Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Course Outline Introduction Data warehousing and OLAP Data preprocessing for mining and warehousing Concept description: characterization and discrimination Classification and prediction Association analysis Clustering analysis Mining complex data and advanced mining techniques Trends and research issues Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 1 Data Mining and Warehousing: Session 7 Clustering Analysis Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 2 Clustering analysis What is Clustering Analysis? Clustering in Data Mining Applications Handling Different Types of Variables Major Clustering Techniques Outlier Discovery Problems and Challenges Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 3 What Is Clustering ? Clustering is a process of partitioning a set of data (or objects) into a set of meaningful sub-classes, called clusters. May help users understand the natural grouping or structure in a data set. Cluster: a collection of data objects that are “similar” to one another and thus can be treated collectively as one group. Clustering: unsupervised classification: no predefined classes. Used either as a stand-alone tool to get insight into data distribution or as a preprocessing step for other algorithms. Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 5 What Is Good Clustering? A good clustering method will produce high quality clusters in which: the intra-class (that is, intra-cluster) similarity is high. the inter-class similarity is low. The quality of a clustering result also depends on both the similarity measure used by the method and its implementation. The quality of a clustering method is also measured by its ability to discover some or all of the hidden patterns. Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 6 Requirements of Clustering in Data Mining Scalability Dealing with different types of attributes Discovery of clusters with arbitrary shape Able to deal with noise and outliers Insensitive to order of input records High dimensionality Interpretability and usability. Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 7 Clustering analysis What is Clustering Analysis? Clustering in Data Mining Applications Handling Different Types of Variables Major Clustering Techniques Outlier Discovery Problems and Challenges Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 8 Applications of Clustering Clustering has wide applications in Pattern Recognition Spatial Data Analysis: – create thematic maps in GIS by clustering feature spaces – detect spatial clusters and explain them in spatial data mining. Image Processing Economic Science (especially market research) WWW: – Document classification – Cluster Weblog data to discover groups of similar access patterns Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 9 Examples of Clustering Applications Marketing: Help marketers discover distinct groups in their customer bases, and then use this knowledge to develop targeted marketing programs. Land use: Identification of areas of similar land use in an earth observation database. Insurance: Identifying groups of motor insurance policy holders with a high average claim cost. City-planning: Identifying groups of houses according to their house type, value, and geographical location. Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 10 Clustering analysis What is Clustering Analysis? Clustering in Data Mining Applications Handling Different Types of Variables Major Clustering Techniques Outlier Discovery Problems and Challenges Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 11 Similarity and Dissimilarity Between Objects Distances are normally used to measure the similarity or dissimilarity between two data objects. Some popular ones include: Minkowski distance: d (i, j) q (| x x |q | x x |q ... | x x |q ) i1 j1 i2 j2 ip jp where i = (xi1, xi2, …, xip) and j = (xj1, xj2, …, xjp) are two p-dimensional data objects, and q is a positive integer. If q = 1, d is Manhattan distance. d (i, j) | x x | | x x | ... | x x | i1 j1 i2 j 2 i p jp If q = 2, d is Euclidean distance: d (i, j) (| x x |2 | x x |2 ... | x x |2 ) i1 j1 i2 j2 ip jp Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 12 Measure Similarity The definitions of distance functions are usually very different for interval-scaled, boolean, categorical, ordinal and ratio variables. Values should be scaled (normalized to 0-1) Weights should be associated with different variables based on applications and data semantics. It is hard to define “similar enough” or “good enough” the answer is typically highly subjective. Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 13 Binary, Nominal, Continuous variables Binary variable: d = 0 of x=y; d=0 otherwise Nominal variables: > 2 states, e.g., red, yellow, blue, green. p u Simple matching: u: # of matches, p: total # of variables. d (i, j) p Also, one can use a large number of binary variables. Continuos variables: d = |x-y| Scaling and normalization Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 14 Clustering analysis What is Clustering Analysis? Clustering in Data Mining Applications Handling Different Types of Variables Major Clustering Techniques Outlier Discovery Problems and Challenges Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 15 Five Categories of Clustering Methods Partitioning algorithms: Construct various partitions and then evaluate them by some criterion. Hierarchy algorithms: Create a hierarchical decomposition of the set of data (or objects) using some criterion. Density-based: based on connectivity and density functions Grid-based: based on a multiple-level granularity structure Model-based: A model is hypothesized for each of the clusters and the idea is to find the best fit of that model to each other. Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 16 Partitioning Algorithms: Basic Concept Partitioning method: Construct a partition of a database D of n objects into a set of k clusters Given a k, find a partition of k clusters that optimizes the chosen partitioning criterion. Global optimal: exhaustively enumerate all partitions. Heuristic methods: k-means and k-medoids algorithms. k-means (MacQueen’67): Each cluster is represented by the center of the cluster k-medoids or PAM (Partition around medoids) (Kaufman & Rousseeuw’87): Each cluster is represented by one of the objects in the cluster. Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 17 The K-Means Clustering Method Given k, the k-means algorithm is implemented in 4 steps: Partition objects into k nonempty subsets Compute seed points as the centroids of the clusters of the current partition. The centroid is the center (mean point) of the cluster. Assign each object to the cluster with the nearest seed point. Go back to Step 2, stop when no more new assignment. 10 10 10 9 9 9 8 8 8 7 7 7 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 10 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 7 6 0 0 1 2 3 4 Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 18 Comments on the K-Means Method Strength of the k-means: Relatively efficient: O(tkn), where n is # of objects, k is # of clusters, and t is # of iterations. Normally, k, t << n. Often terminates at a local optimum. Weakness of the k-means: Applicable only when mean is defined, then what about categorical data? Need to specify k, the number of clusters, in advance. Unable to handle noisy data and outliers. Not suitable to discover clusters with non-convex shapes. Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 19 The K-Medoids Clustering Method Find representative objects, called medoids, in clusters To achieve this goal, only the definition of distance from any two objects is needed. PAM (Partitioning Around Medoids, 1987) starts from an initial set of medoids and iteratively replaces one of the medoids by one of the non-medoids if it improves the total distance of the resulting clustering. PAM works effectively for small data sets, but does not scale well for large data sets. Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 20 Two Types of Hierarchical Clustering Algorithms Agglomerative (bottom-up): merge clusters iteratively. start by placing each object in its own cluster merge these atomic clusters into larger and larger clusters until all objects are in a single cluster. Most hierarchical methods belong to this category. They differ only in their definition of between-cluster similarity. Divisive (top-down): split a cluster iteratively. It does the reverse by starting with all objects in one cluster and subdividing them into smaller pieces. Divisive methods are not generally available, and rarely have been applied. Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 21 Hierarchical Clustering Use distance matrix as clustering criteria. This method does not require the number of clusters k as an input, but needs a termination condition. Step 0 a Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 ab b abcde c cde d de e Step 4 agglomerative (AGNES) Step 3 Step 2 Step 1 Step 0 Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by divisive (DIANA) 22 More on Hierarchical Clustering Methods between-cluster similarity Minimal distance Maximal distance Center distance Major weakness of agglomerative clustering methods: do not scale well: time complexity of at least O(n2), where n is the number of total objects can never undo what was done previously. Integration of hierarchical clustering with distance-based method: Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 23 Clustering analysis What is Clustering Analysis? Clustering in Data Mining Applications Handling Different Types of Variables Major Clustering Techniques Outlier Discovery Problems and Challenges Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 24 What Is Outlier Discovery? What are outliers? The set of objects are considerably dissimilar from the remainder of the data Example: Sports: Michael Jordon, Wayne Gretzky, ... Problem Given: Data points Find top n outlier points Applications: Credit card fraud detection Telecom fraud detection Customer segmentation Medical analysis Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 25 Outlier Discovery Methods Distance-based vs. statistics-based outlier analysis: Most outlier analyses are univariate (single-var) and distribution-based (how do we know it is in a normal or gammar distribution?) We need multi-dimensional analysis without knowing on data distribution. Distance-based outlier: An object O in a dataset T is a DB(p, D)-outlier if at least fraction p of the object in T lies greater than distance D from O. Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 26 Clustering analysis What is Clustering Analysis? Clustering in Data Mining Applications Handling Different Types of Variables Major Clustering Techniques Outlier Discovery Problems and Challenges Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 27 Problems and Challenges Considerable progress has been made in scalable clustering methods: Partitioning: k-means, k-medoids, CLARANS Hierarchical: BIRCH, CURE Density-based: DBSCAN, CLIQUE, OPTICS Grid-based: STING, WaveCluster. Model-based: Autoclass, Denclue, Cobweb. Current clustering techniques do not address all the requirements adequately. Constraint-based clustering analysis: Constraints exists in data space (bridges and highways) or in user queries. Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 28 Data Mining and Data Warehousing Introduction Data warehousing and OLAP Data preprocessing for mining and warehousing Concept description: characterization and discrimination Classification and prediction Association analysis Clustering analysis Mining complex data and advanced mining techniques Trends and research issues Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 29 Data Mining and Warehousing: Session 6 Association Analysis Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 30 Session 6: Association Analysis What is association analysis? Mining single-dimensional Boolean association rules in transactional databases Mining multi-level association rules Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 31 What Is Association Mining? Association rule mining: Finding association, correlation, or causal structures among sets of items or objects in transaction databases, relational databases, and other information repositories. Applications: Basket data analysis, cross-marketing, catalog design, loss-leader analysis, clustering, classification, etc. Examples. form: “Body ead [support, confidence]”. buys(x, “diapers”) buys(x, “beers”) [0.5%, 60%] major(x, “CS”) ^ takes(x, “DB”) grade(x, “A”) [1%, 75%] Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by Rule 32 Session 6: Association Analysis What is association analysis? Mining single-dimensional Boolean association rules in transactional databases Mining multi-level association rules Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 33 What Is an Association Rule? Given A database of customer transactions Each transaction is a list of items (purchased by a customer in a visit) Find all rules that correlate the presence of one set of items with that of another set of items Example: 98% of people who purchase tires and auto accessories also get automotive services done Any number of items in the consequent/antecedent of rule Possible to specify constraints on rules (e.g., find only rules involving Home Laundry Appliances). Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 34 Application Examples Market Basket Analysis * Maintenance Agreement What the store should do to boost Maintenance Agreement sales Home Electronics * What other products should the store stocks up on if the store has a sale on Home Electronics Attached mailing in direct marketing Detecting “ping-pong”ing of patients transaction: patient item: doctor/clinic visited by a patient support of a rule: number of common patients Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 35 Rule Measures: Support and Confidence Customer buys both Customer buys beer Transaction ID 2000 1000 4000 5000 Customer buys diaper Find all the rules X & Y Z with minimum confidence and support support, s, probability that a transaction contains {X, Y, Z} confidence, c, conditional probability that a transaction having {X, Y} also contains Z. Items Bought Let minimum support 50%, and A,B,C minimum confidence 50%, we A,C have A,D A C (50%, 66.6%) B,E,F C A (50%, 100%) Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 36 Mining Association Rules -- Example Transaction ID 2000 1000 4000 5000 Items Bought A,B,C A,C A,D B,E,F For rule A C: Min. support 50% Min. confidence 50% Frequent Itemset Support {A} 75% {B} 50% {C} 50% {A,C} 50% support = support({A, C}) = 50% confidence = support({A, C})/support({A}) = 66.6% The Apriori principle: Any subset of a frequent itemset must be frequent. Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 37 Mining Frequent Itemsets: the Key Step Find the frequent itemsets: the sets of items that have minimum support A subset of a frequent itemset must also be a frequent itemset, i.e., if {AB} is a frequent itemset, both {A} and {B} should be a frequent itemset Iteratively find frequent itemsets with cardinality from 1 to k (k-itemset) Use the frequent itemsets to generate association rules. Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 38 The Apriori Algorithm Ck: Candidate itemset of size k Lk : frequent itemset of size k L1 = {frequent items}; for (k = 1; Lk !=; k++) do begin Ck+1 = candidates generated from Lk; for each transaction t in database do increment the count of all candidates in Ck+1 that are contained in t Lk+1 = candidates in Ck+1 with min_support end return k Lk; Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 39 The Apriori Algorithm -- Example Database D TID 100 200 300 400 itemset sup. C1 {1} 2 {2} 3 Scan D {3} 3 {4} 1 {5} 3 Items 134 235 1235 25 C2 itemset sup L2 itemset sup 2 2 3 2 {1 {1 {1 {2 {2 {3 C3 itemset {2 3 5} Scan D {1 3} {2 3} {2 5} {3 5} 2} 3} 5} 3} 5} 5} 1 2 1 2 3 2 L1 itemset sup. {1} {2} {3} {5} 2 3 3 3 C2 itemset {1 2} Scan D L3 itemset sup {2 3 5} 2 Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by {1 {1 {2 {2 {3 3} 5} 3} 5} 5} 40 Generating Association Rules A Naive Algorithm for each frequent itemset F do for each subset c of F do if ( support(F)/support(F-c) minconf ) then output rule (F-c) c, with confidence = support(F)/support (F-c) and support = support(F) Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 41 Session 6: Association Analysis What is association analysis? Mining single-dimensional Boolean association rules in transactional databases Mining multi-level association rules Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 42 Multiple-Level Association Rules Food Items often form hierarchy. Items at the lower level are bread milk expected to have lower support. 2% wheat white skim Rules regarding itemsets at Fraser Sunset appropriate levels could be quite useful. TID Items Transaction database can be encoded based on dimensions T1 {111, 121, 211, 221} T2 {111, 211, 222, 323} and levels T3 {112, 122, 221, 411} It is smart to explore shared T4 {111, 121} multi-level mining (Han & T5 {111, 122, 211, 221, 413} Fu,VLDB’95). Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 43 Mining Multi-Level Associations A top_down, progressive deepening approach: First find high-level strong rules: milk bread [20%, 60%]. Then find their lower-level “weaker” rules: 2% milk wheat bread [6%, 50%]. Variations at mining multiple-level association rules. – – Level-crossed association rules: 2% milk Wonder wheat bread Association rules with multiple, alternative hierarchies: 2% milk Wonder bread Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 44 Multi-Level Mining: Progressive Deepening A top-down, progressive deepening approach: First mine high-level frequent items: milk (15%), bread (10%) Then mine their lower-level “weaker” frequent itemsets: 2% milk (5%), wheat bread (4%) Different min_support threshold across multi-levels lead to different algorithms: If adopting the same min_support across multi-levels then toss t if any of t’s ancestors is infrequent. If adopting reduced min_support at lower levels then examine only those descendents whose ancestor’s support is frequent/non-negligible. Copyright Jiawei Han, modified by 45