Austrian empire.
• European states were multinational,
– conservatives tried to repress the radical threat of
nationalism.
Revolution and Reform, 18321848
• Forces of Liberalism, nationalism and the
second industrial revolution coalesced, in
1830 France
– Bourbon Monarch Overthrown
– created a limited constitutional monarchy under
Louis Philippe
• Great Britain avoided upheaval by passing a
Reform Bill 1832
– increased the numbers of male voters, primarily
benefitting the upper middle class who favored
liberal ideas
Revolution and Reform 1848
• Nationalism was the crucial force in 3 other
revolutions
– Belgium: had been annexed to the Dutch Republic
in 1815 to create a larger state to act as a barrier
against French Aggression,
– rebelled against the Dutch and established an
independent constitutional monarch
Revolution and Reform
• 2 other revolutions failed:
– Russian forces crushed the Poles attempt to
liberate themselves from foreign domination,
– Austrian troops intervened in Italy to uphold
reactionary governments in a number of Italian
states.
• Liberalism and Nationalism continued to grow
• Sparked new revolution
Revolutions of 1848
• Revolution in Central Europe
– Revolution in France was the spark for revolts in
other countries
– Internal problems provided kindling: industrial
and agricultural depression,
– refusal to extend suffrage
Central Europe
• Government of King Louis-Philippe refused to
respond to needs of people
– opposition grew and finally overthrew the
monarchy of Feb 24, 1848.
• A group of moderate and radical republicans
established a provisional government and
called for the election by universal male
suffrage of a “constitutional assembly” and
would draw up a new constitution.
Constitutional Assembly
• New constitution was ratified on November 4,
1848
• established the 2nd Republic with a single
legislature elected to 3 year terms by
universal male suffrage to a 4 yr term.
– In the elections for the presidency held in
December 1848, Charles Louis Napoleon
Bonaparte, nephew of original, won and within 4
years would establish an authoritarian regime