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1
The History and Scope of Psychology
Overview
What is Psychology?
 Psychology’s Roots
 Contemporary Psychology
 Psychological Perspectives
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Psychology’s Roots
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
Aristotle, a naturalist and philosopher, theorized about
psychology’s concepts.
http://faculty.washington.edu
He suggested that the soul and body are not separate
and that knowledge grows from experience.
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Psychology’s Roots
 Psychological Science
Is Born
 Empiricism
 Knowledge comes from
experience via the senses
 Science flourishes
through observation
and experiment
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Psychological Science is Born
Wundt (1832-1920)
Wundt and psychology’s
first graduate students
studied the “atoms of the
mind” by conducting
experiments at Leipzig,
Germany, in 1879.
This work is considered
the birth of psychology as
we know it today.
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Psychological Science is Born
American philosopher William James wrote an important
1890 psychology textbook.
Mary Calkins
James (1842-1910)
Mary Calkins, James’s student, became the APA’s first
female president.
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Psychological Science is Born
Psychology originated in many disciplines
and countries. It was, until the 1920s,
defined as the science of mental life.
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Psychological Science is Born
Freud (1856-1939)
Sigmund Freud, an Austrian physician, and his
followers emphasized the importance of the
unconscious mind and its effects on human behavior. 8
Psychological Science Develops
Behaviorists
Skinner (1904-1990)
Watson (1878-1958)
Watson and later Skinner emphasized the study of
overt behavior as the subject matter of scientific
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psychology.
Psychology’s Subfields: Applied
Psychologist
Clinical
What she does
Studies, assesses, and treats people with
psychological disorders
Counseling
Helps people cope with academic, vocational,
and marital challenges.
Educational
Studies and helps individuals in school and
educational settings
Industrial/
Organizational
Studies and advises on behavior in the
workplace.
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Research Strategies:
How Psychologists Ask
and Answer Questions
Module 2
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Operational definition
• A statement of the procedures used to
define research variables
• Allows and facilitates replication of
observations
• Operationally define shoe?
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Survey
Random Sampling
If each member of a
population has an equal
chance of inclusion into a
sample, it is called a
random sample
(unbiased).
The fastest way to know about the
marble color ratio is to blindly
transfer a few into a smaller jar and
count them.
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Correlation
When one trait or behavior accompanies
another, we say the two correlate.
Indicates strength
of relationship
(0.00 to 1.00)
Correlation
coefficient
Correlation Coefficient is a
statistical measure of the
relationship between two variables.
r = + 0.37
Indicates direction
of relationship
(positive or negative)
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Scatterplot
The Scatterplot below shows the relationship
between height and temperament in people. There
is a moderate positive correlation of +0.63.
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Skewed Distributions
Positive
Mean > Median
Negative
Mean < Median
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Order in Random Events
Given random data, we look for order and
meaningful patterns.
Your chances of being dealt either of these hands is
precisely the same: 1 in 2,598,960.
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Experimentation
Experimentation is the backbone of
psychological research.
Experiments isolate causes and their effects.
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Exploring Cause & Effect
Many factors influence our behavior. Experiments
(1) manipulate factors that interest us, while other
factors are kept under (2) control.
Effects generated by manipulated factors isolate
cause and effect relationships.
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Evaluating Therapies
Double-blind Procedure
Neither the participant nor the research
assistant knows whether the participant is
receiving the treatment or a placebo
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Independent Variable IV
An independent variable is a factor
manipulated by the experimenter. The
effect of the independent variable is the
focus of the study.
For example, when examining the effects of
breast feeding upon intelligence, breast
feeding is the independent variable.
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Dependent Variable DV
A dependent variable is a factor that may
change in response to an independent
variable. In psychology, it is usually a
behavior or a mental process.
For example, in our study on the effect of
breast feeding upon intelligence,
intelligence is the dependent variable.
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FAQ
Q1. Can laboratory experiments illuminate
everyday life?
Q2. Does behavior depend on one’s culture
and gender?
Q3. Why do psychologists study animals,
and is it ethical to experiment on animals?
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FAQ
Q4. Is it ethical to experiment on people?
Q5. Is psychology free of value judgments?
Q6. Is psychology potentially dangerous?
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Neural and Hormonal Systems
Module 3
“…it has been calculated that the number
of possible permutations and combinations
of brain activity,..exceeds the number of
elementary particles in the known
universe.”
Ramachandran in A Brief Tour Of Human Consciousness
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Neural Communication
The body’s information system is built from
billions of interconnected cells called neurons.
A nerve cell, or a neuron, consists of many different
parts.
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Myelin sheath
“Practice makes Myelin, Myelin
makes perfect.”
• Specialized Glial cells
• Acts as an electrical
insulator
• Not present on all
cells
• Increases the speed
of neural signals
down the axon.
Myelin Sheath
Parts of a Neuron link .50
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How neurons communicate
• Neurons communicate by means of an
electrical signal called the Action Potential
• Action Potentials are based on
movements of ions between the outside
and inside of the cell
• When an Action Potential occurs a
molecular message is sent to neighboring
neurons
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Action Potential
A neural impulse. A brief
electrical charge that
travels down an axon and
is generated by the
movement of positively
charged atoms in and out
of channels in the axon’s
membrane.
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Threshold
Threshold: Each neuron receives
excitatory and inhibitory signals from
many neurons.
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Action Potential Properties
All-or-None Response: A strong stimulus can
trigger more neurons to fire, and to fire more
often, but it does not affect the action potentials
strength or speed.
Intensity of an action potential remains the
same throughout the length of the axon.
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Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters
(chemicals) released
from the sending
neuron travel across
the synapse and bind
to receptor sites on
the receiving neuron.
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Types of Neurotransmitters
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Acetylcholine
Serotonin
Norepinephrine
Dopamine
Endorphins
GABA
Glutamate
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Acetylcholine
• Found in
neuromuscular
junction
• Involved in
muscle
movements
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Alzheimer’s Disease
• Deterioration of memory, reasoning,
and language skills
• Symptoms may be due to loss of
ACh neurons
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Serotonin
Serotonin
pathways are
involved with
mood regulation.
Prozac works by keeping
serotonin in the synapse
longer, giving it more time
to exert an effect
LSD and Seratonin at Nat Geo
2:21
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Dopamine
Important for
movement,
rewards &
pleasure.
Involved with
diseases such as
schizophrenia
and Parkinson’s
disease.
Link dopamine flood at Nat Geo 3:4438
Endorphins
• Control pain and
pleasure
• Released in response
to pain
• Morphine and
codeine work on
endorphin receptors
Involved in healing
effects of
acupuncture
•
Link Endorphins at AM 5:12
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Kinds of Neurons
Sensory Neurons carry
incoming information
from the sense receptors
to the CNS.
Motor Neurons carry
outgoing information
from the CNS to
muscles and glands.
Interneurons connect
the two neurons.
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Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
Sympathetic Nervous System: Division of the
ANS that arouses the body, mobilizing its
energy in stressful situations.
Parasympathetic Nervous System: Division of
the ANS that calms the body, conserving its
energy.
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The Endocrine System
The Endocrine
System is the body’s
“slow” chemical
communication
system.
Communication is
carried out by
hormones
synthesized by a set
of glands.
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The Brain
• Module 4
• Slides from Myers, Runyan, McCubbin, and Jones
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PET Scan
Courtesy of National Brookhaven National Laboratories
PET (positron emission
tomography) Scan is a
visual display of brain
activity that detects a
radioactive form of
glucose while the brain
performs a given task.
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MRI (magnetic resonance
imaging)
A technique that uses magnetic
fields and radio waves to produce
computer-generated images that
distinguish among different types of
soft tissue; allows us to see
structures within the brain
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fMRI - Functional MRI
Compares MRI scans taken less than
a second apart
Detects blood moving to active parts
of the brain
Shows brain function
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Brain Stem
The Medulla is the base
of the brainstem that
controls heartbeat and
breathing.
Reticular Formation is a
nerve network in the
brainstem that plays an
important role in
controlling arousal &
attention.
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Brain Stem
The Thalamus is the
brain’s sensory
switchboard, located on
top of the brainstem. It
directs messages to the
sensory areas in the
cortex and transmits
replies to the
cerebellum and
medulla.
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The Limbic System
The Limbic System is a
doughnut-shaped system
of neural structures at
the border of the
brainstem and cerebrum,
associated with emotions
such as fear, aggression
and drives for food and
sex. It includes the
hippocampus, amygdala,
and hypothalamus.
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Hypothalamus
The Hypothalamus lies
below (hypo) the
thalamus.
It directs several
maintenance activities
like eating, drinking,
body temperature, and
control of emotions.
It helps govern the
endocrine system via
the pituitary gland.
"TALE of the
hypothalamus":
Temperature
Appetite
Libido
Emotion
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Reward Center
Sanjiv Talwar, SUNY Downstate
Rats cross an
electrified grid for
self-stimulation when
electrodes are placed
in the reward
(hypothalamus)
center (top picture).
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Hippocampus
• Important for
memory
• Damage may cause
anterograde
amnesia
• Link 9:58
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The Cerebral Cortex
• Cerebral Cortex
– the intricate fabric of interconnected neural
cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres
– the body’s ultimate control and information
processing center
• Glial Cells
– cells in the nervous system that are not
neurons but that support, nourish, and protect
neurons
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Figure 2.24 The cerebral cortex
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Myers: Psychology, Eighth54
Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers
The Cerebral Cortex
• Frontal Lobes
– involved in speaking and muscle movements and in
making plans and judgments
• Parietal Lobes
– include the sensory cortex
• Occipital Lobes
– include the visual areas, which receive visual
information from the opposite visual field
• Temporal Lobes
– include the auditory areas
Link Frontal lobe
development at PBS
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13:33
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The Cerebral Cortex
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The Cerebral Cortex
Aphasia
impairment of language, usually caused by left
hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area
(impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area
(impairing understanding)
Broca’s Area Link
an area of the left frontal lobe that directs the
muscle movements involved in speech
Wernicke’s Area Link
an area of the left temporal lobe involved in
language comprehension Link 7:44
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Split Brain
 a condition in which
the two hemispheres
of the brain are
isolated by cutting
the corpus Callosum.
 Sperry and
Gazzaniga are key
researchers in this
area.
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Behavior Genetics and
Evolutionary Psychology
Module 5
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Environmental
Influences on Behavior
Module 6
Environmental Influence
 Culture
 the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes,
and traditions shared by a large group of
people and transmitted from one
generation to the next
 Norm
 an understood rule for accepted and
expected behavior
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Developmental
Issues, Prenatal
Development,
and the
Newborn
Module 7
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Developmental Psychology
Issue
Nature/Nurture
Continuity/Stages
Stability/Change
Details
How do genetic inheritance
(our nature) and experience
(the nurture we receive)
influence our behavior?
Is developmental a gradual,
continuous process or a
sequence of separate stages?
Do our early personality
traits persist through life, or
do we become different
persons as we age.
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PKU - Phenylketonuria
• Recessive genetic condition where the
child lacks an enzyme to break down
phenylalanine
• Untreated, it can cause problems with
brain development, leading to retardation,
brain damage, and seizures
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Infants are born with reflexes that
aid in survival…
• Rooting - turning the head and opening the
mouth in the direction of a touch on the cheek
• Grasping - curling the fingers around an object
• Stepping Reflex reflex that causes
newborns to
start a stepping motion
as they touch a surface
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Prenatal Development
and the Newborn
 Preferences
 human voices
and faces
 facelike
images, smell
and sound of
mother
preferred
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Infancy and
Childhood
Module 8
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Infancy and Childhood
Infancy and childhood span from birth to the
teenage years. During these years, the
individual grows physically, cognitively, and
socially.
Stage
Span
Infancy
Newborn to toddler
Childhood
Toddler to teenager
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Infancy and Childhood:
Cognitive Development
 Schema
 a concept or framework that
organizes and interprets
information, they are building
blocks of intellectual development
 Schema example 2:23
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Piaget’s Stages
Typical Age
Range
Description
of Stage
Developmental
Phenomena
Sensorimotor
Birth to nearly 2 years
Experiencing the world through
senses and actions (looking,
touching, mouthing)
•Object permanence
•Stranger anxiety
•Some cause and effect
Preoperational
About 2 to 6 years
Representing things
with words and images
but lacking logical reasoning
•Pretend play
•Egocentrism
•Language development
•Think in symbols
Concrete operational
About 7 to 11 years
Thinking logically about concrete
•Conservation
events; grasping concrete analogies
•Mathematical
and performing arithmetical operations transformations
Formal operational
About 12 through
adulthood
Abstract reasoning, speculation
•Abstract logic
•Potential for
moral reasoning 72
Piaget Stages Mnemonic
• Smart
People Cook
Fish
• Sensorimotor,
Pre-operational,
Concreteoperational,
Formaloperational
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Sensorimotor Stage
In the sensorimotor stage, babies take in the
world by looking, hearing, touching, mouthing,
and grasping. Children younger than 6 months
of age do not grasp object permanence, i.e.,
objects that are out of sight are also out of mind.
Doug Goodman
Object permanence in dogs 15:20
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Preoperational Stage
Piaget suggested that from 2 years old to about
6-7 years old, children are in the preoperational
stage—too young to perform mental operations.
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Infancy and Childhood:
Cognitive Development
 Conservation
 the principle that properties such as mass,
volume, and number remain the same despite
changes in the forms of objects
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Harlow and Attachment
 Harlow’s Surrogate
Mother Experiments
 Monkeys preferred
contact with the
comfortable cloth
mother, even while
feeding from the
nourishing wire
mother
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Attachment
• Mary Ainsworth – Strange situation
– Unfamiliar playroom
– Mother and unfamiliar woman
– Women play with baby – leave briefly
• How to the babies respond?
• Link 3:15
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Insecure Attachment
• Some have insecure attachment, 30%
– Avoidant – avoid or ignore mother on
return
– Ambivalent –upset when mom leaves,
but vacillate between clingy and angry
on return
– Disorganized – inconsistent, disturbed,
disturbing – may reach out for mom
while looking away (Moss 2004)
– Link 2:10
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Deprivation of Attachment
What happens when circumstances prevent a
child from forming attachments?
In such circumstances children become:
1. Withdrawn
2. Frightened
3. Unable to develop speech
Link 13:20 Attachment Disorder
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Social Development:
Parenting Styles
 Authoritarian
 parents impose rules and expect obedience
 “Don’t interrupt.” “Why? Because I said so.”
 Permissive
 submit to children’s desires, make few demands, use
little punishment
 Authoritative
 both demanding and responsive
 set rules, but explain reasons and encourage open
discussion
 Rejecting-Neglecting
 completely uninvolved; disengaged. Expect little and
invest little
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Adolescence
Module 9
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Developing Morality
Kohlberg (1981, 1984) sought to describe the
development of moral reasoning by posing moral
dilemmas to children and adolescents, such as
“Should a person steal medicine to save a loved
one’s life?” He found stages of moral
development.
Link Where is
morality at PBS 14:08
AP Photo/ Dave Martin
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Erikson’s Stages of
Psychosocial Development
Mnemonic
Approximate
age
Stage
Description of Task
Infancy
(1st year)
Trust vs. mistrust
If needs are dependably met, infants
develop a sense of basic trust.
Toddler
(2nd year)
Autonomy vs. shame Toddlers learn to exercise will and
and doubt
do things for themselves, or they
doubt their abilities.
Preschooler
(3-5 years)
Initiative vs. guilt
Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks
and carry out plans, or they feel
guilty about efforts to be independent.
Elementary
(6 yearspuberty)
Competence vs.
inferiority
Children learn the pleasure of applying
themselves to tasks, or they feel
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inferior.
Erikson’s Stages of
Psychosocial Development
Mnemonic link
Approximate
age
Stage
Description of Task
Adolescence
(teens into
20’s)
Identity vs. role
confusion
Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by
testing roles and then integrating them to
form a single identity, or they become
confused about who they are.
Young Adult
(20’s to early
40’s)
Intimacy vs.
isolation
Young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate
love, or they feel socially isolated.
Middle Adult
(40’s to 60’s)
Generativity vs.
stagnation
The middle-aged discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family
and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose.
Late Adult
(late 60’s and
up)
Integrity vs.
despair
When reflecting on his or her life, the older
adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or
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failure.
Adulthood
Module 10
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Aging and Intelligence
It is believed today that fluid intelligence (ability
to reason speedily) declines with age, but
crystalline intelligence (accumulated knowledge
and skills) increases.
We gain vocabulary and knowledge but lose recall
memory and process more slowly.
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Introduction to Sensation
and Perception: Vision
Module 11
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Thresholds
Proportion of “Yes” Responses
1.00
0.50
0.00
Absolute Threshold: Minimum stimulation needed
to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time.
0
5
10
15
20
Stimulus Intensity (lumens)
25
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Why Does the “Absolute”
Threshold Vary?
- Signal Detection
• Sensitivity:
– Intensity of the signal.
– Capacity of sensory systems.
– Amount of background stimulation, or “noise.”
• Response criterion reflects one’s
willingness to respond to a stimulus.
– Influenced by motivation and expectancies.
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Sensory Adaptation
Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of
constant stimulation.
Put a band aid on your arm and after awhile
you don’t sense it.
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Transduction
In sensation, the transformation of stimulus energy
(sights, sounds, smells) into neural impulses.
…we live in the past in a very real way.
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The Lens
Lens: Transparent
structure behind the
pupil that changes shape
to focus images on the
retina.
Accommodation: The
process by which the
eye’s lens changes shape
to help focus near or far
objects on the retina.
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Retina
Retina: The lightsensitive inner
surface of the eye,
containing receptor
rods and cones in
addition to layers of
other neurons
(bipolar, ganglion
cells) that process
visual information.
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Optic Nerve, Blind Spot & Fovea
Optic nerve: Carries neural impulses from the eye to the
brain.
Blind Spot: Point where the optic nerve leaves the eye
because there are no receptor cells located there.
Fovea: Central point in the retina around which the eye’s
cones cluster.
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http://www.bergen.org
Retina’s Reaction to Light- Receptors
 Rods
 peripheral retina
 detect black, white and gray
 twilight or low light
 Cones
 near center of retina
 fine detail and color vision
 daylight or well-lit conditions
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Bipolar & Ganglion Cells
Bipolar cells receive
messages from
photoreceptors and
transmit them to
ganglion cells,
which converge to
form the optic
nerve.
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Feature Detection
Ross Kinnaird/ Allsport/ Getty Images
Nerve cells/neurons in the visual cortex respond
to specific features, such as edges, angles, and
movement…. many cortical cells respond most
strongly to specific visual information
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Color Blindness
Genetic disorder in which people are blind to
green or red colors. This supports the
Trichromatic theory.
Ishihara Test
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Opponent Process Theory
Hering proposed that we process four primary
colors combined in pairs of red-green, blueyellow, and black-white.
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Opponent Colors
Gaze at the middle of the flag for about 60
Seconds. When it disappears, stare at the dot and report
whether or not you see Britain's flag.
101
The Other Senses
Module 12
102
Frequency (Pitch)
Frequency
(pitch):
Determined by
the wavelength
of sound.
•The star
player
FREQUENTLY
PITCHES.
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The Ear
Dr. Fred Hossler/ Visuals Unlimited
Link Shepherds
ascending scale
104
The Ear
Outer Ear/Pinna: Collects and sends sounds
to the eardrum.
Middle Ear: Chamber between eardrum and
cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer,
anvil, stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations
of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window.
Inner Ear: Innermost part of the ear,
containing the cochlea, semicircular canals,
and vestibular sacs.
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Cochlea
Cochlea: Coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the
inner ear that transforms sound vibrations to
auditory signals.
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Localization of Sounds
Because we have two ears, sounds that reach one ear
faster than the other ear cause us to localize the sound.
1. Intensity differences
2. Time differences
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Taste
Traditionally, taste sensations consisted of sweet,
salty, sour, and bitter tastes. Recently, receptors for
a fifth taste have been discovered called “Umami”.
Sweet
Sour
Taste link at Nova
Blocking bitter taste at Nova
Salty
Bitter
Umami
(Fresh
Chicken)
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Chemical Senses:
The Flavors and Aromas of
Life
• Olfaction
– Olfactory epithelium – top of nasal cavity
– Pheromone detection of sweat and urine
• Vomeronasal organ
• Influence human female reproductive cycles
• Inhalation of male sex hormone and mood
changes
• Males may respond to sex hormones
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Perceptual Organization
Module 13
110
Perceptual Organization: Gestalt
 Gestalt--an organized whole
 tendency to integrate pieces of information
into meaningful wholes
 a school of psychology founded in Germany
in the 1900s that maintained our sensations
are processed according to consistent
perceptual rules that result in meaningful
whole perceptions, or gestalts.
111
Figure Ground
Organization of the visual field into objects
(figures) that stand out from their surroundings
(ground).
Time Savings Suggestion, © 2003 Roger Sheperd.
112
Perceptual Organization: Gestalt
 Grouping Principles





proximity--group nearby figures together
similarity--group figures that are similar
continuity--perceive continuous patterns
closure--fill in gaps
connectedness--spots, lines, and areas are
seen as unit when connected
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Depth Perception
Innervisions
Depth perception enables us to judge distances.
Gibson and Walk (1960) suggested that human
infants (crawling age) have depth perception. Even
newborn animals show depth perception.
Visual Cliff
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Binocular Cues
Convergence: Neuromuscular cues. When two
eyes move inward (towards the nose) to see near
objects and outward (away from the nose) to see
faraway objects.
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Monocular Cues
Relative motion: Objects closer to a fixation point
move faster and in opposing direction to those
objects that are farther away from a fixation point,
moving slower and in the same direction.
116
Perceptual Constancy
Perceiving objects as unchanging even as
illumination and retinal images change.
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Perceptual
Interpretation
Module 14
118
Waking and Sleeping
Rhythms
Module 15
119
Biological Rhythms and Sleep
Illustration © Cynthia Turner 2003
Circadian Rhythms occur on a 24-hour cycle and include
sleep and wakefulness. Termed our “biological clock,” it
can be altered by artificial light.
Light triggers the suprachiasmatic nucleus to decrease
(morning) melatonin from the pineal gland
120
and increase (evening) it at nightfall.
Sleep Stages 1-2
During early, light sleep (stages 1-2) the brain
enters a high-amplitude, slow, regular wave form
called theta waves (5-8 cps). A person who is
daydreaming shows theta activity.
121
Theta Waves
Stage 5: REM Sleep
After reaching the deepest sleep stage (4), the sleep
cycle starts moving backward towards stage 1.
Although still asleep, the brain engages in lowamplitude, fast and regular beta waves (15-40 cps)
much like awake-aroused state.
122
Sleep Disorders
1. Insomnia: A persistent inability to fall
asleep. Fatal Insomnia Link 43:19
2. Narcolepsy: Overpowering urge to fall
asleep that may occur while talking or
standing up. Narcoleptic dog 1:49 Narcolepsy 4:00
3. Sleep apnea: Failure to breathe when
asleep. Link 2:27
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Hypnosis
Module 16
124
Hypnosis
 Hypnosis
 a social interaction in which one person
(the hypnotist) suggests to another (the
subject) that certain perceptions,
feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will
spontaneously occur
 Posthypnotic Amnesia
 supposed inability to recall what one
experienced during hypnosis
 induced by the hypnotist’s suggestion
125
Hypnosis: Pain Relief
 Dissociation (divided consciousness)
 a split in consciousness
 allows some thoughts and behaviors to
occur simultaneously with others
 Hidden Observer
 Hilgard’s term describing a hypnotized
subject’s awareness of experiences, such
as pain, that go unreported during hypnosis
126
Drugs and
Consciousness
Module 17
127
Dependence & Addiction
Continued use of a
psychoactive drug
produces tolerance.
With repeated
exposure to a drug,
the drug’s effect
lessens. Thus it takes
greater quantities to
get the desired effect.
128
Withdrawal & Dependence
1. Withdrawal: Upon stopping use of a
drug users may experience undesirable
side effects.
2. Dependence: Absence of a drug may
lead to a feeling of physical pain, intense
cravings (physical dependence), and
negative emotions (psychological
dependence).
129
Depressants
1. Alcohol affects motor skills, judgment, and
memory…and increases aggressiveness while
reducing self awareness.
Daniel Hommer, NIAAA, NIH, HHS
130
Depressants
2. Barbiturates: Drugs that depress the activity of
the central nervous system, reducing anxiety
but impairing memory and judgment.
Nembutal, Seconal, and Amytal are some
examples.
132
Hallucinogens
Hallucinogens are
psychedelic (mindmanifesting) drugs that
distort perceptions and
evoke sensory images in
the absence of sensory
input.
Housewife on Acid on CNN 5:01
Another person on Acid 8:46
Leary and kids who dropped
acid…creepy 1:14
133
Classical Conditioning
Module 18
134
Classical Conditioning
It was the Russian physiologist Ivan
Pavlov who elucidated classical
conditioning.
Sovfoto
His work provided a basis for later
behaviorists like John Watson.
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
135
Classical Conditioning is
learning that takes place when
an originally neutral stimulus
comes to produce a conditioned
response because of its
association with an
unconditioned stimulus.
136
Pavlov’s Experiments
Before conditioning, food (Unconditioned
Stimulus, US) produces salivation
(Unconditioned Response, UR). However, the
tone (neutral stimulus) does not.
137
Pavlov’s Experiments
During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (tone)
and the US (food) are paired, resulting in
salivation (UR). After conditioning, the neutral
stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits
salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR)
138
Acquisition
Acquisition is the initial learning stage in
classical conditioning in which an association
between a neutral stimulus and an
unconditioned stimulus takes place.
1. In most cases, for conditioning to occur, the
neutral stimulus needs to come before the
unconditioned stimulus.
2. The time in between the two stimuli should
be about half a second. One must reliably
predict the other.
139
Acquisition
The CS needs to come half a second before the US
for acquisition to occur.
140
Extinction
When the US (food) does not follow the CS
(tone), CR (salivation) begins to decrease and
eventually causes extinction.
A disappeared
CR is called
extinguished, not
extinct.
141
Stimulus Generalization
Tendency to respond to
stimuli similar to the CS is
called generalization.
142
Stimulus Discrimination
Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish
between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that
do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.
143
Biological Predispositions
• John Garcia
Conditioned taste aversions
• Not all neutral stimuli can become
conditioned stimuli.
• Internal stimuli—associate better with taste
• External stimuli—associate better with pain
• Biological preparedness
144
Behaviorism
 John B. Watson
 viewed psychology as
objective science
 generally agreed-upon
consensus today
 recommended study of
behavior without reference
to unobservable mental
processes
 not universally accepted by all
schools of thought today
145
Remember that Little Albert
generalized his fear of rats into
fear of anything with white fur,
including a Santa Claus mask, a
rabbit, etc.
146
Operant Conditioning
Module 19
147
Shaping
Shaping is the operant conditioning procedure
in which reinforcers guide behavior towards the
desired target behavior through successive
approximations. link
Fred Bavendam/ Peter Arnold, Inc.
Khamis Ramadhan/ Panapress/ Getty Images
A rat shaped to sniff mines. A manatee shaped to discriminate
objects of different shapes, colors and sizes.
148
Types of Reinforcers
Reinforcement: Any
event that
strengthens the
behavior it follows.
Reuters/ Corbis
A heat lamp
positively reinforces
a meerkat’s behavior
in the cold.
149
Types of Reinforcement
• Positive reinforcer (+)
– Adds something
rewarding following a
behavior, making that
behavior more likely to
occur again
– Giving a dog a treat for
fetching a ball is an
example
• Negative reinforcer (-)
– Removes something
unpleasant that was
already in the
environment following
a behavior, making
that behavior more
likely to occur again
– Taking an aspirin to
relieve a headache is
an example
150
Punishment
An aversive event that decreases the behavior it
follows.
151
Schedules of Reinforcement
 Variable Ratio (VR)
 reinforces a
response after an
unpredictable
number of
responses
 like gambling, fishing
 very hard to
extinguish because
of unpredictability
 Skinner link 3:58
SLOT machines show SLOwesT extinction.
152
Updating Skinner’s Understanding
• Skinner’s emphasis on external control of
behavior made him an influential, but
controversial figure.
• Many psychologists criticized Skinner for
underestimating the importance of
cognitive and biological constraints.
153
Learning By
Observation
Module 20
154
Learning by Observation
©Herb Terrace
© Herb Terrace
Higher animals,
especially humans,
learn through observing
and imitating others.
The monkey on the
right imitates the
monkey on the left in
touching the pictures in
a certain order to obtain
a reward.
155
Modeling Violence
Children modeling after pro wrestlers
Glassman/ The Image Works
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works
Research shows that viewing media violence
leads to an increased expression of aggression.
156
Information
Processing
Module 21
157
Studying Memory:
Information Processing Models
Keyboard
Disk
Monitor
(Encoding)
(Storage)
(Retrieval)
Sequential Process
How Memory
158
Works Nova
Encoding: Serial Position Effect
159
Encoding Meaning
Processing the meaning of verbal
information by associating it with what
we already know or imagine.
Encoding meaning (semantic encoding)
results in better recognition later than
visual or acoustic encoding.
160
Chunking
You already know the capacity of the working
memory may be increased by “chunking.”
F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M
FBI TWA CIA IBM
But you didn’t know that
you can handle 4
chunks
161
Stress Hormones & Memory
Flashbulb memories are clear memories of
emotionally significant moments or events.
Heightened emotions (stress-related or
otherwise) make for stronger memories.
Scott Barbour/ Getty Images
162
Storing Implicit & Explicit Memories
Explicit Memory refers to facts and experiences
that one can consciously know and declare.
Implicit memory involves learning an action
while the individual does not know or declare
what she knows.
163
164
Fig. 7-23, p. 286
Amnesias
After losing his hippocampus in surgery, patient
Henry M. (HM) remembered everything before the
operation but could not make new memories. We
call this anterograde amnesia.
Anterograde
Amnesia
(HM)
Memory Intact
No New Memories
Surgery
Retrograde
amnesia
No old memories
How memory works at
Nova 10:15
Memory intact
Surgery
165
Implicit & Explicit Memory
HM is unable to make new memories that are
declarative (explicit), but he can form new
memories that are procedural (implicit).
A
B
C
Towers
of Hanoi
Link 166
Forgetting,
Memory
Construction,
and Improving
Memory
Module 22
167
Forgetting as Interference
 Learning some items may disrupt
retrieval of other information
 Proactive (forward acting) Interference
 disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of
new information
 Retroactive (backwards acting)
Interference
 disruptive effect of new learning on recall of
old information
168
Thinking
Module 23
169
Thinking
 Cognition
 mental activities associated with thinking,
knowing, remembering, and communicating
 Cognitive Psychologists
 study these mental activities
 concept formation
 problem solving
 decision making
 judgment formation
170
Thinking
 Concept
 mental grouping of similar objects, events,
ideas, or people
 Prototype
 mental image or best example of a category
 matching new items to the prototype provides a
quick and easy method for including items in a
category (as when comparing feathered creatures
to a prototypical bird, such as a robin)
171
Thinking
 Algorithm
 methodical, logical
rule or procedure that
guarantees solving a
particular problem
 contrasts with the
usually speedier–but
also more error-prone-use of heuristics
172
Algorithms
Algorithms, which are very time consuming,
exhaust all possibilities before arriving at a
solution. Computers use algorithms.
SPLOYOCHYG
If we were to unscramble these letters to form a word
using an algorithmic approach, we would face
907,200 possibilities.
173
Heuristics
Heuristics with the psych files 15:12
B2M Productions/Digital Version/Getty Images
Heuristics are mental
shortcuts that allow us
to make judgments
and solve problems
efficiently. Heuristics
are less time
consuming, but more
error-prone than
algorithms.
174
Thought Puzzle #1
What got in the way of solving this problem?
Mental Set - Old pattern of problem
solving is applied to a new problem.
Functional Fixedness – A tendency to
think about familiar objects in familiar ways
which may prevent more creative use of
those objects to solve the problem.
175
Functional Fixedness
A tendency to think only of the familiar functions
of an object.
?
Problem: Tie the two ropes together.
Use a screw driver, cotton balls and a matchbox.
176
Obstacles in Solving Problems
Confirmation Bias: A tendency to search for
information that confirms a personal bias.
2–4–6
Discover the rule
177
Fixation
Fixation: An inability to see a problem from a
fresh perspective. This impedes problem
solving. An example of fixation is functional
fixedness.
From “Problem Solving” by M. Scheerer. Copyright © 1963 by
Scientific American, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
The Matchstick
Problem: How would
you arrange six
matches to form four
equilateral triangles?
178
Language and Thought
Module 24/CH 11 Sec 2
Language is so powerful
that is has “…produced a
species that transcends
apehood to the same
degree by which life
transcends mundane
chemistry and physics.”
Vilayanur S. Ramachandran The
Tell Tale Brain pg. xv
179
Language Structure
Phonemes: The smallest distinct sound unit in a
spoken language. For example:
bat, has three phonemes b · a · t
chat, has three phonemes ch · a · t
Languages have these sounds in common
She has mastered the Phonemes but not the
meaning…Ken Lee vid 1:14
180
Language Structure
Morpheme: The smallest unit that carries a
meaning. It may be a word or part of a word.
For example:
Milk = milk
Pumpkin = pump . kin
Unforgettable = un · for · get · table
181
Language
 Semantics
 the set of rules by which we derive meaning
from morphemes, words, and sentences in
a given language
 also, the study of meaning
 Syntax
 the rules for combining words into
grammatically sensible sentences in a
given language
182
Language
 Babbling Stage (pre-linguistic event)
Link
 beginning at 3 to 4 months
 the stage of speech development in which
the infant spontaneously utters various
sounds at first unrelated to the household
language Linguistic Genius of babies at TED 10:18
 One-Word Stage
 from about age 1 to 2
 the stage in speech development during
which a child speaks mostly in single words183
Explaining Language Development
cont.
2. Inborn Universal Grammar: Chomsky (1959,
1987) opposed Skinner’s ideas and suggested
that the rate of language acquisition is so fast
that it cannot be explained through learning
principles, and thus most of it is inborn.
184
Language Influences Thinking
Linguistic Determinism
(Whorf hypothesis):
language determines the way
we think.
For example, he noted that
the Hopi people do not have
the past tense for verbs.
Therefore, the Hopi cannot
think readily about the past.
Link
185
Insight
Chimpanzees show insightful behavior when
solving problems.
Chimp Problem solving:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ySMh1
mBi3cI&NR=1&safety_mode=true&persist
_safety_mode=1
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xOrgO
W9LnT4&feature=related&safety_mode=tr
ue&persist_safety_mode=1
Sultan uses sticks to get food.
187
Intelligence Module 25
188
General Intelligence
Spearman proposed that general intelligence (g)
is linked to many clusters that can be analyzed
by factor analysis.
For example, people who do well on vocabulary
examinations do well on paragraph
comprehension examinations, a cluster that
helps define verbal intelligence. Other factors
include a spatial ability factor, and a reasoning
ability factor.
Link Battle of the Brains 49:23
189
Intelligence and Creativity
Creativity is the ability to produce ideas that are
both novel and valuable. It correlates somewhat
with intelligence.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Expertise: A well-developed knowledge base.
Imaginative Thinking: The ability to see things in novel
ways, recognize patterns and make connections.
A Venturesome Personality: A personality that seeks
new experiences rather than following the pack.
Intrinsic Motivation: A motivation to be creative from
within, must enjoy challenges.
A Creative Environment: A creative and supportive
190
environment allows creativity to bloom. Creativity on TED
Alfred Binet
Alfred Binet practiced a
modern form of
intelligence testing by
developing questions
that would predict
children’s future
progress in the Paris
school system.
191
Lewis Terman
In the US, Lewis Terman
adapted Binet’s test for
American school
children and named the
test the Stanford-Binet
Test.
The following is the
formula of Intelligence
Quotient (IQ)
192
Normal Curve
Standardized tests establish a normal distribution
of scores on a tested population in a bell-shaped
pattern called the normal curve.
193
Reliability
A test is reliable when it yields consistent results. To
establish reliability researchers establish different
procedures:
1.
2.
Split-half Reliability: Dividing the test into two
equal halves and assessing how consistent the
scores are.
Test-Retest Reliability: Using the same test on two
occasions to measure consistency.
194
Validity
Reliability of a test does not ensure validity. Validity
of a test refers to what the test is supposed to
measure or predict.
1.
2.
Content Validity: Refers to the extent a test
measures a particular behavior or trait.
Predictive Validity: Refers to the function of a test
in predicting a particular behavior or trait.
195
Genetic Influences
Studies of twins, family members, and adopted
children together support the idea that there is a
significant genetic contribution to intelligence.
196
Adoption Studies
Adopted children show a marginal correlation in
verbal ability to their adopted parents.
197
Introduction to Motivation:
Hunger
Module 26
Link: Battle at Kruger 8:24
198
Drive Reduction Theory Cont.
• Secondary Drives
• Primary Drives
– Learned
– Unlearned
• Food
• Water
• Temperature regulation
• Money
• Shelter
• Job
Drive
Reduction
Food
Empty
Stomach
Stomach
Full
(Food Deprived)
Organism
199
Homeostasis
-tendency to
maintain a
balanced or
constant
internal state
-regulation of
any aspect of
body
chemistry
around a
particular level
200
Incentive
Where our needs push, incentives (positive or
negative stimuli) pull us in reducing our drives.
A food-deprived person who smells baking bread
(incentive) feels a strong hunger drive.
201
Hierarchy of Needs
202
Body Chemistry & the Brain
Levels of glucose in
the blood are
monitored by
receptors (neurons) in
the stomach, liver, and
intestines. They send
signals to the
hypothalamus in the
brain.
Rat Hypothalamus
Glucose Molecule
203
Hypothalamic Centers
The lateral hypothalamus (LH) brings on hunger
(stimulation). Destroy the LH, and the animal has
no interest in eating.
The reduction of blood glucose stimulates orexin in
the LH, which leads rats to eat ravenously.
Lateral nucleus –
Causes us to start
eating and keep
eating. (LATERAL)
"Late night
snack":
LATEral is
snacking [feeding]
center.
204
Hypothalamic Centers
The ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)
depresses hunger (stimulation). Destroy the VMH,
and the animal eats excessively.
Richard Howard
Ventromedial nucleus - Causes us
to stop eating and not be
interested in food. (VomitMeal)
205
Hypothalamus & Hormones
The hypothalamus monitors a number of hormones that
are related to hunger.
Hormone
Orexin increase
Tissue
Response
Hypothalamus Increases hunger
Ghrelin increase Stomach
Increases hunger
Insulin increase
Pancreas
Increases hunger
Leptin increase
Fat cells
Decreases hunger
PPY increase
Digestive tract
Decreases hunger
206
Motivation-Hunger
 Set Point
 the point at which an individual’s
“weight thermostat” is supposedly set
 when the body falls below this weight,
an increase in hunger and a lowered
metabolic rate may act to restore the
lost weight
 Basal Metabolic Rate
 body’s base rate of energy expenditure
207
Sexual Motivation
Module 27
208
Motivation at Work
Module 28
209
Industrial-Organizational (I/O)
Psychology Overview
Applies psychological principles to the workplace.
1.
Personnel Psychology: Studies the principles of
selecting and evaluating workers.
2.
Organizational Psychology: Studies how work
environments and management styles influence
worker motivation, satisfaction, and productivity.
3.
Human Factors Psychology: Explores how
machines and environments can be designed to fit
our natural perception.
210
Sources of Achievement Motivation
Why does one person become more motivated
to achieve than another? Parents and teachers
have an influence on the roots of motivation.
Emotional roots: learning to associate
achievement with positive emotions.
Cognitive roots: learning to attribute
achievements to one’s own competence, thus
raising expectations of oneself.
211
Setting Specific, Challenging
Goals
Specific challenging goals motivate people to
reach higher achievement levels, especially if
there is feedback such as progress reports.
212
Theories and
Physiology of Emotion
Module 29
213
James-Lange Theory
James-Lange Theory
proposes that
physiological
activity precedes the
emotional
experience.
214
Cannon-Bard Theory
Proposed that an
emotion-triggering
stimulus and the
body's arousal take
place
simultaneously.
215
Schachter and Singer’s TwoFactor Theory
Our physiology and
cognitions create
emotions.
Emotions have two
factors–physical
arousal and cognitive
label.
Two factory theory on the psych
files 24:17
216
Figure 13.1 Theories of emotion
217
Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers
Expressing and
Experiencing Emotion
Module 30
218
Culture and Emotional Expression
When culturally diverse people were shown
basic facial expressions, they did fairly well
at recognizing them (Matsumoto & Ekman,
1989).
Elkman & Matsumoto, Japanese and
Caucasian Facial Expression of Emotion
219
Catharsis Hypothesis
Venting anger
through action or
fantasy ---achieves an
emotional release
or “catharsis.”
Opposing Theory-- Expressing
anger breeds more anger, and
through reinforcement it is habitforming.
220
Stress and
Illness
Module 31
221
General Adaptation Syndrome
(GAS)
EPA/ Yuri Kochetkov/ Landov
According to Selye, a stress response to any kind of
stimulation is similar. The stressed individual goes
through three phases.
222
Stress and the Heart
Stress that leads to elevated blood pressure may
result in coronary heart disease, a clogging of the
vessels that nourish the heart muscle.
Plaque in
coronary
artery
Artery
clogged
223
Personality Types
Type A is a term used for competitive,
hard-driving, impatient, verbally
aggressive, and anger-prone people. Type
B refers to easygoing, relaxed people
(Friedman and Rosenman, 1974).
Type A personalities are more likely to develop
coronary heart disease.
224
Stress and Colds
People with the highest life stress scores were also
the most vulnerable when exposed to an
experimental cold virus.
225
Promoting Health
Module 32
226
Promoting Health
 Biofeedback
 An electronic
technique that
enables a person to
control physiological
responses that are
normally involuntary
 blood pressure
 muscle tension
227
The Psychoanalytic Perspective
Module 33
Your conscious life, in short, is
nothing but an elaborate post-hoc
rationalization of things you really
do for other reasons.
Ramachandran in A Brief Tour of Human
Consciousness
228
Dream Analysis
Another method to analyze the unconscious
mind is through interpreting manifest and
latent contents of dreams.
229
Id, Ego and Superego
The Id unconsciously strives
to satisfy basic sexual and
aggressive drives, operating
on the pleasure principle,
demanding immediate
gratification.
The ego functions as the
“executive” and mediates the
demands of the id and superego.
The superego provides standards for judgment (the
230
conscience) and for future aspirations.
Defense Mechanisms
3. Reaction Formation causes the ego to
unconsciously switch unacceptable
impulses into their opposites. People may
express feelings of purity when they may be
suffering anxiety from unconscious feelings
about sex.
4. Projection leads people to disguise their
own threatening impulses by attributing
them to others.
231
Assessing Unconscious Processes
Evaluating personality from an unconscious
mind’s perspective would require a
psychological instrument (projective tests) that
would reveal the hidden unconscious mind.
232
The Humanistic
Perspective
Module 34
233
Humanistic Perspective
Focuses on mental capabilities that set humans
apart; self awareness, creativity, planning,
decision making, responsibility.
Mnemonic
CRAM
http://www.ship.edu
Carl
Rodgers
Abraham
Maslow
Abraham Maslow
(1908-1970)
Carl Rogers
(1902-1987)
234
Self-Actualizing Person
http://www.ship.edu
Maslow proposed
that we as
individuals are
motivated by a
hierarchy of needs.
Beginning with
physiological
needs, we try to
reach the state of
self-actualization—
fulfilling our
potential.
235
Person-Centered Perspective
Carl Rogers also believed in an individual's selfactualization tendencies. He said that
Unconditional Positive Regard is an attitude of
acceptance of others despite their failings.
Michael Rougier/ Life Magazine © Time Warner, Inc.
236
Assessing the Self
In an effort to assess personality, Rogers asked
people to describe themselves as they would like
to be (ideal) and as they actually are (real). If the
two descriptions were close the individual had a
positive self-concept.
All of our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in an
answer to the question, “Who am I?” refers to Self-Concept.
237
Contemporary Research on
Personality
Module 35
238
The Trait Perspective
 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory (MMPI)
 the most widely researched and clinically
used of all personality tests
 originally developed to identify emotional
disorders (still considered its most
appropriate use)
 now used for many other screening purposes
239
Evaluating the Trait Perspective
The Person-Situation Controversy
Walter Mischel (1968, 1984, 2004) points out that
traits may be enduring, but the resulting
behavior in various situations is different.
Therefore, traits are not good predictors of
behavior.
240
Social-Cognitive Perspective
In his social-cognitive
theory Albert Bandura
(1999; 2006) sees
personality as shaped by
the ways in which
thoughts, behavior, and
the environment interact
and influence one
another.
Albert Bandura
241
Personal Control
External locus of control refers to the perception
that chance or outside forces beyond our personal
control determine our fate.
Internal locus of control refers to the perception
that we can control our own fate.
Self efficacy: learned expectations about
probability of success
242
Learned Helplessness
When unable/unwilling to avoid repeated
adverse events an animal or human learns
helplessness.
Low self efficacy
243
Introduction
to
Psychological
Disorders
Module 36
244
Defining Psychological Disorders
Mental health workers view psychological
disorders as persistently harmful thoughts,
feelings, and actions.
When behavior is deviant, distressful, and
dysfunctional psychiatrists and psychologists
label it as disordered (Comer, 2004).
245
Deviant, Distressful & Dysfunctional
1. Deviant behavior in
one culture may be
considered normal,
while in others it may
lead to arrest.
Carol Beckwith
2. Deviant behavior must
accompany distress.
3. If a behavior is
dysfunctional it is
clearly a disorder.
Woodabe clip at youtube
246
Goals of DSM
1.
2.
Describe (400) disorders.
Determine how prevalent the
disorder is.
Disorders outlined by DSM-IV are reliable.
Therefore, diagnoses by different professionals
are similar.
Others criticize DSM-IV for “putting any kind
of behavior within the compass of psychiatry.”
247
Anxiety,
Dissociative,
Somatoform and
Personality
Disorders
Module 37
248
Anxiety Disorders
Feelings of excessive apprehension and anxiety.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Generalized anxiety disorder
Panic disorder
Phobias
Obsessive-compulsive disorder
Post-traumatic stress disorder
249
Panic Disorder
Symptoms
Minutes-long episodes of intense dread which may
include feelings of terror, chest pains, choking, or
other frightening sensations.
Anxiety is a component of both
disorders. It occurs more in the
panic disorder, making people
avoid situations that cause it.
link
250
Phobias
Marked by a persistent and irrational fear of an
object or situation that disrupts behavior.
251
Kinds of Phobias
Agoraphobia
Phobia of open places.
Acrophobia
Phobia of heights link.
Claustrophobia
Hemophobia
Phobia of closed spaces
Link .
Phobia of blood.
Arachnophobia at National Geographic Link
252
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
Persistence of repetitive thoughts (obsessions)
and urges to engage in repetitive behaviors
(compulsions) that cause distress. Clip
253
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
Four or more weeks of the following symptoms
constitute post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD):
1. Haunting memories
2. Nightmares
3. Social withdrawal
4. Jumpy anxiety
5. Sleep problems
254
Bettmann/ Corbis
Somatoform Disorders
• Psychological problems in which there are
symptoms of a physical disorder without a
physical cause.
255
Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)
A disorder in which a person exhibits two or more
distinct and alternating personalities, formerly called
multiple personality disorder. Link
Chris Sizemore (DID)
Lois Bernstein/ Gamma Liason
256
Personality Disorders
Personality disorders are characterized by
inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that
impair social functioning. Link 58:55
257
Antisocial Personality Disorder
A disorder in which the person (usually men) exhibits a lack
of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and
family members.
Link 6:29
Formerly, this person was called a sociopath or psychopath.
258
Mood Disorders
Module 38
259
Major Depressive Disorder
Major depressive disorder occurs when signs of
depression last two weeks or more and are not
caused by drugs or medical conditions.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Signs include:
Lethargy and fatigue
Feelings of worthlessness
Loss of interest in family & friends
Loss of interest in activities
260
Pharmacology
• Bipolar disorders most effectively treated with
tricyclic antidepressants and Lithium
Carbonate
• Lithium serves as a mood stabilizer
261
Social-Cognitive Perspective
The social-cognitive perspective suggests that
depression arises partly from self-defeating
beliefs and negative explanatory styles.
262
Schizophrenia
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Schizophrenia
The literal translation is “split mind” which
refers to a split from reality. A group of severe
disorders characterized by the following:
1. Disorganized and delusional
thinking.
2. Disturbed perceptions.
3. Inappropriate emotions and
actions.
Link 58:42
264
Disorganized & Delusional Thinking
Many psychologists believe disorganized
thoughts occur because of selective attention
failure (fragmented and bizarre thoughts).
265
Disturbed Perceptions
A schizophrenic person may perceive things
that are not there (hallucinations). Most such
hallucinations are auditory and lesser visual,
somatosensory, olfactory, or gustatory.
L. Berthold, Untitled. The Prinzhorn Collection, University of Heidelberg
Photos of paintings by Krannert Museum, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
August Natter, Witches Head. The Prinzhorn Collection, University of Heidelberg
266
Understanding Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is a disease of the brain exhibited
by the symptoms of the mind.
Brain Abnormalities
Dopamine Overactivity: Researchers found that
schizophrenic patients express higher levels of
dopamine D4 receptors in the brain.
Drugs that block these sites help schizophrenic
patients.
267
Abnormal Brain Morphology
Schizophrenia patients may exhibit
morphological changes in the brain like
enlargement of fluid-filled ventricles.
Both Photos: Courtesy of Daniel R. Weinberger, M.D., NIH-NIMH/ NSC
268
The Psychological
Therapies
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269
Psychoanalysis: Methods
Through free association eventually the patient
opens up and reveals his or her innermost
private thoughts.
Developing positive or negative feelings may be
transference towards the therapist.
270
Behavior Therapy
Therapy that applies learning principles to the
elimination of unwanted behaviors.
To treat phobias or sexual disorders, behavior
therapists do not delve deeply below the
surface looking for inner causes.
Link AM The Mind
271
Classical Conditioning Techniques
Counterconditioning is a procedure that
conditions new responses to stimuli that trigger
unwanted behaviors.
It is based on classical conditioning and
includes exposure therapy and aversive
conditioning.
272
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning procedures enable
therapists to use behavior modification, in
which desired behaviors are rewarded and
undesired behaviors are either unrewarded or
punished.
In institutional settings, therapists may create a
token economy in which patients exchange a
token of some sort, earned for exhibiting the
desired behavior, for various privileges or
treats.
273
Cognitive Therapy
Teaches people adaptive ways of thinking and
acting based on the assumption that thoughts
intervene between events and our emotional
reactions.
274
Group & Family Therapies
Group therapy normally consists of 6-9 people
attending a 90-minute session that can help
more people and costs less. Clients benefit from
knowing others have similar problems.
© Mary Kate Denny/ PhotoEdit, Inc.
275
Community Psychology
• A movement to minimize or prevent
psychological disorders through changes
in social systems and through community
mental health programs.
• Deinstitutionalization: The release of those
with mental disorders from mental
hospitals for the purpose of treating them
in their home communities
276
The
Biomedical
Therapies
Module 42
Drug Therapies
Psychopharmacology is the study of drug effects
on mind and behavior.
With the advent of drugs, hospitalization in mental
institutions has rapidly declined.
278
Mood-Stabilizing Medications
Lithium Carbonate, a common salt, has
been used to stabilize manic episodes in
bipolar disorders.
Brain Stimulation
Electroconvulsive Therapy
(ECT)
ECT is used for severely
depressed patients who do
not respond to drugs.
280
Social Thinking
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281
Focuses in Social Psychology
Social psychology scientifically studies how we
think about, influence, and relate to one another.
“We cannot live for ourselves alone.”
Herman Melville
282
Attributing Behavior to Persons or to
Situations
http://www.stedwards.edu
Attribution Theory: Fritz
Heider (1958) suggested
that we have a tendency
to give causal
explanations for
someone’s behavior,
often by crediting either
the situation or the
person’s disposition.
Fritz Heider
283
Fundamental Attribution Error
Fundamental Attribution Error. The tendency to
overestimate the impact of personal disposition
and underestimate the impact of the situations
in analyzing the behaviors of others.
We see Joe as quiet, shy, and introverted most of
the time, but with friends he is very talkative,
loud, and extroverted.
284
Small Request – Large Request
Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon: The tendency
for people who have first agreed to a small
request to comply later with a larger request.
In the Korean War, Chinese communists
solicited cooperation from US army prisoners
by asking them to carry out small errands. By
complying to small errands they were likely to
comply to larger ones.
285
Actions Can Affect Attitudes
Why do actions affect attitudes? One
explanation is that when our attitudes and
actions are opposed, we experience tension.
This is called cognitive dissonance.
Link 4:54
To relieve ourselves of this tension we bring our
attitudes closer to our actions (Festinger, 1957).
286
287
Social Influence
Module 44
288
Group Pressure & Conformity
Suggestibility is a subtle type of conformity,
adjusting our behavior or thinking toward
some group standard.
289
Group Pressure & Conformity
Informational Social Influence: An influence
resulting from one’s willingness to accept
others’ opinions about reality. Link 1:58
William Vandivert/ Scientific American
290
Conditions that Increase Conformity
1. One is made to feel incompetent or
insecure.
2. The group has at least three people. (but
no appreciable increase over 3)
3. The group is unanimous.
4. One admires the group’s status and
attractiveness.
5. One has no prior commitment to a
response.
6. The group observes one’s behavior.
7. One’s culture strongly encourages
respect for a social standard.
291
Milgram’s Study: Results
Milgram on Youtube
292
Diffusion of
Responsibility/Bystander
Intervention Effect
• The phenomenon where a person is less
likely to take responsibility for an action or
inaction when others are present.
• The greater number of bystanders who
witness an emergency the less likely it is
that any one of them will intervene to help.
• Link 3:36 Bystander effect Link
293
Lessons from the Conformity and
Obedience Studies
In both Asch's and Milgram's studies,
participants were pressured to choose between
following their standards and being responsive
to others.
294
Individual Behavior in the Presence
of Others
Social facilitation: Refers
to improved
performance on tasks in
the presence of others.
Michelle Agnis/ NYT Pictures
Triplett (1898) noticed
cyclists’ race times were
faster when they
competed against others
than when they just
raced against the clock.
295
Social Loafing
The tendency of an individual in a group to
exert less effort toward attaining a common
goal than when tested individually (Latané,
1981).
296
Deindividuation
The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in
group situations that foster arousal and
anonymity.
Mob behavior
297
Effects of Group Interaction
Group Polarization
enhances a group’s
prevailing attitudes
through a discussion.
If a group is likeminded, discussion
strengthens its
prevailing opinions
and attitudes.
298
Social Relations
Module 45
299
Influences
Genetic Influences: Animals have been bred for
aggressiveness for sport and at times for research.
Neural Influences: Some centers in the brain,
especially the limbic system (amygdala) and the
frontal lobe, are intimately involved with
aggression.
300
The Psychology of Attraction
1. Proximity: Geographic nearness is a powerful
predictor of friendship.
2. Mere exposure effect: Repeated exposure to
novel stimuli increases its attraction.
301
Psychology of Attraction
4. Similarity: Similar views among individuals
causes the bond of attraction to strengthen.
Similarity breeds content! The more people are
alike the more their liking endures. (Byrne 1971)
302