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The Age of Napoleon
Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte
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Directory vs. Royalists (emigres)
The Directory with the help of
Napoleon Bonaparte – leads coup d'état
to preserve the republic
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A sudden and decisive change of government
illegally or by force
Saves the govt. from reverting back to a
monarchy
Early Military Victories
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1795 Napoleon’s armies take over Italy and
Switzerland by defeating Austria and Sardinian armies
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1797 Invades Egypt Why?
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Austria out of the equation > Britain is left
Damage British trade & cut off Britain’s communication
w/ India
Russians, Austrians, Ottomans, and British form the
Second Coalition as a result
Egypt a failure > Napoleon forced to withdraw because
Coalition was about to invade France
Horatio
Nelson
Constitution of the Year VIII
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Abbe Sieyes (Part of 5 man Directory) proposed a
new constitution w/ a new type of govt. in mind
Sieyes tries to use Napoleon to est. power but
Napoleon actually uses him to gain power
Issues Constitution of Year VIII
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Proposed a 3 man executive
Est. the rule of one man – The First Consul –
Napoleon
Napoleon
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Used rhetoric of revolution and nationalism, backed
with military force, and combined them to form a
mighty weapon
Points forward to the dictators of 20th c.
The Consulate (1799-1804)
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In effect > ended the Revolution
Napoleon creates a new constitution approved by a plebiscite
Third Estate members and peasants had achieved their goals
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Abolishing hereditary privilege
Destroyed feudal system
Who was the dominant class now?
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Doctors, landowners, lawyers, officials, financiers
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Liked Napoleon > he would provide them security
Suppression of Opponents by Napoleon
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Makes peace with all of France’s enemies by 1802
Domestic affairs
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Has general amnesty to men of all political factions as long as they
pledge loyalty to him
Ruthlessly suppressed opposition
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Employed the secret police
Destroys possibly of Bourbon restoration by executing closest heir
Concordat with Church
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Napoleon reestablishes Christianity in France > forms an
agreement with Pope Pius VII
Concordat of 1801
Church gives up confiscated property
How did it benefit the church?
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Catholicism religion of France
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State paid salaries of bishops, certain clergy (priests), etc.
Clergy received spiritual investiture? from the pope
In reality, power of church much reduced
State still had authority over the church through > The
Organic Articles of 1802
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Issued without consulting the pope
The Napoleonic Code
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Sought to reform law > Civil Code of 1804 > Napoleonic Code
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French law before this code?
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Safeguarded all forms of property
Conservative attitudes towards women and labor remained
Property was distributed among all children; males and females
Women needed husband’s consent to dispose of property
Workers organizations forbidden
Father in control of family
Divorce still more difficult for women than men
Differed from region to region
Set basis for French law today
Napoleon’s Dynasty
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Another new constitution makes Napoleon Emperor of the
French
Napoleon crowns himself Napoleon I
Napoleon’s Empire
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His wars end Old Regime and unleash powerful force of nationalism
Strength > military mobilization > key to success
French army puts down rebellion in Haiti > under French rule
Why do the British fear situation in Haiti?
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New French empire in Americas
Britain goes to war with France > Third Coalition > led by Pitt
British naval supremacy – the British under Lord Nelson destroy French
and Spanish forces at the Battle of Trafalgar
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Why important?
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Ended French hope of invading Britain
On land it was different
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Napoleon defeats Austria and Russia at Austerlitz – becomes King of Italy
Napoleon defeats Russia and Prussia to control all of Germany
Treaty of Tilsit
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Prussia and Russia make peace with Napoleon and
become allies
Prussia loses half its territory
Napoleon gave satellite states to his family members
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Why family members?
The Continental System
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Napoleon wanted to cut England off from the main European
continent
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Milan Decree of 1807 – attempted to stop neutral nations from
trading with Britain
Plan fails because of English control of the seas
Tariff policies favor France
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Caused resentment of foreign merchants
System not enforced
Leads eventually to Napoleon’s downfall
German Nationalism & Prussian Reform
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Many German nationalists wanted a united German state without Napoleon
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Napoleon creates German nationalism
German people saw how France attained greatness through the active support of its
people
In order to appease growing nationalism
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Prussia abolishes serfdom breaking the Junker monopoly of landholding
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New problem > landless laborers without work
Prussia makes military reforms as well
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Abolished inhumane military punishments
Opened officer corps to commoners
Promotions on basis of merit
Still could not conscript an army since Napoleon reduced the size of the army
Spanish and Austrian Wars of Liberation
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Spain
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Old Wife
Napoleon’s brother, Joseph on throne
Peasants and clergy rebel
Spanish guerrilla forces cause problems
English army under Duke Wellington provide
support to insurgents
Frances drains resources on this issue
Austria
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Austrians saw distraction w/ Spain as a chance
to get payback
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Austrians defeated at Battle of Wagram
Napoleon divorces his wife Josephine and
marries Austrian arch-duchess Marie Louise
New Wife
Disaster for Napoleon in Russia
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War with Austria, no help with the fight with the Ottoman Empire, the Continental
System, and the Polish Duchy of Warsaw right next to Russia angered tsar Alexander
Russia withdraws from Continental System and prepares for war
Invasion of Russia > Grand Army > 600,000
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Russia’s “scorched earth” policy?
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destroying food and supplies and then retreating – erodes Napoleon’s Grand Army
Napoleon wanted to take over Russian capital – Moscow – which he does
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Russians burn down Moscow leaving Napoleon there in winter
Napoleon losses half a million men > 100,000 left
European Coalition
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Napoleon raises another 350,00 men > ill-trained
and ill-equipped
Combined forces of Russia, Prussia, Austria, and
England form allied army
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Napoleon defeats allies at Dresden
Defeated at Leipzig in Battle of Nations
Allied armies take over Paris
Napoleon relinquishes throne in March, 1814 and
is exiled to island of Elba
Congress of Vienna
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Quadruple Alliance?
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England, Austria, Russia, and Prussia
Meet at the Congress of Vienna to decide new European borders
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Restoration of Bourbon monarchy
Est. kingdom of Netherlands
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Prussia gains territory along the Rhine river and part of Saxony
Austria gains control of northern Italy
Alexander of Russia reluctantly gets only part of Poland
No governments with republican or democratic values just monarchies
What do they restore in France?
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Belgium and Luxembourg
Bourbon Monarchy
Russia is upset with the provisions
The Hundred Days
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Napoleon returns from Elba and retakes France > the allies
declare him an outlaw
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Napoleon defeated again at Battle of Waterloo by Wellington and
Blucher
Exiled for good to tiny island of St. Helena
Quadruple Alliance reformed again in May 1815 to maintain
peace in Europe
New Congress of Vienna remains intact for half a century
and prevents general war for a hundred years
The Romantic Movement (1780-1830)
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Romanticism – intellectual movement that
was a reaction against the Enlightenment
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Imagination supplemented reason
Urged a revival of Christianity
Expressed in architecture, music, religion, painting,
poetry, philosophy, and literature
Revival of Gothic Style from medieval times
Fascinated by phenomena that suggested a world
beyond that of empirical observation, sensory data,
and reason
Reaction against materialism
Nationalism
Valued emotions
Interest in past/history
Worship of nature
Romantic Questioning of Reason
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Two writers provided foundation for Romanticism
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Rationalism not enough to explain human nature and reform society
Rousseau
 Rejected some of the aspects of the Enlightenment
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Emile
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Materialistic society corrupts the human nature
Children should raised with maximum freedom
Value uniqueness/individuality
Kant > The Critique of Pure Reason & The Critique of Practical Reason
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Sought rationalism of Enlightenment to an extent
Humans have categorical imperative – an innate sense of moral duty
or awareness, act in situation as you would have others act in same
situation
Human perceptions are as much a product of the mind’s activity as that
of sensory experience
English Romantic Writers
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Believed poetry was enhanced by freely following the
creative impulses of the mind
Samuel Taylor Coleridge
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Artists imagination was God at work in the mind
Wrote Gothic poems of the supernatural
William Wordsworth
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Wrote, sometimes with Coleridge about how humans lose their childlike
imagination as they get older
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Aging and urban living corrupt and deaden the imagination
Lord Byron
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Rebel Romanticist, who wrote about personal liberty and mocked his own beliefs,
acknowledged nature’s cruelty along with its beauty
German Romantic Writers
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German Romantics also famous for their novels
Friedrich Schlegel
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Got involved with social issues of the time
Attacked prejudice against women > Lucinde
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe –
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Writings were part Romantic mode/ part criticism of
Romantic excess
Faust – Part I – (1808) – long dramatic poem about
man who makes a pact with the devil
Faust – Part II – (1832) – taken through many
mythological adventures, man dedicates his life to
humankind
Ideas > deep spiritual struggles, improvement of
mankind, reason cannot save us
Romantic Art
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Rocco looked to Renaissance
Neo-Classicism looked to ancient world
Neo-Gothicism looked to Middle Ages
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Nature and the Sublime > Important to Romantic
Artists
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Supported the church and sought to revive medieval
forms
Style of art seen in architecture and paintings
Drawn to mysterious and unruly side of nature
Sublime – subjects from nature arouse strong emotions
and raise questions about how much we control our lives
Show nature in all of its majestic power
Famous Romantic Painters
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Caspar David Friedrich & J.M.W. Turner
Neuschwanstein Castle
Romantic Religion
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Romantics saw religious faith, experience, and institutions as central to
human life
Methodism?
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Revolt against deism and rationalism, stressed inward, heartfelt religion
> its leader was John Wesley
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Possibility of Christian Perfection?
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Yes
New Directions in Continental Religion > Similar to Methodism
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Chateaubriand – The Genius of Christianity (1802) – essence if religion is
passion and the foundation of faith is emotion
Schleiermacher – Speeches on Religion on its Cultured Despisers – religion as an
intuition or feeling of absolute dependence on an infinite reality
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Every world religion is unique and important > each created an emotional
experience dependent on an infinite being
Romantic Views of Nationalism & History
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Romanticism glorified the individual person and individual cultures
World is a creation of humankind
Johann Gottfried Herder
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Resented French cultural dominance
Critic of European colonialism
Human beings and societies develop like plants
 Humans develop diff. at diff. times and places
In favor of German nationalism
Friedrich Hegel
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Believes ideas develop in an evolutionary fashion that involves conflict
Thesis vs. Antithesis = eventually to a Synthesis (new thesis)
Clashing of ideals helps humankind to develop > like trial and error sort of
Islam and Romanticism
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Islam seen in a more positive light than the Enlightenment
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Romantics valued literature drawn from diff. cultures
Arabs had a distinctive role in history
Under Napoleon, learning about Islam became an important part of
French intellectual life
Rosetta Stone – found on one of Napoleon’s expeditions became the key
to unlocking Egyptian hieroglyphics
More people want to visit Middle East and Egyptian architecture desired