Download Part 4: Political Organization of Space #195 What is Political

Part 4: Political Organization of Space
#195 What is Political Geography?
Political geographers use the spatial perspective to
study political systems at all the geographic scales,
from local governments to international political
systems.
Political geographers look at how economic, cultural,
and physical geography impacts political systems, or,
the reverse, they investigate how political systems
can drive different countries economic and cultural
systems
#196 Theocracies
Governments controlled through divine guidance or
religious leadership
For example, some middle eastern countries such as
Iran owe their organizational structure tot eh the
teachings of Islam
#197 The State
Synonymous with country; an administrative region
with internationally recognized sovereignty
Fundamental unit of political geography
Currently 192-195 states across the globe, depending
on what is considered a state
192 members of the United Nations, two independent
states (Vatican and Kosovo); some consider Taiwan
to be independent
Almost always comprised of more than one nation,
and called multinational states
Nation States are sovereign states composed of
citizens with a common heritage, identity, and set of
political goals.
Japan is a common example of a Nation State.
#198 The Nation
Consists of a group of people with a common
political or ethnic identity
Not all nations have own state, which are called
stateless nations
Examples of stateless nations include Palestinians in
Israel, who have been fighting for decades to
establish own state; the Kurds spread throughout
large parts of the Middle East, but predominantly
turkey and Iraq; and all Native American nations in
the US.
#199 Evolution of the State
Political organization dates far beyond the European
model of statehood suggests.
Idea of the modern state developed in Europe by
political philosophers in 18th century and coincided
with the French Revolution
The modern state ideal held that people needed to be
loyal to a state and its people rather than to a leader
Many states today result from the European
expansion during the 17th 18th and 19th centuries as
state model was imposed on large parts of Africa and
South America.
#200 Challenges to the Modern State
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Globalization and rise of transnational corporations
threaten state authority as economic power is
increasingly centered on corporations rather than
countries
Rise of International and supranational institutions,
which involves surrendering some state autonomy for
economic, political, and military purposes.
Emergence and rise of nongovernmental
organizations and pressure they exert on both states
and international organizations
Magnitude of international migration flows decreases
nationalism; people exchange attachment to
homeland in exchange for membership in a global
community.
201 Territorial Organization
Geographically based political organization that bestows
relative power on hierarchy of the local government agencies.
Efficiently allows delegation of administrative functions,
which becomes increasingly important in large states.
Can allow for more efficient use of resources as allocation
takes place through local agencies more in touch with local
needs.
Allows some autonomy to local territories which empowers
them to enact laws and collect and spend tax money in more
efficient ways.
202 States’ Rights
Rights and powers believed to be in the authority of the state
rather than the federal government.
At several times in the United States history have become an
issue of much political debate:
During early days of the Republic
Divided country during Civil War
Divided country during Civil Rights Movement
Surrounded issues of environmental regulation and
management of natural resources
203 Federalism
System of government in which power is distributed among
certain geographical territories rather than concentrated within
a central government.
Federal states vary in the degree of autonomy they give to
local territories.
Examples include the United States which bestows some
degree of political autonomy to each state; similarly with
“provinces” in Canada and “estados” in Mexico.
204 Unitary States
States governed constitutionally as a unit without internal
divisions or a federalist delegation of powers.
Often are countries with few cultural conflicts and with strong
senses of nationality.
Many European countries are unitary states; boundaries are
strong typically both politic and cultural.
205 Asymmetric Federalism
Also called regional governmen .
System of government emerging formerly strong unitary states
in Europe that allows some level of autonomy to cultural
subdivisions within those countries.
Central government still retains control over nationwide
concerns such as defense, foreign relations, and economic
policy.
United Kingdom bestows some regional autonomy on
Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales; each region has its
own capital where regional power is concentrated.
206 Confederation
A voluntary grouping of states or communities for some
common purpose.
Initially, usually created by treaty, which later typically
evolves into a constitution.
In the United States, “Confederate” states refer to the southern
states that voluntarily joined together in an effort to secede
from the Union; an effort that failed as a result of the
Confederate States’ loss of the Civil War.
207 Electoral College
System of representation in the United States.
Consists of a specific number of electors from each state,
proportional to that states population.
Each state’s number of electoral votes is equal to number of
senators (two for each state) plus number of representatives
which varies according to population.
Total number of electors = 538.
In election years, each elector chooses a candidate believing
he or she represents his or her constituency’s choice; candidate
with higher proportion of electoral votes wins the election.
In 2000, while Gore won popular vote, electoral went to Bush
by a slim margin.
208 Reapportionment
Process of relocation of electoral states.
After every decennial census, the 538 electoral votes are
redistributed according to population shifts.
Despite population growth or decline, every state has at least
three electors; two senators and at least one member in the
House of Representatives.
California, New York, and Texas have large populations and
consequently a large portion of the electoral vote.
209 Redistricting
The drawing of new electoral district boundary lines in
response to population changes.
Each elector ideally represents a similar number of people;
after each census, district lines are redrawn to maintain this
relationship.
District lines are also drawn in an effort to establish “majorityminority” districts such that a state’s electors reflect its
population.
When district lines have been redrawn such that they favor or
disadvantage a particular political party, redistricting is called
gerrymandering.
210 North Carolina’s Proposed 12th Congressional District
Map
211 Electoral Geography
Investigation and analysis of the election process including
how district boundary lines are drawn and the spatial patterns
of election results and how they correspond to variables such
as socioeconomic status.
212 Country Shapes
Fragmented: a state that is not a contiguous whole but rather
separated parts.
Elongated: a state that is long and narrow in shape
Compact: a state that is possesses a roughly circular, oval, or
rectangular territory in which the distance from the geometric
center is relatively equal in all directions
Prorupt: a state that exhibits a narrow, elongated land
extension leading away from the main territory
213 Exclaves, Enclaves, and Perforated States
Exclaves: a boundary territory that is part of a particular state
but is separated from it by the territory of a different state
Enclaves: any small and relatively homogenous group, region,
or state surrounded by another larger and different group,
region, or state
Perforated: a state whose territory completely surrounds that
of another state
214 Examples of State Shapes
Chile with its long lean shape is an example of an “elongated”
state
Poland. Being relatively compact and circular, is an example
of a “compact” state
Thailand, with its lean jutting off the southwest coast
exemplifies a “prorupted” state
The Philippines, being compromised of many islands,
exemplify a fragmented state
South Africa is a “perforated” state that completely surrounds
the “enclave” of Lesotho
215 Landlocked States
A state that is completely surrounded by the land of others.
Disadvantages in terms of accessibility to and from
international trade routes
216 Microstates
State or territory that is small in both population and area
The Vatican, Andorra, and all the various island states in the
South Pacific are good examples of microstates or ministates
The Smallest state in the world is Nauru, at 8.2 square miles
(13.2 Kilometers)
217 Physical vs Geometric State Boundaries
Physical boundaries correspond to the prominent physical
features such as mountain ranges or rivers
Mississippi river defines boundary lines for several states in
the Midwestern United States
Geometric boundaries are defined and delimited by straight
lines
Majority of the boundaries separating the United States from
Canada correspond to a line of latitude rather than any
physical features
218 Subsequent vs Antecedent Boundaries
Subsequent boundaries are lines established after cultural
landscape exists
Consequent subsequent boundaries accommodate existing
religious, linguistic, ethnic, or economic differences between,
counties, while superimposing boundaries ignore cultural
differences between groups
Antecedent boundaries are lines established before an area is
populated
219 Boundaries and Political Stability in Africa
When European nations colonized large parts of Africa in the
17th- 19th centuries, territories were divided according to which
pieces of land belonged to which European colonizer without
regard for existing spatial patterns of different tribes and
ethnicities
After decolonization, both states model and boundaries
superimposed by colonizers remained in place
As these superimposed boundaries both separate ethnic groups
between countries and include a multiplicity of different tribes
and ethnicity within one country, many believe that much of
the current conflict in Africa stems from a lack of ability to
establish effective leadership in countries given their ethnic
diversity \
220 Relic Boundaries
Old political boundaries that no longer exist as international
borders, but have left and enduring mark on the local and
cultural or environmental geography
For example, abandon castles lining former border between
England and Wales
#221 Boundary Disputes- Positional disputes involve
disagreement over interpretation of position of the boundary
line; occur most often with physical boundaries. Territorial
disputes involve disagreement over ownership of land,
typically when superimposed boundaries divide an ethnically
homogeneous population. Resource disputes arise when a
valuable resource lies within a border region, such as the
Colorado River, which spans the United States and Mexico.
Functional disputes involve argument over policies to be
applied in a boundary region, such as immigration.
#222 Cores and Capitals- Most states contain a core area,
which is the oldest area in the state, typically containing the
most developed economic base and transportation services,
and has the highest population density. Examples of strong
core regions include Paris, France, and London England.
Often, a country’s capital is in the core region, and serves as
the center of political and economic power. Most European
countries follow this model and most tend to be unitary states
#223 Forward- Thrust Capitals- A relocated capital city that
is deliberately sited in a state’s frontier zone. For example, the
capital of Brazil was moved from Rio de Janeiro to Brasilia to
encourage development in interior of the country.
#224 Centrifugal Forces- Forces within a state that
destabilize or weakens it. Always present to some degree,
even in politically stable countries. In general, centrifugal
forces are opposite of centripetal forces, that is, if a country
does not have effective administration, organization,
communication, or transportation networks, it will be
politically unstable.
#225 Nationalism as a Centrifugal Force-Nationalism can
become negative when a nation perceives itself as a superior
to other nations, specifically when a nation is located within
the bounds of another authority. Sub nationalism is when a
multinational state contains people that give their primary
allegiance to a group or nation smaller than the population of
the entire state. When sub national groups are not able to
peacefully coexist, nationalism becomes a divisive force
within a country.
#226 Balkanization- Contentious political process by which a
state may break up into smaller countries. Term comes from
conflicts in the Balkans during the twentieth century that
caused the territory to be broken up, both during the Balkan
Wars in the early 1900s and the Yugoslav Wars during the
1990s.
#227 Separatism- Also called autonomous nationalism, when
a minority group seeks total or partial secession from the state.
Seperaist movements exist in both traditionally politically
stable countries as well as countries with long histories of
political instability. Canada houses a secessionist movement in
French- speaking Quebec; Belgium, Italy, Spain, and the
United Kingdom also house secessionist movements within
their bounds. Separatist movements are strong centrifugal
forces in India, Israel, the Philippines, and Sri Lanka, and
among others.
#228 Devolution- The transfer of some central powers to
regional or local governments, many seperaist movements in
Western Europe seek regional autonomy or devolution rather
than complete independence from the state. Several of these
regions have been granted some degree of political power;
France, Spain, and the United Kingdom have developed
programs of devolution for their minority groups.
#229 Domino Theory- Idea that political destabilization in
one country can lead to collapse of political stability in
neighboring countries, starting a chain reaction of collapse.
Fear during Cold War if communism caught on in a few
countries proximal to the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics,
many others would follow, tipping world power in favor of
communism.
#230 Centripetal Forces- Forces within a state that promote
unity and national stability. Nationalism, in a positive sense,
along with an effective administration system, unifying
institutions, and a well-developed transportation and
communications system generally lead to political stability.
Missing Jordan Franklin’s terms (231-243)
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244. The Geography of Terrorism
Terrorism is the calculated use of violent acts against a
civilian population and symbolic targets.
Post September 11, 2001, American geographers have
become increasingly interested in studying the
geography of terrorism; specifically how a spatial
perspective contributes to both an understanding of its
causes and solutions
For example, many terrorist acts at the national level
arise from centrifugal forces such as strong separatist
movements or organized religion.
Additionally, geographers study possible solutions,
such as international agreements in which countries
exchange intelligence for information.
245. Supranationalism
Trend toward creation of associations of three or more
states developed for mutual benefit and to achieve
shared objectives.
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All countries are members of at least one supranational
organization: the United Nations, but many countries
are members of multiple organizations.
Some supranational organizations are governmental,
involving economic and political alliances, others are
nongovernmental, typically working toward
humanitarian or environmental objectives.
246. The European Union
International Organization in Western Europe that
formed out of the EEC (European Economic
Community, began in 1958).
Initial purpose was economic, and free trade was
encouraged between member nations.
Increasingly becoming both a political and economic
organization.
A common currency, the euro, was accepted by 12
countries in 2002.
247. Regional Alliances
Multinational systems in which states relinquish some
autonomy in order to participate in regional alliances
that have political, economic, or military purposes
Currently, economic regional alliances are most
prevalent and include organizations such as the North
American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the
European Union (EU).
Some exist for political, social, and cultural objectives
such as the League of Arab Nations
248. Military Alliances
Developed to ensure mutual assistance in times of
aggression
For example, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO) includes many European countries and the
United States and provides land for military bases
among member states.
249. International Agreements
One goal of international organizations is
establishment of international protocols for various
world-related issues, such as the environment, health,
economic development, and foreign aid.
For example, the Kyoto Protocol, developed at a
United Nations meeting in 1997, cut the amount of
greenhouse gasses signing countries could emit into
the atmosphere.