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Atferdsanalyse, radikal behaviorisme og resten av verden Eller : Hvorfor så sur, da? • Jon Arne Farsethås • Nafo 2014 Kanzi Hva vi skal snakke om? • Først Simon Baron-Cohen, og hva han er så sur for. • Dernest selvfølgelig at han tar pinlig feil på alle punkter. • Og så om hva det er ved atferdsanalysen og atferdsanalytisk praksis som avføder denne typen voldsomheter (kritikk er et alt for mildt ord). Hva vi skal snakke om? • Dette skal vi forsøke å belyse ved å se nærmere på fire områder: 1. Hva i all verden er radikal behaviorisme, og hvorfor er det så viktig for atferdsanalytikere å mase om dette ved praktisk talt enhver anledning? 2. Forholdet mellom radikal behaviorisme, eksperimentell atferdsanalyse og anvendt atferdsanalyse. 3. Atferdsanalysens forhold til biologi. 4. Atferdsanalysens språk og (mis)forståelse av språk. Og i en fornuftig verden? • Da burde vi ha snakket om: Funksjonell atferdsorganisering - et kontinuum Variasjon og seleksjon S S O R Reflekser FAM Seleksjon av: Sensoriske systemer Motoriske systemer Motivasjonelle systemer Seksuell seleksjon R Arbitrære relasjone r Edge.org. What scientific idea is ready for retirement? Simon Baron-Cohen: Radical Behaviorism Simon Baron-Cohen (2014) : • Every student of psychology is taught that radical Behaviorism was displaced by the cognitive revolution, because it was deeply flawed scientifically. • Yet it is still practiced in animal behavior modification, and even in some areas of contemporary clinical psychology. Simon Baron-Cohen (forts.) • The central idea of radical behaviorism – that all behavior can be explained as the result of learned associations between a stimulus and a response, reinforced or extinguished through reward and/or punishment – stems from the early 20th century psychologists B.F Skinner (at Harvard) and John B. Watson (at John Hopkins). Simon Baron-Cohen (forts.) • Skinner was painted as if he believed that the newborn human mind was no more than a blank slate, although this was something of a straw man, since in at least one interview Skinner clearly acknowlegdged the role of genetics. • Ett intervju? Simon Baron-Cohen (forts.) • (It) is scientifically uninformative. Behavior by definition is the surface level, so it follows that the same piece of behavior could be the result of different underlying cognitive strategies, different underlying neural systems, and even underlying causal pathways. Two individuals can show the same behavior but can have arrived at it through very different underlying causal routes. • Joda, selvfølgelig. Men problematisk formulert : kognitive strategier, f.eks. Simon Baron-Cohen (forts.) • Given these scientific (sic!) arguments, you’d have thought Radical Behaviorism would have been retired long ago, and yet it continues to be the basis of «behavior modification» programs, in which a trainer aims to shape another person’s or animal’s behavior, rewarding them for for producing surface behavior whilst ignoring their underlying evolved neurocognitive make-up. • Men dette er jo helt bakvendt radikal behaviorisme kalles radikal nettopp fordi den inkluderer og analyserer private begivenheter. Simon Baron-Cohen (forts.) • The orca dutifully produced the behaviors to get the rewards (food) but, over the years in captivity he was involved in 3 deaths of people. It has never been documented that orcas have killed a human in the wild, so this may have been a reaction to the Radical Behaviorists who were training this orca to show new behaviors, whilst ignoring millions of years of evolved social and emotional neurocognitive circuitry in the animal’s brain, circuitry that does not vanish in captivity. • What? Simon Baron-Cohen (forts.) • Kidnapping one individual orca and placing him or her i captivity not only isolates the animal from their social community, but it reduces their life expenctancy, and causes signs of ill-health, such as the frequent collapse of the dorsal fin. The use of Radical Behaviorism towards such animals in captivity is doubly unethical, because of the lack of respect for the animal’s real nature. The focus on shaping surface behavior ignores who or what the anamal really is. • Igjen : what? Simon Baron-Cohen (forts.) • There may be ethical lessons here when we think about the still widespread use of behavior modification of humans in contemporary clinical settings, the need to respect how a person thinks and feels, respecting their real nature, rather than simply focusing on whether they can be trained to change their surface behavior. • Jaha. Er det ikke det som er atferdsanalyse, da? Hvorfor alle disse påfallende aggressive misforståelsene? • Dette er ikke Simon Baron-Cohens private vrangforestillinger. Han bare gjengir på en særdeles plump måte oppfatninger som er ganske utbredt, kanskje tilmed dominerende, utenfor det atferdsanalytiske (radikalbehavioristiske?) miljøet. • Hvordan i all verden kan det ha blitt sånn? Mulige delsvar • Atferdsanalyse rommer mange og til dels motstridene tradisjoner. • Atferdsanalyse vingler f.eks. mellom å være direkte bøllete overfor noen andre fagtradisjoner, og overinkluderende overfor andre Mulige forklaringer (bortsett fra vrangvilje og uvitenhet) kan være knyttet til: • Mangelfull forståelse og arrogant avvisning av andre fagtradisjoner • Eksklusiv krav på vitenskapelighet • Alt tas til inntekt for atferdsanalyse. • Forvirrende og ekskluderende språkbruk. • Meningsløs formalisme, og forvirrende indre stridigheter. • Overdrevne forestillinger om effektivitet og «false assurances about the state of our knowledge» Tema 1: Radikal behaviorisme • Ikke lett å finne noen klar definisjon: Både Mecca Chiesa og Jay Moore har skrevet en hel bok om det, uten at det har lykkes meg å finne annet enn indirekte definisjoner av hva det innebærer. • Men må åpenbart være viktig, siden det henvises til overalt, også i forhold til anvendt atferdsanalyse. • Siden Skinner har funnet opp begrepet, burde han være første og største autoritet. Men også han er unnvikende og indirekte. Men også ganske klar: • Radikal behaviorisme er IKKE metodisk behaviorisme. • Hvorfor ikke : Fordi radikal behaviorisme INKLUDERER private begivenheter i analysen. I grunnen er det det hele. Men det er ikke lite. Og det er radikalt. Konglekjertelen Behaviorism, with an accent on the last syllable, is not the scientific study of behavior,but a philosophy of science concerned with the subject matter and methods of psychology. Behaviorism will eventually die, not because it has been a failure but because it ha been a success. B.F. Skinner Huden som grense • The skin is not that important as a boundary Radikal behaviorisme • The heart of the behavioristic position on conscious experience may be summed up in this way: seeing does not imply something seen. • Skinner : Behaviorism at Fifty. (1964) Radikal behaviorisme? Kognitivisme? • In many cases we can reconstruct a complete causal chain by identifying the mental state which is the effect of an environmental variable with the mental state which is the cause of action. But this is not always enough. • ….Mental states alter one another. A painful memory may never affect behavior or may affect it in a different way, if another mental state succeeds in repressing it. Conflicting variables may be reconciled before reaching behavior if the subject engages in mental actions called «making a decision» Radikal behaviorisme? Kognitivisme? • Dissonant cognitions generated by conflicting conditions of reinforcement will not be reflected in behavior if the subject can «persuade himself» that one condition was actually of a different magnitude or kind. These disturbances in simple causal linkages between environment and behavior can be formulated and studied experimentally as interactions among variables, but the possibility has not been fully exploited, and the effects still provide a formidable stronghold for mentalistic theories designed to bridge the gap between dependent and independent variables in the analysis of behavior. Radikal behaviorisme? Kognitivisme? • Hva er dette? • Svar: • B.F. Skinner : Behaviorism at Fifty. (1964) s.92-93 Radikal behaviorisme. • It restores introspection, but not what philosophers and introspective psychologists had believed they had been «specting», and it raises the question of how much of one’s body one can actually observe. • B.F. Skinner, 1974 About Behaviorism Så hva gjenstår? • Hvordan vet hunder at de ser?(Nivå en) • Det cartesianske teater i uendelig regress. Så hva har dette med autisme å gjøre? •Ingenting! •Men se her: Radikal behaviorisme • Så hvordan har det gått med behavioraliseringen. • Jo,takk. De nevrobiologiske vitenskapene har i det stille gjennomført eller er i ferd med å gjennomføre den uten at atferdsanalytikere egentlig har lagt merke til det. Forholdet til biologi. Hva det dreier seg om • In the distant future I see open fields for far more important researches. • Psychology will be based on a new foundation, that of the necessary acquirement of each mental power and capacity by gradation. Light will be thrown on the origin of Man and his history. • Charles Darwin : The Origin of Species. ..the natural lines of fracture.. • The preceding system is based upon the assumption that both behavior and environment may be broken into parts which retain their identity throughout an experiment and undergo orderly changes. • If this assumption were not in some sense justified, a science of behavior would be impossible. ..the natural lines of fracture.. • But the analysis of behavior is not an act of arbitrary subdividing. • We cannot define the concepts of stimulus and response quite as simply as “parts of behavior and environment” without taking account of the natural lines of fracture along which behavior and environment actually breaks. • B.F. Skinner, B of O, 1938, p. 33 ..the natural lines of fracture.. • But the analysis of behavior is not an act of arbitrary subdividing. • We cannot define the concepts of stimulus and response quite as simply as “parts of behavior and environment” without taking account of the natural lines of fracture along which behavior and environment actually breaks. • B.F. Skinner, B of O, 1938, p. 33 Skinner’s konsistens i synet på forholdet mellom eksperimentell atferdsanalyse og nevrologi. 1. What is generally not understood by those interested in establishing neurological bases is that a rigorous description at the level of behavior is necessary for the demonstration of a neurological correlate..... I am not overlooking the advance that is made in the unification of knowledge when terms at one level of analysis are defined (“explained”) at a lower level. Skinner, B of O, 1938, pp 422, 428. Skinner’s konsistens i synet på forholdet mellom eksperimentell atferdsanalyse og nevrologi. Forts. • 2. • The physiologist of the future will tell us all that can be known about what is happening inside the behaving organism. His account will be an important advance over a behavioral analysis, because the latter is necessarily “historical” – that is to say, it is confined to functional relations showing temporal gaps. .....What he discovers cannot invalidate the laws of a science of behavior, but will make the picture of human action more nearly complete. • • About Behaviorism, 1974, pp. 236-237. Skinner’s konsistens i synet på forholdet mellom eksperimentell atferdsanalyse og nevrologi. Forts.2 • 3. • Valid facts about behavior are not invalidated by discoveries concerning the nervous system, nor are facts about the nervous system invalidated by facts about behavior. Both sets of facts are part of the same enterprise, and I have always looked forward to the time when neurology would fill the temporal and spatial gaps which are inevitable in a behavioral analysis. • • The operational analysis of psychological terms De fleste behavioristiske psykologer mente at om man ser bort fra at menneskets læringsmekanismer har felles evolusjonært opphav med og er felles med læringsmekanismer hos dyr, kan ikke evolusjonsteori bidra noe for å kaste lys over menneskets atferd. Antimentalisme og likt potensial for betinging ble behaviorismens to pilarer. …….Alt man trengte for en vitenskap om atferd, var organismens belønnings/forsterkningshistorikk og artens fylogenetiske historie. Det sistnevnte tilførte den radikale behaviorismen en oppfatning om organismens ”genetisk utrustning” – hovedsakelig evnen til å bli klassisk og operant betinget. It is inevitable that behavior analysis will be integrated into evolutionary biology; the question is how this will occur. The danger here is not of being wrong, but of becoming irrelevant. Evolutionary biology will push ahead because it has the weight of Darwinian revolution behind it. To remain relevant, behavior analysis must discard antropocentrism and embrace evolutionary biology. (W. M. Baum, 1995, p. 1 -2 ) Behaviorismen vektla at forsterkningsbetingelsene i miljøet var viktige og basert på tre implisitte antakelser. Den første var at dyret ble brakt inn i laboratoriet som en ”tabula rasa” – en blank tavle. De hadde kun noen få medfødte egenskaper, blant annet å kunne lære. Den andre var at artsforskjeller ikke hadde noe å si. Den tredje var antakelsen om at alle responser var tilnærmet like lette å betinge for alle typer stimuli – organismene hadde likt læringspotensial for alle typer stimuli. Mysterud, 2003,s. 35. Med sin overdrevne vektlegging av Darwins læresetning om mental kontinuitet mellom arter dominerte behaviorismen den eksperimentelle psykologien i Nord-Amerika fra 1920-tallet til 1970-tallet. Paradokasalt nok fostret det behavioristiske synet, med sine røtter i Darwins argumenter om fylogenetisk kontinuitet, en dyptgående antidarwinistisk holdning om at læring og miljøpåvirkning på en eller annen måte skjermet atferd fra evolusjonær påvirkning og analyse. The evolution of behaviorism • New data on conditionioning processes favor an eclecticism between the traditional nativist and environmentalist extremes in the analysis of behavior. .. The theory of behavior based on conditioning processes can be reconciled with the new data, but only by revising certain tacit assumptions about the parameters of the conditioning processes, particularly instrumental or operant conditioning. • Herrnstein, 1977 The evolution of behaviorism • Operant conditioning specifies how stimuli, responses, reinforcers, and drive states are woven into relationships that shape and sustain an organism’s behavior. The new data undermine traditional assumptions about each of those elements rather than about the form of their relationship. Because some of the assumptions fall under the heading of motivation, it is concluded that behaviorism is at last reflecting motivation’s subtleties, after several decades of failing to do so. Thus refined, behaviorism appears to merge with the main lines of ethology as a more complete science of behavior than either one alone has been. • R. J. Herrnstein • American Psychologist, 1977. Due, rotte, ape, hvilken er hvilken? Det har ingen betydning. Skinner,1959.(A Case History). Så hva er problemet? • Ganske enkelt: • Rotta er ikke en rotte, men en organisme. • Spaktrykking er bare en representativ, arbitrær respons Of course, the operant rides on the respondent. • Alledgedly : B.F Skinner Forsterkning? •Det vet vi vel i alle fall hva er? Forsterkning? Så hva er forsterkning? • Tre effekter: • Øker akivering og aktivitet • Øker sannsynlighet for atferd innen samme klasse (organiserer atferd) • Øker variasjon (jfr. N+1 – effekten) Preferanse for variabilitet • Generelt velger eksperimentdyr variable framfor faste skjema, selv der hvor disse gir mindre uttelling. • Hvorfor? • Det finnes et flertall forslag til rasjonelle løsninger på det tekniske plan. • Men den ulyimate grunnen er at det er slik vi nevrobiologisk er skrudd sammen Basisbegreper (2) Forsterkere defineres operasjonelt ved effekt : En forsterker er enhver endring i stimulusforhold som følger av eller etter (kontingent på) en atferd og medfører en økt sannsynlighet for at atferden igjen vil forekomme på et senere tidspunkt under samme eller lignende stimulusbetingelser. Positiv og negativ refererer til om denne effekten er basert på kontingent økning eller reduksjon av stimuli i situasjonen. Forsterkning? • The concept of reinforcement is at least incomplete and almost certainly incorrect. • William Baum, JEAB,2012, 97, p.101. Radikal behaviorisme og anvendt atferdsanalyse Radikal behaviorisme og anvendt atferdsanalyse Så hva er atferdsanalyse? • Ikke så lett å definere. • Hvorfor ikke? Er det ikke en lett avgrensbar disiplin med en svært kort, oversiktlig og enhetlig utviklingshistorie? • Nei dessverre, det er nok en sentral del av det dessverre feilaktige selvbildet hos de fleste som kaller seg atferdsanalytikere, og det selvbildet man gjerne presenterer utad. What is analysis? The analysis of a behavior, as the term is used here, requires a believable demonstration of the events that can be responsible for the occurence or non-occurence of that behavior. An experimenter has achieved an analysis of behavior when he can exercise control over it. 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1970 1980 1990 2000 2012 • It seems clear that we can do what remains to be done • Baer; Wolf & Risley, 1987. Hva er feil? • De prosedyrene vi i dag anvender er ofte komplekse….Når de virker er det åpenbart et behov for å analysere dem ned til de enkelte komponentene. En lærer som gir et barn nonstop kan godt med dette lykkes i å endre barnets atferd i en planlagt retning. Men hun har ganske sikkert blandet oppmerksomhet og ros med hver lille bit. En videre analyse kan bestå i at hun bare gir oppmerksomhet, og sammenligner effekten av dette med effekten av oppmerksomhet sammen med godterier. Om hun helt vil slutte med godterier, som i et reverseringsdesign, eller anvende godterier sammen med oppmerksomhet overfor enkelte atferder og oppmerksomhet overfor andre, som i et multipelt basislinje-design, er igjen et spørsmål om grunnleggende troverdighet slik vi har diskutert det ovenfor. Så dette er grunnlaget for anvendt atferdsanalyse? •Er det noe rart at folk (av og til) hater oss? •Eller i det minste synes at vi er veldig snodige Case : språk •Words have wings, but fly not where we would. • George Elliot Hva er problemet? E= 2 mc Men act upon the world, and change it, and are changed in turn by the consequences of their action. Verbal Behavior, p. 1 Case : språk • Påstand : «Verbal behavior» er unik og overlegen alle andre tilnærminger til forståelse av språk. • Dette påpekes ved enhver anledning, og anledningen avgrenses gjerne til denne påpekningen. • Andres tilkortkommenhet påpekes inntil det obsessivt rituelle, og refereres til som «tradisjonelle synspunkter» eller «tradisjonell lingvistikk.» Case : språk • Verbal atferd er definert som: • «behavior reinforced through the mediation of other persons» (p.2) • Senere raffinert til: • «behavior reinforced through the the mediation of other persons (who) must be responding in ways which have been conditioned precisely in order to reinforce the behavior of the speaker» (p.225) Case : språk • Our definition of verbal behavior, incidentally, includes the behavior of experimental animals where reinforcements are supplied by an experimenter or by an apparatus designed to establish contingencies which resemble those maintained by the normal listener. The animal and the experimenter comprise a small but genuine verbal commuity. • Skinner :Verbal Behavior, note s. 108. Case: Språk • Tilfeldig valgt eksempel: Jay Moore (2000): Words are not things, The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 17, 143-160. • Første setning: • On a traditional view, words are the fundamental units of verbal behavior. They are independent, autonomous things that symbolically represent or refer to other independent autonomous things, often in some other dimension. Ascertaining what those other things are constitutes determining the meaning of the word. A pervasive implication of this traditional view is that a word is some kind of mental posession that can therefore be «used» in the same way that other possessed things are used. Case: Språk • Jay Moore (forts.): • A traditional view adopts a structural perspective and often talks of words as independent, autonomous entities called «parts of speech». In contrast a behavior –analytic view adopts a functional approach. The functionally defined behavioral unit does not necessarily correspond to the structural entity called a word that exists within a sentence…. Case : språk • To speak of language as a thing by itself, as living a life of its pwn, as growing to maturity, producing offspring, and dying away, is sheer mythology and though we cannot help using metaphorical expressions, we should always be on our guard…..against being carried away by the very words which we are using. (p.51) Language has no independent substantial existence. Language exists in man, it lives in being spoken, it dies with each word that is pronounced, and is no longer heard. • Max Müller , Lectures on the Science of Language, 1861. Case : språk • This conception of language as an abstraction was commonplace in 19th-century linguistics • Maria de Lourdes R. da F. Passos, The Behavior analyst ,2012 s. 116. • ”children unerringly use computationally complex structure-dependent rules rather than computationally simple rules”… • ”the language faculty appears to be, at its core, a computational system that is rich and narrowly constrained in structure and rigid in its essential operations, nothing at all like a complex of dispositions or a system of habits and analogies”. • Chomsky: Knowledge of language, 1987, pp 7, 43. Transformasjonell generativ grammatikk • But the fundamental reason for [the] in adequacy of traditional grammars is a more technical one. Although it was well understood that linguistic processes are in some sense ”creative”, the tecnical devices for expressing a system of recursive processes were simply not available until much more recently. In fact, a real understanding of how a language can (in Humboldt’s words) ”make infinite use of finite means” has developed only within the last thirty years, in the course of studies in the foundations of mathematics. • Chomsky, (1965) Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. ABA, DTT, NET, NTA, AVB, VBA, NTA, IT, MITS, MMP, NLP, PRT(1), PRT(2), PRT(3), m.m Case : språk • Igjen Jay Moore: • A forth and final issue is that some kind of verbal behavior modify or provide additional information about other verbal behavior. Skinner (1957, chap. 12 and 13) identifies these kinds of verbal behavior as «autoclitic». • Heretter pekes det på fire typer autoklitter: Beskrivende, kvalifiserende, kvantifiserende og relasjonelle. Case : språk • ….autoclitics are verbal behaviors that affect other other verbal behavior functions. They quantify, qualify, affirm, negate or specify either mand or tact functions. • R. Douglas Greer, 2008, p 120. Skinner : Eksemplet Todd Risley • Incidental Teaching 1967 • Meaningful differences in the everyday experiences of young American Children. • The social world of children learning to talk. • Dette er alment svært respektert forskning. • Skinner er ikke engang på referanselista. Case History : Skinner • For Skinner var Verbal Behavior hans viktigste arbeid. • Chomsky eller ikke: ettertiden har ikke akkurat tatt bølgen. Analysen har ikke avfødt forskning, eller videre elaborering som har vunnet anerkjennelse. Heller ikke internt i det atferdsanalytiske har det forekommet noen viktig forskning som kunne gi en empirisk underbygging av analysen. (Ironisk :Savage-Rambaugh og Bates). • Eksempel : Todd Risley og Incidental teaching. • Men paradoksalt nok: RFT (som på et vis er direkte antiskinneriansk, viderefører arbeidet, og underbygger analysen med eksperimentell empiri. Strålende, men enda mer uleselig! RFT • Dette er RFT : Cfunc [CrelArx B and Bry C{Af1///Bf2rp and Cf3rq}] • Gitt arbitrært anvendbare stimulusrelasjoner mellom A, B og C, og gitt en kontekst som aktualiserer transformasjon av en gitt funksjon av A, vil funksjonene til B og C modifiseres i henhold til de underliggende relasjonene mellom A, B og C. Forholdet til Skinner Unfortunately, Skinner’s analysis missed the fundamental core of human language and cognition - its derived ralational nature. Skinner knew that derived relations occur, but he thought that they came at the end of the process, not at the beginning. p. 253 This book is meant to declare, to behavioral and non-behavioral psychologists alike, that this inductive, slow and fastidious tradition now has the emprirical and conceptual tools to conduct an experimental analysis of virtually every substantive topic in human language and cognition. A new day has dawned Hayes, Barnes-Holmes & Roche (eds), 2001, p. xii Fem farer for atferdsanalysens framtid (Hayes 2001): • • • • • Redskapspussing Gleden over ekstremt presis irrelevans Heltedyrkelse Selvrettferdighets- og selvgratulasjonskulturen Manglende rekruttering og akademisk fotfeste. Gleden over ekstremt presis irrelevans • A wave of exiting research on rule-governance moved through behavior analysis in the 80’s Some odd findings drove the exitement, including the so-called insensitivity effect. From the very beginning, thoughtful behavior analysts pointed out that the insensitivity effect was a misnomer for the way competing sources of control work in various contexts Gleden over ekstremt presis irrelevans (forts.) • We are about to make the same error with stimulus equivalence. In some researchers’ hands it has gone fram an outcome that orients the field to key process issues in the analysis of language, to an end in itself. Considered an end in itself equivalence will ultimately not exite anyone. It has already been studied for 25 years, and we could spend another 25 in extremely precise irrelevancy. Behavior analysis does not have that time to waste. Any monkey can reach for a peanut, but only humans can reach for the stars, or even understand what that means. Vilayanur Ramachandran University of California, San Diego There is a crack in everything…. That’s how the light gets in...