Download The passive form and related constructions

The passive form and related constructions
A passive form is defined as follows:
a) the theme becomes the subject of the sentence (and the verb agrees with it)
b) the subject is often not expressed, or when it is expressed it is introduced by a preposition
c) some languages have inflectional forms for the passive voice (cf. Latin). Neither English nor
Italian have an inflectional passive, they both use auxiliaries
In general passive forms are used when the theme of the verb needs to be put under focus or
highlighted, or the agent is not salient for the whole information.
Therefore, the agent is often not expressed, or is in many cases a non referential Noun Phrase.
1. The passive forms in Italian
Italian has at least four types of passive forms:
a) passive with venire+past participle
(1)
(2)
(3)
Gianni viene arrestato dalla polizia tutti i mercoledì sera
Gianni veniva arrestato dalla polizia tutti i mercoledì sera finché non si è tagliato la
barba
*Gianni è venuto arrestato
The one formed with the auxiliary venire is generally a passive form indicating a development or a
process, and cannot have compound forms as the ungrammaticality of (3) shows
b) passive with essere +past participle
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
?Gianni è arrestato dalla polizia
?Gianni era arrestato dalla polizia tutti i mercoledì sera
Gianni è stato arrestato dalla polizia
Gianni era già stato arrestato quando sono intervenuti i carabinieri
This type of passive is preferably used with compound forms, otherwise it indicates a state (often
this type of passive is called “adjectival passive” or resultative passive)
c) si passivante/impersonale
(8)
(9)
A cena si è parlato di te
Qui si balla
This is the typical case in which the subject is not expressed but intended and can include the
speaker (as in 8) or not (as in 9)
d) passive with andare (which can have an additional deontic meaning= the book must be read)
(10)
(11)
Il libro va letto
Il libro è andato perduto
Once again we have a difference between simple and compound tenses: with simple tenses the
auxiliary conveys a deontic meaning ( = obligation), with compound tenses it does not, but the
choice of the lexical verb is extremely restricted (only verb implying the distruction of the object
are possible).
1
Italian does NOT tolerate either passive of intransitive verbs or passive of the indirect object, while
English does.
2. The English passive(s): morphology
a) English has various ways to express a passive, the first is with the verb ‘be’ followed by the past
participle. This construction can be used when translating the passive with venire, essere as well as
with “si passivante”.
(12)
(13)
(14)
John has been arrested
While Bonnie was being arrested, Clide was shot
The bridge is being repaired
As (13) and (14) show, the passive of a continuous form is perfectly possible and in this case with a
two instances of the verb ’be’, an inflected form, the gerund followed by the past participle of the
main verb
The passive form of a gerundive clause is simply being + past participle
(15)
(16)
(17)
I enjoy being taken out for dinner
I remember being taken to the Zoo by my grandfather
I remember having been a shy person until I was 14 years old
Passive with become/get
These cases are often translated in Italian as reflexive constructions, they are not real passives, but
the subject in all these cases is not a true agent.
(18)
(19)
(20)
John became interested in politics when he came to Italy
I got engaged in politics when I came to Italy
They became aware of a strange smell in the dark and empty room
The passive form with get is less formal (and more common) than the one with become. Notice that
these are main verbs and behave as such: in interrogative and negative clauses they require dosupport.
(21)
He did not got elected in 1990
Generally get passives imply that the subject is affected
English does not have clitic pronouns, therefore it has no “si passivante”, other impersonal forms
are used as they, one or you (more colloquial), we
(22)
(23)
(24)
(25)
They are repairing the bridge = the bridge is being repaired
One is kept under constant watch in this place
We/They have been talking about you at the dinner
Wow! People dance here
They in this case is NOT interpreted as referential, but as a generic agent, often the second person
pronoun you is used in the same way
2
(26)
When you cross the border you have to show your passport=when one …
Among other forms related to passive there is the causative construction with have
(27)
(28)
(29)
(30)
I had my car repaired last week =somebody else repaired my car for me
He had his hair cut =somebody else cut my hair for me
We had the documents checked by a lawyer
She ordered the records destroyed
This type of construction is probably a mixture of a causative (I let the mechanic repair my car) and
a passive. It is very common and can be used in all tenses:
(31)
At the moment I am having my car repaired, so I go to work by bus
3. Syntax
•
Like in Italian, the presence of the agent is optional in passive constructions, when the agent
is expressed it is introduced by the preposition by (generally when the agent is an animate)
or with (with inanimate agents = “complemento di causa efficiente” of your traditional
grammars)
(32) The room was filled with smoke
(33) The room was packed with people
Contrary to Italian, English admits the passivization of the indirect object along with the
passivization of the direct object:
(34)
(35)
(36)
He should have been told
John was given a book
A book was given to John
and of the object of prepositions:
(37)
(38)
He must be written to
The children were being looked after by their granny
This possibility is probably related to double object constructions. The English double object
construction is characterized by the following features:
a) the goal is found before the direct object
b) it is expressed without the preposition
c) the construction is optional
(39)
(40)
(41)
(42)
John gave Mary a book
John gave a book to Mary
*John gave to Mary a book
*John gave a book Mary
When the double object construction is not used the goal HAS TO occur after the theme and must
be preceded by a preposition .
3
NO inversion of the two object is possible (but see heavy NP shift)
Most transitive clauses have a passive counterpart, but some verbs are impossible in passives: boast,
have (possession) hold cannot be put into passive sentences:
(43)
(44)
(45)
*The town boasts a beach
*Three sisters are had by John
*Three litres are held by the jug
4. More on non agentive subjects
Another construction related to passive (in the sense that the subject is not an agent) is found with
verbs of thinking like: assume, believe, claim, consider, estimate, feel, find, know, presume, report,
say, think, understand, suppose. Here the subject of the embedded verb becomes the subject of the
verb of thinking:
(46)
(47)
(48)
(49)
(50)
John is said to be a liar
He is thought to be the culprit
He is known to have been in touch with the secret police for the last twenty years
You are supposed to be at work (=you should be at work)
I am not supposed to do this job (this is not my duty)
N.B. often cases like (43) and (44) are translated with “non sono supposto farlo” please avoid this
form!
Medial constructions
In Italian medial constructions are expressed with a si
(51)
Questa pasta si cuoce facilmente
In English simply by the verb
(52)
(53)
(54)
(B)eurocrats bribe easily
This book sells well
This pasta cooks easily
In English the presence of a manner adverb is strongly preferred
Sentences to translate
(55)
(56)
(57)
(58)
(59)
(60)
(61)
(62)
(63)
(64)
Ieri sera si è parlato di te alla cena di Sofia
Ci si sente sempre imbarazzati quando si finisce in una situazione del genere
Questi libri vanno letti entro il primo semestre perché se ne discuterà all’esame
Gianni è stato portato al cinema da un amico
Quest’anno il viola si vende benissimo
Si ritiene che Gianni sia il colpevole
In questo preciso istante Gianni viene arrestato dalla polizia
Dovresti farti vaccinare contro il morbillo
Gianni è stato morso da un serpente
Si dice che sia partito
4
5