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Name: Queensland Past and Present: 100 Years of Statistics,
1896–1996
Section name: Chapter 2, Climate and Environment, Section 3.
Pages: 51–60
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 The State of Queensland 2009
The burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas is a major factor giving rise to the
greenhouse effect.
Expected increases in carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere during the twenty-first
century may raise the mean global temperature by up to 3.5°C. The rate of emission of all
greenhouse gases is such that a doubling of carbon dioxide concentration is likely to be
experienced by 2030. One of the consequences of the greenhouse effect has been a serious
decline in ozone concentrations over Antarctica. Less significant declines have occurred in all
regions apart from the tropics between the mid 1980s and mid 1990s.30 Climate models suggest
that by 2100 global mean temperature will have risen by 1-3.5°C and global sea level by 15-95
cm. Uncertainties exist regarding the timing, magnitude and regional patterns of climatic
change.31
The greenhouse effect has implications for rural industries, especially in the impact of climatic
change on soils, water, plants and animals, and for engineering and public works including
road, railway and airport construction, drainage, and flood mitigation. For the energy and
mining sectors, there would be an impact on the State's exports of steaming coal should countries
decide to use 'cleaner' sources of energy, including solar, wind and nuclear sources for their
electricity generators.
ENVIRONMENT
The environment is the aggregate of surrounding things—physical, chemical and biological—
as well as conditions and influences. People often regard the environment as the air, water,
land, plants, animals, structures, etc. that influence their lifestyle. Responsibility for the
administration of the environment is spread across several Commonwealth and State
Government departments and agencies, and all local government authorities. Landholders
and other individuals are involved directly and through industrial, commercial and community
organisations. Conservation of the environment includes research, recording, monitoring,
legislation, planning, management and education.
Meteors
Numerous appearances of meteors and shooting stars have been reported in Queensland since
1896. Most reports of meteors include a rumbling noise like thunder, heard after the meteors
have passed overhead. Findings of meteoric material are few, and the largest collection is held
by the Queensland Museum. Virtually all the material was found in the south-west of the State
where sparser vegetation enabled the findings to be made. Some of the more notable finds of
meteoric material held by the museum include the following stones:
• Glenormiston meteorite, found near Boulia (22°54'S, 138°43'E). The mass of the main stone
is 38.8 kg.
• Tenham meteorites, found near Ingella (25°44'S, 142°57'E). There are more than 130
individual stones with a total mass in excess of 41 kg.
• Thunda meteorite, found at Windorah (25°42'S, 143°03'E). The museum holds a 43 g slice.
• Gladstone meteorite, found 7 km south of Gladstone (23°54'30"S, 151°15'30"E). The mass
of the main stone is 17.6 kg.32
51
QUEENSLAND PAST AND PRESENT
Air quality
Air is monitored at 20 sites throughout Queensland, including the industrial cities of Gladstone
and Mount Isa, to ascertain the nature and causes of air pollutants. 33 In Brisbane lead levels in
the air have been recorded since 1985 and since that time have shown a decline to well below
existing national health standards. The decline is a result of the introduction of unleaded petrol
in Australia in 1986, and the lowering of the lead content in super grade petrol from 0.8 g to 0.4
g a litre in February 1991 for the Brisbane area and in July 1993 for the rest of Queensland.
The lead level in super grade fuel was further reduced to 0.3 g a litre in early 1994, and to 0.2 g
a litre in December 1995.34 Other sources of air pollutants include smoke and dust from
bushfires, motor vehicle emissions, and industry.
The most easily observed effect on air quality in Brisbane is haze due to fine particles. The
result of this pollution is reduced visibility. Since measurements of fine particles in the air
began in 1988, the United States Environment Protection Agency standard has never been
exceeded in Brisbane. The level of fine particles reached half the agency's standard on five
days in 1995. The Department of Environment uses the National Health and Medical Research
Council's air quality goal for ozone, the indicator for photo-chemical pollution. This goal was
achieved for Queensland in 1995, and was exceeded on only one day in the previous three
years.35
Water storage and clean water
Water supply is drawn from two sources: surface water that comes from rain, and ground
water drawn from underground sources such as the Great Artesian Basin. The first flowing
artesian bore to tap the sources of this basin was at Thuringowa station near Cunnamulla in
1887.36 About 1.1 million megalitres of water a year, which is about 27% of the estimated total
amount of 4.1 million megalitres of ground water available annually throughout Queensland,
are currently used.37 In some areas, including the Great Artesian Basin, the rate of extraction
of ground water exceeds the rate of replenishment. In other areas water is fully replaced into
the underground system.
The average annual run-off from Queensland rivers is about 158 million megalitres, which is
about 40% of the total run-off of Australia's rivers. About 70% of the run-off from Queensland
rivers is discharged into the Coral Sea or the Gulf of Carpentaria. Only about 2% of average
annual run-off from the State's rivers is diverted into water storage facilities.
One of the earliest attempts to establish a water storage facility was the construction of the
Enoggera Reservoir in 1866. The number of water storage facilities in Queensland with a
capacity greater than 1,000 megalitres has increased to about 200. The total capacity of these
facilities is 10.8 million megalitres, of which 3.3 million megalitres is available for annual use.38
The largest water storage facility in Queensland is the Burdekin Dam, south-west of Ayr, with
gross capacity of 1.860 million megalitres (table 2.10), enough to fill 744,000 Olympic-sized
swimming pools of 50 m by 25 m by 2 m.
Irrigation accounts for about 45% of the total volume of surface and ground water used in
Queensland. Water used for urban purposes and for industrial needs is drawn largely from
surface water.39 Hydro-electricity is generated from three power stations: the Barron Gorge
and Kareeya in northern Queensland, and Lake Wivenhoe in south-eastern Queensland. About
52
CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENT
Table 2.10 Largest water storage facilities, Queensland, 1996
Gross capacity
('000 megalitres)
Major purpose
Name of dam
Year of
completion Location
Burdekin
Fairbairn
Wivenhoe
1987
1972
1985
Burdekin River, near Ayr
Nogoa River, near Emerald
Brisbane River
1,860
1,440
1,165
Fred Haigh
Peter Faust
Tinaroo Falls
Ross River
1975
1990
1958
1987
Kolan River, near Gin Gin
Proserpine
Barren River, near Mareeba
near Townsville
586
500
437
417
Irrigation, urban
Industrial, mining, urban
Flood control and mitigation,
hydro-electricity, urban
Irrigation
Irrigation, urban
Hydro-electricity, irrigation
Flood control and mitigation, urban
Somerset
Glenlyon
Awoonga High
North Pine
Boondooma
1959
1976
1985
1976
1983
Stanley River, near Esk
Pine Creek, near Stanthorpe
Boyne River, near Gladstone
North Pine R., near Brisbane
Boyne River, near Preston
369
254
250
215
212
Urban
Irrigation
Industrial and mining, urban
Urban
Industrial, mining, irrigation
Koombooloomba
Wuruma
Hinze
Eungella
Callide
1961
1968
1989
1969
1988
Tully River, near Innisfail
Nogoa River, near Eidsvold
Nerang River, near Nerang
Broken River, near Eungella
Callide Creek, near Biloela
212
165
165
131
127
Hydro-electricity
Irrigation
Urban
Industrial, mining, urban, irrijCation
Industrial, mining, urban, irrigation
Julius
Bjelke-Petersen
Lake Moondara
Leslie
Beardmore
1977
1988
1971
1986
1972
Leichhardt R., near Mount Isa
Barker Creek, near Gympie
Leichhardt R., near Mount Isa
Sandy Creek, near Warwick
Balonne River, near St George
127
125
109
106
101
Industrial, mining, urban
Irrigation
Industrial, mining, urban
Irrigation, urban
Irrigation, rural and urban
Source: Queensland Department of Natural Resources, unpublished data; South East Queensland Water Board, unpublished data.
half the area irrigated in Queensland uses water from storage facilities constructed by the
State's water authorities.
Water resources in Australia are managed by a range of irrigation authorities, metropolitan
water boards, local government authorities and private individuals. State authorities govern
the assessment and control of water resources—under the Australian Constitution water
management rests with State Governments. The Commonwealth Government participates
indirectly through financial assistance. The Australian Water Resources Council was established
in 1963 by the Commonwealth and State Governments to provide a forum for the water industry.
In Queensland the control of surface and underground water is exercised by the Department
of Natural Resources through the licensing of all artesian and sub-artesian bores in declared
districts, the conservation and careful use of surface water and the issuing of permits for domestic
and stock water. The department is principally responsible for water conservation and supply
for rural purposes, including irrigation, domestic water and stock supplies.
Attitudes to water resources management have changed over the last 20 years. It is no longer
seen solely in terms of storing water and regulating streams for consumption, but also in terms
of conserving unregulated streams in an unmodified landscape for wildlife preservation, for
recreation and for use by future generations. In addition, agricultural, industrial and urban
development have led to greater attention being paid to water quality management.
The Clean Waters Act 1971 (Qld) is the major legislative control over water pollution and
water quality management in Queensland, seeking to enhance and restore the quality of the
53
QUEENSLAND PAST AND PRESENT
State's waters. The Act provides for the licensing of effluent discharges, the majority being
secondary treated sewage discharges. Broader approaches to the supply of clean water have
led to government initiatives such as Landcare and Integrated Catchment Management which
are aimed at controlling diffuse sources of pollutants. One of the concerns of authorities has
been outbreaks of blue-green algae in dams and rivers in summer, requiring the use of alternative
water supplies. A recent outbreak occurred in the North Pine Dam near Brisbane in December
1995-February 1996.
Plagues and pests
Queensland has been subjected to various plagues and pests, both native and introduced,
between 1896 and 1996. One of the earliest pests was the cattle tick, first introduced from Asia
via the Northern Territory. Plagues of mosquitoes and sand flies have affected much of
Queensland during the 100-year period. Mice have been a recurring problem, especially in the
grain producing areas of the State. Details of typical plagues and pests are shown in table 2.11.
Contaminated land
Changes in land use since European settlement have resulted in changes in ground water
hydrology. In some areas this has led to a rise in the water table and to contamination by salts
at the soil surface. In addition, toxic chemicals such as arsenic and cyanide have been used in
various industries such as the pastoral industry and mining since the nineteenth century. Some
of these chemicals have leached into the soil and into the water table.
Queensland has about two million parcels of land, of which about 30,000 are considered to be
contaminated. These parcels include areas previously used for authorised primary industry
and industrial activities, landfill areas, and areas containing unexploded ordnance. The
Contaminated Land Act 1991 (Qld) is administered by the Department of Environment and
provides for contaminated lands to be properly managed and cleaned up. In 1995-96 there
were 111,914 public searches of the Contaminated Sites Register. A total of 347 applications
for site contamination reports to permit land use were reviewed after contaminated sites were
assessed and cleaned up.40
Waste management
Effective management of waste is a fundamental requirement for the prevention of disease
and for maintaining ecologically sustainable development. Domestic activities, trade and
commerce, transport, agriculture, and mining and industrial processes in Queensland produce
substantial quantities of solid, liquid and gaseous waste. Brisbane has an estimated 3.9 kg of
solid waste per person a day in addition to sizeable quantities of sewage, liquid industrial
waste and industrial cooling water discharged daily into rivers. Motor vehicles and 700 licensed
dischargers are major sources of gaseous wastes.
In 1994 the first draft strategy to address the minimisation, reuse, treatment, recycling and
disposal of waste in Queensland was issued. Disposal of waste was a last resort. Proposed
levies on waste producers would promote and support waste management initiatives and the
tracking of waste to prevent illegal dumping. The strategy also covered the creation of adequate
waste treatment facilities and the establishment of criteria for siting, designing and operating
waste management facilities including landfills.41
54
CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENT
Table 2.11 Plagues and pests in Queensland, 1896-1996
Pest/plague
Location
Duration
Comments
Cattle tick
Various
Intermittent
throughout
period
This insect first made its appearance in Queensland from the
Northern Territory, having arrived from Java. By 1908 the
cattle tick was reported as far south as Nerang, in southeastern Queensland.
Prickly pear
From Mackay to
New South Wales
border and west to
Charleville
1900s-1930s
Prickly pear's introduction and subsequent spread rendered
infested land useless, causing vast areas of rural land to be
abandoned by owners. At its worst, prickly pear infested 19
million ha in Queensland. A biocontrol agent, the cactoblastis
moth, effectively reversed the damage by the early 1930s.
Rabbits
Granite Belt;
1930s-1950s
south-western
Darling Downs;
Maranoa; southern
Warrego; and the
far south-west
Rabbits are one of Queensland's major agricultural and
environmental pests. By 1896 rabbits had infested southwestern Queensland and by 1905 had spread to Brisbane and
by 1922 to Longreach. The myxoma virus, released in 1950,
controlled 99% of rabbits but by the 1970s they had again
increased to pest proportions. Rabbits currently cause damage
of $300m a year in Queensland. The recent release of the
calici virus is expected to have a major impact.
Cane toads
Coastal
Queensland
1950s to the
present
Since cane toads were introduced into Queensland cane fields
to control cane beetles, they have infested the entire coastal
area south to the New South Wales border and have spread
west to the Hughenden area.
Rubber vine
Tropical and
subtropical areas
1950s to the
present
Current dense infestations cover about 700,000 ha of
northern Queensland, although scattered infestations are
found over most of the state. The plant spreads rapidly,
invading creeks and river systems where it smothers other
vegetation. Work on biocontrol agents is in progress.
Parthenium
weed
Central
Queensland
1970s to the
present
Parthenium is a vigorous species that colonises weak pastures
with sparse ground cover and spreads easily. It degrades
pasture, which reduces grazing land, and causes human
health problems.
Spur-throated Grain growing
locusts
areas of central
and southern
Queensland
1973-1975;
1994-1995
The 1994-1995 plague did not involve migratory locusts,
largely due to control strategies introduced after the 19731975 plague. An outlay of $ 1.3m by the government in 199495 helped save an estimated $30m in crops.
Native rats
Emerald
1984-1985
Seasonal conditions resulted in twice the usual area of grain
being grown which also provided perfect conditions for
native rats to breed.
House mice
Darling Downs
Latest peak 1995
Mice plagues occur regularly and usually end naturally. Due
largely to four years of drought, the 1995 Darling Downs
plague continued and required government intervention. An
outlay of $1.6m saved an estimated $45m of crops.
Source: Queensland Department of Natural Resources, unpublished data.
Conservation management
Queensland has greater biological diversity than any other State. For the purpose of
conservation management, the State has been divided into natural regions based on vegetation
type and landform. Effective conservation strategies consider the inherent natural diversity
and major threatening processes within each of these regions. Part of this protection of the
55
QUEENSLAND PAST AND PRESENT
environment is a system of national parks, where land is acquired to represent biodiversity
comprehensively across all regions of the State. Biodiversity is recognised at four levels:
landscape, ecosystem, species and genetic variation.
Queensland currently has 783 recognised ecosystems, based on classifications of vegetation
and environmental attributes. Each ecosystem is an aggregation of animals, plants, other
organisms and non-living matter that interact. Rainforest is the most complex ecological system.
Due to Australia's dry climate, rainforests occupy only a narrow strip along the east coast from
Cape York to Tasmania. About 90% of the existing tropical rainforest in Queensland (857,000
ha), covering about 60% of the original extension of rainforest, is protected in either State
forests or national parks.42
Regional nature conservation strategies integrate conservation efforts across all regions and
take into account land management practices and other issues that threaten biodiversity.
Strategies include closer management of tree clearing; controlling grazing pressure from
domestic stock, feral animals and kangaroos; protecting critical areas for wildlife; and fire
management plans to maintain species and the ecosystem.
Wildlife preservation
The Nature Conservation Act 1992 (Qld) provides opportunities to integrate nature conservation
with other land uses, including the development of voluntary conservation agreements with
landholders. The Act seeks to conserve nature in the broadest sense, primarily by protecting
habitats.
The diversity of fauna in Queensland can be seen from the extent of species, including
introduced species, recorded in the State. In 1996 the Queensland Museum's database recorded
230 mammal species, 605 birds, 115 frogs (including the introduced cane toad) and 430 reptiles.
The number of species is slowly rising as more definitive descriptions, particularly of reptiles,
become accepted. About 70% of Australia's mammal species, 80% of birds, 60% of frogs and
at least 50% of reptiles are found in Queensland.43 Many species have, however, become extinct,
endangered or vulnerable, and examples of these species are shown in table 2.12.
In 1996 Queensland's flora comprised 12,911 native species, subspecies and varieties of vascular
plants, while a further 1,226 have been introduced from overseas and have been naturalised. A
review of the State's vascular plant species identified 20 as extinct, 81 as endangered, 243 as
vulnerable and 714 as rare.44
Protected areas
The Nature Conservation Act 1992 consolidated previous legislation for the protection and
management of lands set aside for the conservation of the natural environment. The Act created
11 classes of protected areas based on international criteria: four types of national parks,
conservation parks, resources reserves, nature refuges, coordinated conservation areas,
wilderness areas, World Heritage management areas and international agreement areas. This
range of protected areas means that Queensland has highly protected areas such as national
parks as well as other areas of multiple land use.
Marine parks use an ecosystem-wide approach to managing the protection of critical areas of
estuaries and marine habitats such as mangrove forests, coral reef communities, and mudflats
and seagrasses important for birds, turtles and dugong. Queensland's marine environment is
56
CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENT
Table 2.12 Extinct, endangered and vulnerable species, Queensland, 1992
Category
Species
Extinct (a)
Desert rat-kangaroo (last recorded in 1935), white-footed rabbit-rat (1875), northern hoppingmouse (1867), Darling Downs hopping-mouse (1840), Percy Island flying fox (1878), paradise
parrot (1922).
Endangered (b) Northern bettong, northern hairy-nosed wombat, bilby, bridled nailtail wallaby, dusky hoppingmouse, double-eyed fig-parrot, eastern bristlebird, Gouldian finch, chestnut rail, eastern star
finch, golden-shouldered parrot, regent honeyeater, loggerhead turtle, platypus frog, Eungella
gastric brooding frog, sharp-snouted day frog, Mount Glorious torrent frog, Eungella day frog,
northern day frog, Lake Eacham rainbow fish, Oxleyan pygmy perch.
Vulnerable (c) Kowari, spectacled hare-wallaby, ghost bat, humpback whale, Bramble Cay melomys, beach
thick-knee, southern cassowary, red goshawk, plains wanderer, squatter pigeon, southern blackthroated finch, black-breasted button-quail, green turtle, collared legless lizard, ornamental
snake, hawksbill turtle, Dunmall's snake, Paradelma orientalis, Cairns rainbow fish, Elizabeth
Springs desert goby, Murray cod, Mary River cod, Queensland lungfish, honey blue eye, ornate
rainbow fish.
(a) Presumed extinct.
(b) In danger of extinction or where survival in the wild is unlikely if threatening processes continue.
(c) In danger if threatening processes continue.
Source: Queensland Department of Environment, in ABS, Queensland Year Book, 1994, p. 29.
mainly conserved in marine parks declared under the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act
1975 (Cwlth) and the Queensland Marine Parks Act 1982. The Commonwealth Act established
the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, whose function is to manage the protection,
wise use, understanding and enjoyment of the reef, and to develop the marine park.
Management of the reef is undertaken in cooperation with the Queensland Government.
National parks
National parks are usually large tracts of land established for their value as wilderness, historical,
scientific and recreational areas. Flora, fauna and landscape features are considered before
any area is declared a national park.
Nature conservation was first given legislative backing in 1877 when protection was given to
native birds. Provision was made for the declaration of reserves which were the forerunners of
present-day sanctuaries. The first protection given to native mammals was in 1906 when, from
November to April each year, native bears and possums were protected. All-year protection
was given to the tree kangaroo, wombat, platypus, echidna and pygmy glider.
The first national park proclaimed in Queensland was at Witches Falls on Tamborine Mountain
in 1908. This action followed representations by the Tamborine Shire Council, which resulted
in 131 ha being set aside as a national park. The second park was in the Carnarvon Gorge area
of central Queensland. In 1932 certain parts of Hinchinbrook Island were proclaimed as national
park areas. By 1996 the area covered by national parks and reserves had increased to 6,821,443
ha, which is 3.9% of the total area of Queensland. At 30 June 1996 Queensland had 210 national
parks (totalling 6,414,421 ha), 154 conservation parks (28,437 ha), 7 scientific national parks
(52,166 ha) and 39 other reserves (326,419 ha) that comprised resources reserves, nature reserves
and coordinated conservation areas.45 The biogeographical region with greatest area of national
parks is Cape York Peninsula with 1,656,000 ha or 14.4% of its total area (table 2.13). About
three-quarters (74%) of the region's ecosystems are represented in its national parks.
57
QUEENSLAND PAST AND PRESENT
Table 2.13 Area of and ecosystem representation in national parks (a)
by biogeographical region, Queensland, 1995
Biogeographical region
North West Highlands
Gulf Plains
Cape York Peninsula
Regional
area
'000 ha
6,968
21,305
11,531
Proportion of Representation
National region that is of ecosystems
park area national park
(b)
'000 ha
%
%
378
5.4
73
2.4
507
43
14.4
74
1,656
Mitchell Grass Downs
Channel Country Complex
Mulga Lands
Wet Tropics
Central Mackay Coast
23,789
23,706
21,765
1,902
1,152
15
1,616
535
391
131
0.1
6.8
2.5
20.6
11.4
41
78
73
78
95
Einasleigh Uplands
Desert Uplands
Brigalow Belt
South Eastern Queensland
North New England Tablelands (c)
12,923
6,882
32,352
8,104
342
326
39
648
327
26
2.5
0.6
2.0
4.0
7.6
50
67
76
95
55
172,720
6,593
3.8
68
Queensland
(a) Excludes 'other reserves'.
(b) Proportion of a region's ecosystems found in its national parks.
(c) Includes only that part within Queensland.
Source: Queensland Department of Environment, in ABS, Queensland Year Book, 1996, p. 22.
Environmental parks are areas of natural or near natural crown land set aside under the Land
Act 1962 (Qld). They are usually smaller in size than national parks, but contain features that
are worthy of preservation at the local level. Fauna reserves are those areas declared under
the Fauna Act (Qld) to preserve particular fauna habitats. National parks also protect certain
habitats. Epping Forest National Park near Clermonl, for example, preserves the habitat of
the northern hairy-nosed wombat and Kondalilla National Park contains the habitat of one of
the State's rarest frogs, rheobatrachus silus.
National parks, while providing for the protection of the physical environment, flora and fauna,
also provide for the education and recreation of the public. A survey conducted in 1994 for the
Department of Environment showed that 23% of visitors to national parks in Queensland
visited mainly for bushwalking, camping or fishing, 21% visited with curiosity as their main
reason and 18% visited 'for escape'. A further 15% said that they visited the parks to see a
natural feature such as a waterfall and 6% said that they went mainly to see flora or fauna.46
Coastal management
About half of Queensland's 7,400 km of mainland coastline is backed by rock, mud, alluvium
or tertiary (lateric) sediments. The other half of the coastline is backed by sand dunes or beach
ridges. Beaches and estuaries are evolving natural systems, constantly changing and adapting
to the prevailing environmental conditions. With proper planning and management they
remain a natural buffer against extreme weather conditions, providing coastal protection.
These coastal buffers have importance should the climate and the sea levels change as a
result of the greenhouse effect, which has the potential to inundate low lying areas and
realign the coast.
58
CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENT
Legislation in Queensland protects, manages and restores the coastal system including its
ecosystems, landforms, natural processes, and intrinsic and heritage values. The Beach
Protection Authority maintains a Sand Dune Research Station on South Stradbroke Island to
develop and improve practical and cost effective methods of sand dune stabilisation and
combating long-term sand losses from beaches by wind erosion.
The rate of development along the Queensland coast evident in recent decades has slowed in
the 1990s as a result of community concerns for the coastal environment and its value for
tourism. These concerns have included visual intrusion of high-rise accommodation blocks
and the destruction of elements of the natural environment such as mangroves. Regional
planning schemes covering areas such as Moreton Bay, Great Sandy Strait, Port Curtis,
Whitsunday area, Townsville and Cairns have committed government agencies to the protection
of the diverse terrestrial and marine resources along the coast.
Offshore islands
Queensland has about 1,000 offshore islands which vary in size from isolated rocks to the 181,000
ha Fraser Island, and vary in type from continental (soil, rock and mud) to coral rubble and
sands.47 Tenure ranges from freehold and leasehold to crown ownership. The islands, from
those in Moreton Bay to those off Cape York and in the Gulf of Carpentaria, show a diversity of
landscape and wildlife and are protected by legislation. National parks form a large proportion
of Moreton, Bribie and Fraser islands; the Capricorn-Bunker and Cumberland-Whitsunday
island groups; and Magnetic, Hinchinbrook, Green and Lizard islands.
Access to certain islands is restricted to conserve their special nature. Some islands provide
facilities for research on topics such as seabird roosting and green turtle nesting sites. Masthead,
Hoskyn, Fairfax, Wreck, Wilson, Eshelby and One Tree islands and Michaelmas Cay are key
conservation sites. Possession, Restoration and Raine islands off northern Queensland and St
Helena, Peel and Bribie islands in Moreton Bay have special heritage values.
Wetlands
Wetlands may be broadly defined as vegetated areas permanently or seasonally flooded. Typical
wetland areas include lakes, swamps, marshes, springs, mangroves, mudflats and shallow
seagrass beds. Wetlands are complex and highly productive ecosystems important to local and
migratory birds, to many fish, and to crustaceans that spend at least part of their life cycle in
wetland environments. Wetlands also perform important roles in water conservation, flood
control, absorption of sediments and nutrients, and bank and shore stabilisation.
Wetland areas cover 4.3% of the State and include areas in the Gulf Country, on Cape York
Peninsula, around Townsville, on Fraser Island, at Great Sandy Strait, in Moreton Bay, and
along the lower reaches of Channel Country watercourses. Wetlands vary in type and occurrence
within natural regions in accord with climate, land-forms, soils and proximity to the coast.
Wetlands are protected in several ways. The State's national parks and marine parks include
areas of wetland. Legislative protection is provided by the Fisheries Act 1994 (Qld) for fish
habitat reserves, wetlands reserves and fish sanctuaries. Queensland's best known wetland
area, the Great Barrier Reef, is covered by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park which provides
for the protection of the reef under World Heritage listing. More than 35,000 ha of Bowling
Green National Park and 113,300 ha of Moreton Bay Marine Park have been listed as wetlands
59
QUEENSLAND PAST AND PRESENT
of world importance under the international Ramsar Convention.48 In 1995-96 Shoalwater
Bay, Corio Bay and Currawinya National Park were also listed as wetlands of international
importance under this convention.
World Heritage listing
The World Heritage Convention was adopted by the General Conference of the United Nations
Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization at its seventeenth session in Paris in 1972,
and came into force in 1975. Australia was one of the first countries to ratify the convention in
1974. Of the 10 sites in Australia on the World Heritage List in 1993, three are in Queensland.
They are the Great Barrier Reef which was added to the World Heritage List in 1981; the Wet
Tropics covering 900,000 ha of far northern Queensland's rainforest area and added in 1988;
and Fraser Island, the world's largest sand island, which was added in 1992.49
SUMMARY
Queensland is the second largest State of Australia and covers an area of more than 1.7 million
km2, nearly twice the size of France and Germany combined. Its boundaries were set in the
nineteenth century and mainly follow the 138°E longitude, the 29°S latitude, and the eastern
and northern coastlines. Apart from the Great Dividing Range near the eastern coast, the
terrain is flat or undulating. There are large areas of desert or semi-desert in the west.
The State has a variety of climatic types ranging from warm to hot and wet along much of the
coast, to hot and dry in the interior and temperate in the southern highlands. Climatic extremes
are a feature. Summer temperatures inland can exceed 37°C for weeks at a time, while winter
frosts are common in the southern highlands. Average annual rainfall varies from several metres
along parts of the tropical coast to less than 300 mm in the far west. Cyclones, floods, droughts
and bushfires occur from time to time, causing immense damage and economic loss, and
occasional loss of life.
A combination of natural phenomena and human activities has led to environmental problems.
Various legislation and regulations have been introduced to try to protect the environment.
Air quality is monitored at 20 sites throughout Queensland, while water quality is addressed
by various government bodies. National parks, conservation parks, environmental parks and
other reserves have been established to conserve the environment.
Endnotes
1. The Sunday Mail, 'Land rights: The facts', 25 May 1997, pp. 80-1.
2. F. W. S. Cumbrae-Stewart, The Boundaries of Queensland: With Special Reference to the Maritime
Boundary and the 'Territorial Waters Jurisdiction Act, 1878'', University of Queensland, Brisbane,
1930.
3. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Year Book, Australia, 1918, pp. 1201-2.
4. Queensland Electoral Commission, Daylight Saving Referendum, 1992, pp. 2,12.
5. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Queensland Year Book, 1986, p. 2.
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