Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Part 4: Political Organization of Space #195 What is Political Geography? Political geographers use the spatial perspective to study political systems at all the geographic scales, from local governments to international political systems. Political geographers look at how economic, cultural, and physical geography impacts political systems, or, the reverse, they investigate how political systems can drive different countries economic and cultural systems #196 Theocracies Governments controlled through divine guidance or religious leadership For example, some middle eastern countries such as Iran owe their organizational structure tot eh the teachings of Islam #197 The State Synonymous with country; an administrative region with internationally recognized sovereignty Fundamental unit of political geography Currently 192-195 states across the globe, depending on what is considered a state 192 members of the United Nations, two independent states (Vatican and Kosovo); some consider Taiwan to be independent Almost always comprised of more than one nation, and called multinational states Nation States are sovereign states composed of citizens with a common heritage, identity, and set of political goals. Japan is a common example of a Nation State. #198 The Nation Consists of a group of people with a common political or ethnic identity Not all nations have own state, which are called stateless nations Examples of stateless nations include Palestinians in Israel, who have been fighting for decades to establish own state; the Kurds spread throughout large parts of the Middle East, but predominantly turkey and Iraq; and all Native American nations in the US. #199 Evolution of the State Political organization dates far beyond the European model of statehood suggests. Idea of the modern state developed in Europe by political philosophers in 18th century and coincided with the French Revolution The modern state ideal held that people needed to be loyal to a state and its people rather than to a leader Many states today result from the European expansion during the 17th 18th and 19th centuries as state model was imposed on large parts of Africa and South America. #200 Challenges to the Modern State - - Globalization and rise of transnational corporations threaten state authority as economic power is increasingly centered on corporations rather than countries Rise of International and supranational institutions, which involves surrendering some state autonomy for economic, political, and military purposes. Emergence and rise of nongovernmental organizations and pressure they exert on both states and international organizations Magnitude of international migration flows decreases nationalism; people exchange attachment to homeland in exchange for membership in a global community. 201 Territorial Organization Geographically based political organization that bestows relative power on hierarchy of the local government agencies. Efficiently allows delegation of administrative functions, which becomes increasingly important in large states. Can allow for more efficient use of resources as allocation takes place through local agencies more in touch with local needs. Allows some autonomy to local territories which empowers them to enact laws and collect and spend tax money in more efficient ways. 202 States’ Rights Rights and powers believed to be in the authority of the state rather than the federal government. At several times in the United States history have become an issue of much political debate: During early days of the Republic Divided country during Civil War Divided country during Civil Rights Movement Surrounded issues of environmental regulation and management of natural resources 203 Federalism System of government in which power is distributed among certain geographical territories rather than concentrated within a central government. Federal states vary in the degree of autonomy they give to local territories. Examples include the United States which bestows some degree of political autonomy to each state; similarly with “provinces” in Canada and “estados” in Mexico. 204 Unitary States States governed constitutionally as a unit without internal divisions or a federalist delegation of powers. Often are countries with few cultural conflicts and with strong senses of nationality. Many European countries are unitary states; boundaries are strong typically both politic and cultural. 205 Asymmetric Federalism Also called regional governmen . System of government emerging formerly strong unitary states in Europe that allows some level of autonomy to cultural subdivisions within those countries. Central government still retains control over nationwide concerns such as defense, foreign relations, and economic policy. United Kingdom bestows some regional autonomy on Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales; each region has its own capital where regional power is concentrated. 206 Confederation A voluntary grouping of states or communities for some common purpose. Initially, usually created by treaty, which later typically evolves into a constitution. In the United States, “Confederate” states refer to the southern states that voluntarily joined together in an effort to secede from the Union; an effort that failed as a result of the Confederate States’ loss of the Civil War. 207 Electoral College System of representation in the United States. Consists of a specific number of electors from each state, proportional to that states population. Each state’s number of electoral votes is equal to number of senators (two for each state) plus number of representatives which varies according to population. Total number of electors = 538. In election years, each elector chooses a candidate believing he or she represents his or her constituency’s choice; candidate with higher proportion of electoral votes wins the election. In 2000, while Gore won popular vote, electoral went to Bush by a slim margin. 208 Reapportionment Process of relocation of electoral states. After every decennial census, the 538 electoral votes are redistributed according to population shifts. Despite population growth or decline, every state has at least three electors; two senators and at least one member in the House of Representatives. California, New York, and Texas have large populations and consequently a large portion of the electoral vote. 209 Redistricting The drawing of new electoral district boundary lines in response to population changes. Each elector ideally represents a similar number of people; after each census, district lines are redrawn to maintain this relationship. District lines are also drawn in an effort to establish “majorityminority” districts such that a state’s electors reflect its population. When district lines have been redrawn such that they favor or disadvantage a particular political party, redistricting is called gerrymandering. 210 North Carolina’s Proposed 12th Congressional District Map 211 Electoral Geography Investigation and analysis of the election process including how district boundary lines are drawn and the spatial patterns of election results and how they correspond to variables such as socioeconomic status. 212 Country Shapes Fragmented: a state that is not a contiguous whole but rather separated parts. Elongated: a state that is long and narrow in shape Compact: a state that is possesses a roughly circular, oval, or rectangular territory in which the distance from the geometric center is relatively equal in all directions Prorupt: a state that exhibits a narrow, elongated land extension leading away from the main territory 213 Exclaves, Enclaves, and Perforated States Exclaves: a boundary territory that is part of a particular state but is separated from it by the territory of a different state Enclaves: any small and relatively homogenous group, region, or state surrounded by another larger and different group, region, or state Perforated: a state whose territory completely surrounds that of another state 214 Examples of State Shapes Chile with its long lean shape is an example of an “elongated” state Poland. Being relatively compact and circular, is an example of a “compact” state Thailand, with its lean jutting off the southwest coast exemplifies a “prorupted” state The Philippines, being compromised of many islands, exemplify a fragmented state South Africa is a “perforated” state that completely surrounds the “enclave” of Lesotho 215 Landlocked States A state that is completely surrounded by the land of others. Disadvantages in terms of accessibility to and from international trade routes 216 Microstates State or territory that is small in both population and area The Vatican, Andorra, and all the various island states in the South Pacific are good examples of microstates or ministates The Smallest state in the world is Nauru, at 8.2 square miles (13.2 Kilometers) 217 Physical vs Geometric State Boundaries Physical boundaries correspond to the prominent physical features such as mountain ranges or rivers Mississippi river defines boundary lines for several states in the Midwestern United States Geometric boundaries are defined and delimited by straight lines Majority of the boundaries separating the United States from Canada correspond to a line of latitude rather than any physical features 218 Subsequent vs Antecedent Boundaries Subsequent boundaries are lines established after cultural landscape exists Consequent subsequent boundaries accommodate existing religious, linguistic, ethnic, or economic differences between, counties, while superimposing boundaries ignore cultural differences between groups Antecedent boundaries are lines established before an area is populated 219 Boundaries and Political Stability in Africa When European nations colonized large parts of Africa in the 17th- 19th centuries, territories were divided according to which pieces of land belonged to which European colonizer without regard for existing spatial patterns of different tribes and ethnicities After decolonization, both states model and boundaries superimposed by colonizers remained in place As these superimposed boundaries both separate ethnic groups between countries and include a multiplicity of different tribes and ethnicity within one country, many believe that much of the current conflict in Africa stems from a lack of ability to establish effective leadership in countries given their ethnic diversity \ 220 Relic Boundaries Old political boundaries that no longer exist as international borders, but have left and enduring mark on the local and cultural or environmental geography For example, abandon castles lining former border between England and Wales #221 Boundary Disputes- Positional disputes involve disagreement over interpretation of position of the boundary line; occur most often with physical boundaries. Territorial disputes involve disagreement over ownership of land, typically when superimposed boundaries divide an ethnically homogeneous population. Resource disputes arise when a valuable resource lies within a border region, such as the Colorado River, which spans the United States and Mexico. Functional disputes involve argument over policies to be applied in a boundary region, such as immigration. #222 Cores and Capitals- Most states contain a core area, which is the oldest area in the state, typically containing the most developed economic base and transportation services, and has the highest population density. Examples of strong core regions include Paris, France, and London England. Often, a country’s capital is in the core region, and serves as the center of political and economic power. Most European countries follow this model and most tend to be unitary states #223 Forward- Thrust Capitals- A relocated capital city that is deliberately sited in a state’s frontier zone. For example, the capital of Brazil was moved from Rio de Janeiro to Brasilia to encourage development in interior of the country. #224 Centrifugal Forces- Forces within a state that destabilize or weakens it. Always present to some degree, even in politically stable countries. In general, centrifugal forces are opposite of centripetal forces, that is, if a country does not have effective administration, organization, communication, or transportation networks, it will be politically unstable. #225 Nationalism as a Centrifugal Force-Nationalism can become negative when a nation perceives itself as a superior to other nations, specifically when a nation is located within the bounds of another authority. Sub nationalism is when a multinational state contains people that give their primary allegiance to a group or nation smaller than the population of the entire state. When sub national groups are not able to peacefully coexist, nationalism becomes a divisive force within a country. #226 Balkanization- Contentious political process by which a state may break up into smaller countries. Term comes from conflicts in the Balkans during the twentieth century that caused the territory to be broken up, both during the Balkan Wars in the early 1900s and the Yugoslav Wars during the 1990s. #227 Separatism- Also called autonomous nationalism, when a minority group seeks total or partial secession from the state. Seperaist movements exist in both traditionally politically stable countries as well as countries with long histories of political instability. Canada houses a secessionist movement in French- speaking Quebec; Belgium, Italy, Spain, and the United Kingdom also house secessionist movements within their bounds. Separatist movements are strong centrifugal forces in India, Israel, the Philippines, and Sri Lanka, and among others. #228 Devolution- The transfer of some central powers to regional or local governments, many seperaist movements in Western Europe seek regional autonomy or devolution rather than complete independence from the state. Several of these regions have been granted some degree of political power; France, Spain, and the United Kingdom have developed programs of devolution for their minority groups. #229 Domino Theory- Idea that political destabilization in one country can lead to collapse of political stability in neighboring countries, starting a chain reaction of collapse. Fear during Cold War if communism caught on in a few countries proximal to the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, many others would follow, tipping world power in favor of communism. #230 Centripetal Forces- Forces within a state that promote unity and national stability. Nationalism, in a positive sense, along with an effective administration system, unifying institutions, and a well-developed transportation and communications system generally lead to political stability. Missing Jordan Franklin’s terms (231-243) o o o o o 244. The Geography of Terrorism Terrorism is the calculated use of violent acts against a civilian population and symbolic targets. Post September 11, 2001, American geographers have become increasingly interested in studying the geography of terrorism; specifically how a spatial perspective contributes to both an understanding of its causes and solutions For example, many terrorist acts at the national level arise from centrifugal forces such as strong separatist movements or organized religion. Additionally, geographers study possible solutions, such as international agreements in which countries exchange intelligence for information. 245. Supranationalism Trend toward creation of associations of three or more states developed for mutual benefit and to achieve shared objectives. o o o o o o o o o o o o o All countries are members of at least one supranational organization: the United Nations, but many countries are members of multiple organizations. Some supranational organizations are governmental, involving economic and political alliances, others are nongovernmental, typically working toward humanitarian or environmental objectives. 246. The European Union International Organization in Western Europe that formed out of the EEC (European Economic Community, began in 1958). Initial purpose was economic, and free trade was encouraged between member nations. Increasingly becoming both a political and economic organization. A common currency, the euro, was accepted by 12 countries in 2002. 247. Regional Alliances Multinational systems in which states relinquish some autonomy in order to participate in regional alliances that have political, economic, or military purposes Currently, economic regional alliances are most prevalent and include organizations such as the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the European Union (EU). Some exist for political, social, and cultural objectives such as the League of Arab Nations 248. Military Alliances Developed to ensure mutual assistance in times of aggression For example, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) includes many European countries and the United States and provides land for military bases among member states. 249. International Agreements One goal of international organizations is establishment of international protocols for various world-related issues, such as the environment, health, economic development, and foreign aid. For example, the Kyoto Protocol, developed at a United Nations meeting in 1997, cut the amount of greenhouse gasses signing countries could emit into the atmosphere.