Download North China

CHINA
China (in Chinese, Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo), country in East Asia, the world’s third-largest country by
area (after Russia and Canada) and the largest by population. Officially the People’s Republic of China, it is bordered
on the north by the Mongolian Republic and Russia; on the
north-east by Russia and North Korea; on the east by the Yellow
Sea and the East China Sea; on the south by the South China
Sea, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar (Burma), India, Bhutan, and
Nepal; on the west by Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan; and
on the north-west by Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan. China
includes more than 3,400 offshore islands, of which Hainan, in
the South China Sea, is by far the largest. The total area of
China is about 9,571,300 sq km (3,695,000 sq mi), not including
Nationalist China or Taiwan, known officially as the Republic of
China. The capital of China is Beijing; the country’s largest city is
Shanghai.
More than a fifth of the world’s total population lives within China’s borders. China gave birth to one of the
world’s earliest civilizations and has a recorded history that dates from some 3,500 years ago. Zhonghua, the Chinese
name for the country, means “central land”, a reference to the Chinese belief that their country was the geographical
centre of the earth and the only true civilization.
Land and Resources
China encompasses a great diversity of landscapes and a corresponding variety of natural resources. Generally
speaking, China’s higher elevations are found in the west, where some of the world’s loftiest mountain ranges are
located, including the Tien Shan, the Kunlun Mountains, and the Himalaya. Devastating earthquakes tend to occur in a
broad arc extending from the western edge of the Sichuan Basin north-east towards Bo Hai, the gulf on the northern
shore of the Yellow Sea.
The country’s numerous mountain ranges enclose a series of plateaux and basins and furnish a notable wealth
of water and mineral resources. A broad range of climatic types, from subarctic to tropical, and including large areas of
alpine and desert habitats, supports a magnificent array of plant and animal life.
Mountains occupy about 43 per cent of China’s land surface; mountainous plateaux account for another 26 per
cent; and basins, predominantly hilly and located mainly in arid regions, cover approximately 19 per cent of the area.
Only 12 per cent of the total area may be classed as flatlands.
Physiographic Regions
China may be divided into six major geographic regions, each of which contains considerable geomorphological
and topographic diversity.
The North-West
This region consists of two basins—the Dzungarian Basin (Junggar Pendi) on
the north and the Tarim Basin on the south—and the lofty Tien Shan (Tian Shan). The
Tarim Basin contains the vast sandy Takla Makan (Taklimakan Shamo), the driest
desert in Asia. Dune ridges in its interior rise to elevations of about 100 m (330 ft). The
Turfan Depression (Turpan Pendi), the largest area in China with elevations below sea
level, commands the southern entrance of a major pass through the Tien Shan. The
Dzungarian Basin (or Dzungaria), although containing areas of sandy and stony desert,
is primarily a region of fertile steppe soils and supports irrigated agriculture.
The Mongolian Borderlands
Located in north-central China, this is a plateau region consisting mainly of sandy, stony, or gravelly deserts that
grade eastwards into steppe lands with fertile soils. This is a region of flat-to-rolling plains, partitioned by several barren
flat-topped mountain ranges. Along its eastern border is the higher, forested Greater Khingan Range (Da Hinggan Ling).
The North-East
Comprising all of Manchuria east of the Greater Khingan Range, the north-east region incorporates the
Manchurian Plain (Dongbei Pingyuan) and its bordering uplands. The plain has extensive tracts of productive soils. The
uplands are hilly to mountainous, with numerous broad valleys and gentle slopes. The Liaodong Peninsula, extending to
the south, is noteworthy for its good natural harbours.
North China
This region lies between the Mongolian Borderlands on the north and the Yangtze River Basin on the south and
consists of several distinct topographic units. The Loess Plateau on the north-west is formed by the accumulation of fine
windblown silt (loess). The loosely packed loess is readily subject to erosion, and the plateau’s surface is transected by
sunken roads, vertical-walled valleys, and numerous gullies. The region is extensively terraced and cultivated. The
North China Plain, the largest flat lowland area in China, consists of fertile soils derived from loess. Most of the plain is
under intense cultivation. Located to the east, the Shandong Highlands on the Shandong Peninsula consist of two
distinct areas of mountains flanked by rolling hills. The rocky coast of the peninsula provides some good natural
harbours. To the south-west are the Central Mountains, which constitute a formidable barrier to north-south movement.
South China
This region embraces the Yangtze Valley and the topographically diverse regions to the south. The Yangtze
Valley consists of a series of basins with fertile alluvial soils. These lowlands are crisscrossed with waterways, both
natural and artificial, and dotted with lakes. The Sichuan Basin, located to the west, is enclosed by rugged mountain
spurs of the Central Highlands and constitutes a relatively isolated area of hilly terrain. The area is known for its
intensive terraced farming. The highlands of South China extend from the Tibetan Plateau east to the sea. In the west
the deeply eroded Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau is bordered by a series of mountain ranges separated by deep, steepwalled gorges. One of the world’s most scenic landscapes is found in eastern Guizhou, where the terrain is dominated
by tall limestone pinnacles and pillar-like peaks. To the east are the largely deforested and severely eroded Nan Ling
hills, and along the coast are the rugged South-Eastern Highlands, where bays with numerous offshore islands provide
good natural harbours. Lying south of the Nan Ling hills is the Xi Jiang Basin, predominantly a hilly area with infertile
soils; the numerous streams of this region, however, are bordered by fertile, flat-floored alluvial valleys. The broad delta
plain of the Zhu Jiang (Pearl River) is commonly called the Canton delta.
The Tibetan Plateau
Occupying the remote south-western extremity of China is the high, mountainrimmed plateau of Tibet; the world’s highest plateau region, it has an average elevation
of about 4,510 m (14,800 ft) above sea level. Bordering ranges include the Himalaya
on the south, the Pamirs and Karakorum Range on the west, and the Kunlun Shan and
Qilian Shan on the north. The surface of the plateau is dotted with salt lakes and
marshes, is crossed by several mountain ranges, and also contains the headwaters of
many major southern and eastern Asian rivers, including those of the Indus, Ganges,
Brahmaputra, Mekong, Yangtze (Chang Jiang), and Huang He (Huang Ho or Yellow River). The landscape is bleak,
barren, and stony.
Rivers and Lakes
All the major river systems of China, including the three longest—the Yangtze, Huang He, and Xi Jiang—flow in
a generally west to east direction to the Pacific Ocean. In all, about 50 per cent of the total land area drains to the
Pacific. Only about 10 per cent of the country’s area drains to the Indian and Arctic oceans. The remaining 40 per cent
has no outlet to the sea and drains to the arid basins of the west and north, where the streams evaporate or percolate to
form deep underground water reserves; principal among these streams is the Tarim.
The most northerly major Chinese river is the Amur River (Heilong Jiang), which
forms most of the north-eastern boundary with Russia. The Songhua (Sungari) and Liao
rivers and their tributaries drain most of the Manchurian Plain and its surrounding highlands.
The major river of North China is the Huang He. It is traditionally referred to as
“China’s Sorrow” because, throughout Chinese history, it has periodically devastated large
areas by flooding. The river is dyked in its lower course, and its bed is elevated above the
surrounding plain as a result of the accumulation of silt. The river rises in the marginal
highlands of the Tibetan Plateau and follows a circuitous course to the Bo Hai (Po Hai, an arm of the Yellow Sea),
draining an area more than twice the size of France. The Yangtze River of central China has a discharge more than ten
times that of the Huang He. The longest river in Asia, it has a vast drainage basin. The Yangtze rises near the source of
the Huang He and enters the sea at Shanghai. It is a major transport artery.
Serving the major port of Guangzhou are the estuarine lower reaches and tributary complex of the Xi Jiang, the
most important river system of southern China. The river, which has numerous tributaries and distributaries, has a
discharge three times as great as that of the Huang He.
Most of the important lakes of China lie along the middle and lower Yangtze Valley. The two largest in the
middle portion are the Dongting Hu and Poyang Hu. In summer these lakes increase their areas by two to three times
and serve as reservoirs for excess water. Lake Tai is the largest of several lakes in the Yangtze delta, and Hongze Lake
and Gaoyou Lake lie just to the north of the delta.
Saline lakes, many of considerable size, abound in the Tibetan Plateau. The largest is the marshy Qinghai Lake
(also known as Koko Nor) in the less elevated north-east, but several others nearly as large occur on the high plateau.
In the arid north-west and in the Mongolian Borderlands are a number of large lakes, most of which are also saline;
principal among these are Lop Nor and Bosten lakes east of the Tarim Basin. Ulansuhai Lake, which is fed by the
Huang He, is in Inner Mongolia; Hulun Nur lies west of the Greater Khingan Range in Manchuria.
More than 2,000 reservoirs have been constructed throughout the nation, primarily for irrigation and flood
control. Most are small, but the largest, the Long Men reservoir on the Huang He, has a capacity of 35.4 billion cu m
(1,250 billion cu ft).
Climate
The climates of China are similar, in their range and distribution, to those of the continental United States;
temperate climates prevail, with desert and semi-arid regions in the western interior and a small area of tropical climate
in the extreme south-east. China’s climates, however, tend to be pronouncedly continental and thus extreme, and
regional contrasts are generally great.
The Asian monsoon winds exert the primary control on China’s climate. In winter, cold dry winds blow out of the
high-pressure system of central Siberia, bringing low temperatures to all regions north of the Yangtze River and drought
to most of the country. In summer, warm moist air flows inland from the Pacific Ocean, producing rainfall in the form of
cyclonic storms. Amounts of precipitation decline rapidly with distance from the sea and on leeward sides of mountains.
The remote basins of the north-west receive little precipitation. Summer temperatures are remarkably uniform
throughout most of the country, but extreme temperature differences between north and south characterize the winters.
South-eastern China, from the Yangtze Valley southward, has a subtropical climate with a distinctly tropical
climate in the extreme south. Summer temperatures in this region average 26° C (79° F). Average winter temperatures
decline from 17.8° C (64° F) in the tropical south to about 3.9° C (39° F) along the Yangtze River. An average of eight
typhoons a year, mainly between July and November, bring high winds and heavy rains to the coastal areas. The
mountainous plateaux and basins to the south-west also have subtropical climates, with considerable local variation. As
a result of higher elevations, summers are cooler, and as a consequence of protection from northerly winds, winters are
mild. The Sichuan Basin, which has an 11-month growing season, is noted for high humidity and cloudiness. Rainfall,
especially abundant in summer, exceeds 990 mm (39 in) annually in nearly all parts of southern China.
North China, which has no mountain ranges to form a protective barrier against the flow of air from Siberia,
experiences a cold, dry winter. January temperatures range from 3.9° C (39° F) in the extreme south to about -10° C
(14° F) north of Beijing and in the higher elevations to the west. July temperatures generally exceed 26.1° C (79° F)
and, in the North China Plain, approach 30° C (86° F). Almost all the annual rainfall occurs in summer. Annual
precipitation totals are less than 760 mm (30 in) and decrease to the north-west, which has a drier, steppe climate.
Year-to-year variability of precipitation in these areas is great; this factor, combined with the possibility of dust storms or
hailstorms, makes agriculture precarious. Fog occurs on more than 40 days a year in the east and on more than 80
days along the coast.
The climate of Manchuria is similar to, but colder than, that of North China. January temperatures average 17.8° C (0° F) over much of the Manchurian Plain, and July temperatures generally exceed 22.2° C (72° F). Rainfall,
concentrated in summer, averages between about 510 and 760 mm (20 and 30 in) in the east but declines to about 300
mm (12 in) west of the Greater Khingan Range.
Desert and steppe climates prevail in the Mongolian Borderlands and the north-west. January temperatures
average below -10° C (14° F) everywhere except in the Tarim Basin. July temperatures generally exceed 20° C (68° F).
Annual rainfall totals less than 250 mm (10 in), and most of the area receives less than 100 mm (4 in).
Because of its high elevation, the Tibetan Plateau has an arctic climate; July temperatures remain below 15° C
(59° F). The air is clear and dry throughout the year with annual precipitation totals of less than 100 mm (4 in)
everywhere except in the extreme south-east.
Plants
As a result of the wide range of climates and topography, China is rich in plant species. Most of the original
vegetation has been removed, however, during centuries of settlement and intensive cultivation. Natural forests are
generally preserved only in the more remote mountain areas.
Dense tropical rainforests are found in the region south of the Xi Jiang valley. These forests consist of broadleaf
evergreens, some more than 50 m (160 ft) tall, intermixed with palms. An extensive region of subtropical vegetation
extends north to the Yangtze Valley and west to the Tibetan Plateau. This zone is especially rich in species, including
evergreen oak, ginkgo, bamboo, pine, azalea, and camellia. Also found are forests with laurel and magnolia and a
dense undergrowth of smaller shrubs and bamboo thickets. Conifers and mountain grasses dominate at higher
elevations.
To the north of the Yangtze Valley a broadleaf deciduous forest originally prevailed. The principal species
remaining here are various oaks, ash, elm, and maple; lime and birch flourish to the north in Manchuria. China’s most
important timber reserves are found in the mountains of northern Manchuria, where extensive tracts of a larchdominated coniferous forest remain. The Manchurian Plain, now under cultivation, was once dominated by a forest
steppe—grasses interspersed with trees.
Steppes covered with drought-resistant grasses, are found in the eastern portion of the Mongolian Borderlands.
The vegetation of this region has, however, been depleted by overgrazing and soil erosion. The more arid regions of the
north-west are characterized by clumps of herbaceous plants and grasses separated by extensive barren areas; salttolerant species dominate here. A somewhat lusher tundra vegetation, consisting of grasses and flowers, is found on
most of the high plateau of Tibet. In more favoured locations throughout the arid regions, larger shrubs and even trees
may occur, and in many mountain areas, spruce and fir forests are found.
Animals
The diverse habitats in China support a wide range of fauna, from arctic species in Manchuria to many tropical
species in southern China. Some species, extinct elsewhere, survive in China. Among these are the great paddlefish of
the Yangtze River, species of alligator and salamander, the giant panda (found only in south-western China), and the
Chinese water deer (found only in China and Korea).
Several types of primates, including gibbon and macaque as well as several other species of apes and
monkeys, are abundant in the tropical south. Large carnivores, such as bear, tiger, and leopard, are few in number and
confined to remote areas. Members of the leopard family, for instance, are distributed at the peripheries of the heavily
populated areas; leopards are found in northern Manchuria, the snow leopard in Tibet, and the clouded leopard in the
extreme south. Smaller carnivores, such as fox, wolf, raccoon dog, and civet cat, are widespread and locally numerous.
Antelope, gazelle, chamois, wild horses, deer, and other hoofed animals inhabit the uplands and basins of the west, and
the Alaskan moose is found in northern Manchuria. Birdlife is diverse and includes pheasant, peacock, parrot, heron,
and crane.
Along with the common domesticated animals are found the water buffalo, an important draught animal in the
south; the camel, which is utilized in the arid north and west; and the yak, a semi-domesticated ox-like animal, which is
used in the highlands of Tibet.
Marine life is abundant, especially along the south-eastern coast, and includes flounder, cod, yellow croaker,
pomfret, tuna, cuttlefish, sea crabs, prawns, and dolphins. The rivers of China contain a variety of carp species, as well
as salmon, trout, sturgeon, catfish, and the Chinese river dolphin. Much of China’s inland water is devoted to fish
farming.
Mineral Resources
Because of its geologic diversity, China possesses an extremely wide array of mineral resources. The only
minerals in which the country appears to be deficient are vanadium, chromium, and cobalt. Mineral deposits are
distributed widely throughout the country; the principal mining regions are southern Manchuria, especially the Liaodong
Peninsula, and the uplands of South China. Only in the Tibetan Plateau and the surrounding high mountains have
significant mineral deposits not yet been discovered.
China is particularly well endowed with energy resources. Coal reserves of over 10 trillion tonnes are claimed,
most of it in Manchuria and adjacent areas of North China. Petroleum reserves are estimated at more than 20 billion
tonnes, the bulk of which has been discovered offshore. China now claims to be second only to Saudi Arabia in oil
reserves; inland deposits are located in Manchuria and in the north-western provinces of Shaanxi, Gansu, and Qinghai,
and in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. Oil-shale deposits are located primarily in Liaoning and Guangdong.
Among metallic mineral ores, iron-ore reserves are estimated to be nearly 50 billion tonnes. The largest
deposits, mainly in southern Manchuria, northern Hebei, and Inner Mongolia (Nei Monggol), are mostly of low quality.
Some high-grade deposits of haematite occur in Liaoning and Hubei in the Yangtze Valley. Extensive deposits have
also been discovered on Hainan. Reserves of aluminium ores, occurring mainly in Liaoning and Shandong, are
estimated at more than 1 billion tonnes. Tin reserves, found primarily in Yunnan and Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous
Region, are perhaps as much as 2 million tonnes; China’s production of refined tin amounts to about 8 per cent of the
world’s output. China holds the world’s largest reserves of both antimony and tungsten. Tungsten is found mainly in the
highlands north of the Xi Jiang, and the largest antimony deposits are in Hunan.
China also holds abundant reserves of magnesite, molybdenum, mercury, and manganese. Reserves of lead,
zinc, and copper, however, are modest. Uranium has been discovered in several localities, principally in Manchuria and
the north-west. Other resources occurring in considerable quantities are phosphate rock, salt, talc, mica, quartz, silica,
and fluorspar.
Environmental Protection
The Chinese constitution of 1978 was the first to provide for some measure of environmental protection in a country that
hitherto had held an uncompromising dedication to increased national productivity, and a full Environmental Protection
Law was passed in 1989. These reflect both a heritage of natural catastrophes and severe present-day environmental
degradation which may have cost up to a third of China’s cropland in the past 40 years. An Environmental Protection
Office established under the State Council, although endowed with no regulatory powers, coordinates solutions for
environmental problems. A National Institute of Environmental Protection monitors the use of chemicals, herbicides, and
insecticides. The main thrust of environmental protection, however, has been in afforestation, erosion control, and water
conservancy. Large-scale multi-purpose water conservation projects are planned for all the country’s major river
systems. An important component of environmental protection in China is terracing. Combined with tree planting and
the construction of small reservoir ponds, terracing, a method of cultivation which has been practised successfully for
centuries, provides significant erosion control and is a major local water-conservation measure. However, poor
education, especially in rural areas, political handicaps, and an at best patchy record of previous environmental
protection yield a generally poor prognosis given the vast environmental problems facing China.
Population
The Chinese population is approximately 93 per cent ethnic, or Han, Chinese.
The Chinese are primarily of Mongolian stock and are differentiated within China not so
much by ethnic as by linguistic variation. The 7 per cent minority population is settled
over nearly 60 per cent of China’s area. This gives the non-Han peoples of China a
significance that looms larger than their percentage of the population might suggest.
Ethnic Groups
More than 70 million people belong to 56 national minorities. Most of these groups are distinguished from the
Chinese by language or religion rather than by racial characteristics. The principal minorities are the Thai-related
Zhuang, about 15.6 million, largely in Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region; the Hui, or Chinese Muslims, about 8.6
million, in Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, Gansu, and Qinghai; the Turkic-speaking Uygur, about 7.2 million, in
Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region; the aboriginal (but largely assimilated) Yi, about 6.6 million, in Sichuan, Yunnan,
and Guangxi; the aboriginal Miao, about 7.4 million, in Guizhou, Hunan, and Yunnan; the Tibetans, about 4.6 million, in
the Tibetan Autonomous Region and Qinghai; and the Mongols, about 4.8 million, in Inner Mongolia, Gansu, and
Xinjiang. Other groups include Koreans, Bonyei, and Manchus. The Manchus are descendants of the group which
conquered China in the 17th century and established the Qing, or Manchu, dynasty. They are almost indistinguishable
from the Han Chinese.
Population Characteristics
China has a population of 1,185,170,000 (1994 official estimate). The population density is about 124 people
per sq km (321 per sq mi); this figure represents an average of a very uneven geographic distribution. The great bulk of
the population is found in the 19 eastern provinces that have formed the historical heartland of China. This reflects the
dissimilar historical land-use and settlement patterns of the Chinese (in the east) and the non-Han (in the west). Since
the 1960s the Chinese government has promoted settlement of the lands of the western provinces and autonomous
regions.
Despite industrialization, China continues to be a predominantly rural, agricultural nation. Although major cities
arose very early in Chinese history, the country as a whole has only slowly come to be urbanized. Approximately 64 per
cent of the population is classified as rural.
Spontaneous migration from the countryside to the city was prohibited from the mid-1950s because of the lack
of productive employment for additional city dwellers. This prohibition was the outgrowth of the belief of Mao Zedong
that the class distinction between urban and rural people was a major cause of social inequality in China. During the
Cultural Revolution, considerable energy was expended on a campaign of sending educated urban youth to the
countryside for several years or even permanent settlement. This movement was intended to provide urban skills in
rural areas, thereby reducing peasant interest in the city. The rustication programme was reduced after the death of
Mao in 1976 and virtually eliminated by the end of 1978, at which time migration to the cities began to increase.
Controls have now effectively broken down, with peasants flooding in from stagnant areas of the Chinese interior. Longterm Chinese policy envisages relocating 440 million peasants, 37 per cent of the population, into existing and new
towns by 2040.
Residential mobility within cities is also restricted by the government. A person must have government approval
and guarantee of a residence and employment before moving. Some residential movement within the major cities has
resulted, however, from the large-scale destruction of old housing and its replacement by four- and five-storey
apartment buildings. Breakneck commercial development in Shanghai and other high-growth cities has led to summary
relocation of many urban dwellers.