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Journal of Medical Entomology 47(5):791-797. 2010 doi: 10.1603/ME10001
Geographic Distribution of Stomoxyine Flies (Diptera: Muscidae) and Diurnal Activity
of Stomoxys calcitrans in Thailand
Muenworn, V.a , Duvallet, G.b , Thainchum, K.a , Tuntakom, S.c , Tanasilchayakul, S.c , Prabaripai,
A.d , Akratanakul, P.a e , Sukonthabhirom, S.f , Chareonviriyaphap, T.a
a
Department of Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
Centre d'Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Évolutive (Unit Mixte de Recherche 5175), Université de
Montpellier, 20 Montpellier, France
c
Department of Entomology, Kamphaengsean, Campus, Kasetsart University, Nakhon Pathom
73140, Thailand
d
Division of Biostatistics and Computer, Kamphaengsean Campus, Kasetsart University, Nakhon
Pathom 73140, Thailand
e
Center for Agricultural Biotechnology, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
f
Office of Plant Protection Research and Development, Department of Agriculture, Ministry of
Agriculture and Cooperative, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
b
ABSTRACT
Stomoxyine flies (Stomoxys spp.) were collected in 10 localities of Thailand using the Vavoua traps.
These localities represented four major ecological settings, as follows: small local dairy farms, large
industrial dairy farms, a national park, and one elephant conservation area. Three species of stable
flies were identified in the following proportions: Stomoxys calcitrans (91.5%), Stomoxys
indicus(7.9%), and Stomoxys sitiens (0.6%). The number of flies collected differed significantly
among collection sites (χ2 = 360.15, df = 3, P < 0.05). The greatest number of stomoxyine flies was
captured in dairy farms, Seasonal and daily activity of S. calcitrans was observed during a 1-yr
period at two selected locations (Dairy Farming Promotion Organization of Thailand and Khao
Kheow Open Zoo).S. calcitrans was more abundant during the rainy season (March–September), but
was not associated with the total rainfall (r2 = 0.0002, P > 0.05). Peak of daily flight activity of
males S. calcitrans was at 1000 and 1600 h, whereas females showed an increase of activity all along
the day until 1600 h. A better understanding of stomoxyine fly behavior related to patterns of daily
activity will facilitate and improve the efficiency of fly control measures in private and government
sectors.
Keywords: Stomoxys spp, distribution, seasonal and diurnal activity, Vavoua traps, Thailand
Journal of Medical Entomology 47(5):823-832. 2010 doi: 10.1603/ME09016
Human-Landing Patterns of Anopheles dirus sensu lato (Diptera: Culicidae) in Experimental
Huts Treated with DDT or Deltamethrin
Malaithong, N.a , Polsomboon, S.a , Poolprasert, P.a , Parbaripai, A.b , Bangs, M.J.c , Suwonkerd,
W.d , Pothikasikorn, J.e , Akratanakul, P.a f , Chareonviriyaphap, T.a
a
Department of Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
Faculty of Liberal Art and Science, Kasetsart University, Kamphaengsean, Nakhonprathom 73140,
Thailand
c
Public Health and Malaria Control, Jl. Kertajasa, Kuala Kencana, Papua 99920, Indonesia
d
Department of Disease Control, Ministry of Public Health, Nonthaburi 10100, Thailand
e
Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
f
Centre for Agricultural Biotechnology, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
b
ABSTRACT
Anopheles dirus females landing on humans inside experimental huts treated with residual
applications of DDT or deltamethrin were observed during the wet season in Pu Teuy Village,
Kanchanaburi Province, western Thailand. Two identical experimental huts were constructed in the
fashion of typical local rural Thai homes. Pretreatment (baseline) human-landing collections (HLC)
in both huts showed an early evening peak of activity between 1900 and 2000 h with no significant
difference in numbers of mosquitoes captured between huts over a period of 30 collection nights.
During posttreatment HLC, female mosquitoes continued to show greater landing activity inside huts
fitted with insecticide-treated panels during the first half of the evening compared with the second
half. A greater number (proportion) of An. dims females landed on humans in the hut treated with
deltamethrin compared with DDT. Comparing pre- and posttreatment HLC, the DDT-treated hut
showed a 79.4% decline in attempted blood feeding, whereas exposure to deltamethrin resulted in a
56.3% human-landing reduction. An odds ratio was performed to demonstrate the relative probability
(risk) of mosquitoes entering and attempting to blood feed in the two treated huts compared with
untreated control huts. Mosquitoes were ≈times less likely to land on humans inside a DDT-treated
hut compared with the deltamethrin-treated hut. Although both chemicals exerted strong excitatory
responses, DDT appears to have a more pronounced and significant (P = 0.002) effect on behavior
than deltamethrin, resulting in greater movement away from the insecticide source and thus potential
reduction of blood-feeding activity.
Keywords: Anopheles dims, behavioral response, experimental hut, deltamethrin, DDT
Journal of Economic Entomology 103(3):1012-1018. 2010 doi: 10.1603/EC09012
Population Structure of Stomoxys calcitrans (Diptera: Muscidae) From Nine Regions of
Thailand
Tainchum, K.a b , Sukonthabhirom, S.c , Duvallet, G.d , Akratanakul, P.a b , Muenworn,
V.a , Chareonviriyaphap, T.a
a
Department of Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
Center for Agricultural Biotechnology (AG-BIO/PERDO-CHE), Thailand
c
Office of Plant Protection Research and Development, Department of Agriculture, Ministry of
Agriculture and Cooperative, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
d
Centre d'Écologie Fonctionnelle et Évolutive (CEFE), UMR 5175, Université Paul Valéry, Route
de Mende, 34199 Montpellier cedex 5, France
b
ABSTRACT
Starch gel electrophoresis of isozymes was used to estimate gene flow among nine populations
ofStomoxys calcitrans (L.) (Diptera: Muscidae) from Thailand. Of the 13 putative loci, nine
polymorphic loci were detected. Limited genetic differentiation among populations was observed
(FST= 0.060). The highest level of polymorphism was observed in flies from eastern Trat and
northern Chiang Mai provinces (69.2%), whereas the lowest level of polymorphism was seen in flies
from central Saraburi Province (23.1%). Gene flow between populations varied from 3.27 to 27.53
reproductive migrants per generation. Among the nine populations sampled, no correlation was seen
between genetic and geographical distances showing that sampled S. calcitrans fit closely in the same
cluster taxa. The electrophoresis of ten isozymes shows a genetic homogeneity of S.
calcitranspopulations at the scale of Thailand.
Keywords: Stomoxys cahitrans, genetics, isozyme, gene flow, Thailand
Kasetsart Journal - Natural Science 43 (3), pp. 526-537.2009
Genetic diversity and gene flow among stable fly populations,stomoxys calcitrans (L.) in Thailand
Tainchum, K.a , Duvallet, G.b , Akaratanakul, P.a c , Chareonviriyaphap, T.a
a
Department of Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture, Kasestart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
Centre d'Écologie Fonctionnelle et.. .volutive (CEFE), UMR 5175, Université Paul Valéry, Route
de Mende, 34199 Montpellier cedex 5, France
c
Center for Biotechnology, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
b
Abstract
Isozymes from five wild-caught Stomoxys calcitrans (L.) were compared using starch gel
electrophoresis to estimate the rates of gene flow between and among S. calcitrans populations from
five different geographic regions of Thailand. Among ten enzyme systems, 13 putative loci and 10
polymorphisms were detected. Limited genetic differentiation among the five populations was
observed as indicated by the low Fsτ (0.078). The highest percentage of polymorphic loci was
observed in eastern Trat province and northern Chiang Mai province (69.2%), whereas the lowest
percent polymorphism was seen in south-central Saraburi province (23.1%). Gene flow between
populations varied from 6.16 to 15.38 reproductive migrants per generation with no fixed genetic
differences detected. Among the five population samples, no correlation was seen between genetic
and geographical distances showing that sampled S. calcitrans fit closely in the same cluster taxa.
The genetic and epidemiological ramifications of these findings are discussed.
Keywords:Gene flow; Genetics; Isozyme; Stomoxys calcitrans; Thailand
Journal of Vector Ecology 33(1): 158-165 . 2008
Genetic structure and gene flow of Anopheles minimus and Anopheles harrisoni in Kanchanaburi
Province, Thailand
Poolprasert, P.a , Manguin, S.b , Bangs, M.J.c , Sukhontabhirom, S.a , Poolsomboon,
S.a , Akaratanakul, P.a d , Chareonviriyaphap, T.a
a
Department of Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
Institut de Recherche pour le Developpement (IRD), UMR22 Centre de Biologie et de Gestion des
Populations (CBGP), Campus de Baillarguet CS30016, Montferrier sur Lez 34988, France
c
Public Health and Malaria Control, Kuala Kencana-Timika, Papua 99920, Indonesia
d
Center of Agricultural Biotechnology, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
b
Abstract
Isozyme frequencies were compared in seven field collections of Anopheles minimus complex using
starch gel electrophoresis. Mosquito collections were sampled from four districts in Kanchanaburi
Province where malaria is endemic. From eight enzyme systems, nine loci and seven polymorphisms
were detected, indicating limited genetic differentiation among the seven collections (FST = 0.061).
The highest percent polymorphic loci were observed in Bong Ti Noi (BTN) Village (55.6%),
whereas the least percent polymorphism was seen in Tha Kradan (TK) Village (22.2%). Comparing
villages Pra Jedee (PJ) with PuTeuy C (PTC) and Huai Khayeng (HK) with Pra Jedee (PJ), gene
flow among collections varied from 3.72 to 62.25 reproductive migrants per generation. Among the
seven collections, no correlation was seen between genetic and geographical distances (P > 0.05).
Anopheles minimus (former species A) and Anopheles harrisoni (former species C) from Pu Teuy fit
most closely in the same cluster, possibly indicating relatively recent divergence between taxa. The
genetic and epidemiological ramifications of these findings are discussed.
Keywords: Anopheles harrisoni; Anopheles minimus; Gene flow; Genetic; Isozyme; Malaria;
Thailand
Journal of Vector Ecology 33(2):285-292. 2008 doi: 10.3376/1081-1710-33.2.285
Biting patterns of Anopheles minimus complex (Diptera: Culicidae) in experimental huts
treated with DDT and deltamethrin
Polsomboon, S.a , Poolprasert, P.a , Suwonkerd, W.b , Bangs, M.J.c , Tanasinchayakul,
S.d , Akratanakul, P.a e , Chareonviriyaphap, T.a
a
Department of Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
Department of Disease Control, Ministry of Public Health, Nonthaburi 10000, Thailand
c
Public Health and Malaria Control, Jl. Kertajasa, Kuala Kencana-Timika, Papua, 99920, Indonesia
d
Department of Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture, Kasetsart University, Nakhon Pathom 73140,
Thailand
e
Center for Agricultural Biotechnology, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
Abstract
b
Biting patterns of natural populations of Anopheles minimus s.l. females entering experimental huts
treated with DDT and deltamethrin were carried out at Pu Teuy Village, Sai Yok District,
Kanchanaburi Province, western Thailand. Two experimental huts, control and treatment, were
constructed in the fashion of local Thai homes. Pre-spray biting activity of An. minimus females
peaked at 19:00–22:00. Post-treatment exposure continued to show greater landing activity during the
first half of the evening. An overall greater proportion of An. minimus females entered the hut treated
with deltamethrin compared to DDT. The hut fitted with DDT-treated net panels showed a 71.5%
decline in attempted blood feeding, whereas exposure to deltamethrin-treated panels resulted in a
42.8% human-landing reduction. DDT exhibited significantly more pronounced (P < 0.05) effects in
overall reduction of biting activity than did deltamethrin.
Keywords: Anopheles minimus, behavioral responses, excito-repellency, experimental
hut, deltamethrin,DDT
Journal of Vector Ecology 31 (2), pp. 266-274.2006
Susceptibility and avoidance behavior by Culex quinquefasciatus say to three classes of
residual insecticides
Sathantriphop, S.a e , Ketavan, C.a , Prabaripai, A.b , Visetson, S.c , Bangs,
M.J.d , Akratanakul, P.a f , Chareonviriyaphap, T.a
a
Department of Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
Faculty of Liberal Arts and Science, Kasetsart University, Kampheangsean, Nakhon Pathom 73140,
Thailand
c
Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
d
Navy Disease Vector Ecology and Control Center, 2850 Thresher Avenue, Silverdale, WA 98315,
United States
e
National Institute of Health, Ministry of Public Health, Nonthaburi 11000, Thailand
f
Center of Agricultural Biotechnology, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
b
ABSTRACT
The behavioral responses of three colonized strains of Culex quinquefasciatus, two from recent field
collections in Thailand (Nonthaburi and Mae Sot) and one from a long-established colony from the
National Institute of Health (NIH), Ministry of Public Health, Thailand, were compared during and
after exposure to deltamethrin (0.02 g/m2), propoxur (0.2 g/m2), and fenitrothion (0.2 g/m2) using an
excito-repellency escape chamber system. We observed striking differences in behavioral response
and excito-repellency between mosquito strains and test compounds. Greater escape responses were
observed in the NIH strain during direct contact with deltamethrin and fenitrothion compared with
the two field populations. Deltamethrin was the most irritant, followed by fenitrothion. Escape
responses with propoxur were significantly delayed but increased slightly towards the end of the 30min exposure period, more notably in the Nonthaburi strain (P<0.05). Non-contact repellent
responses were generally much weaker than irritancy, with the greatest escape response seen with
NIH and Nonthaburi. Deltamethrin showed the weakest repellent response overall (< 10% escape),
while propoxur again demonstrated a delayed effect (NIH and Mae Sot) before escape occurred. We
conclude that irritant and repellent behavioral responses by Cx. quinquefasciatus are important
components for assessing the impact of residual spraying in mosquito control programs. A better
understanding of chemical properties that elicit behavioral responses in mosquitoes should be
considered in formulating control strategies designed to control mosquitoes or mitigate disease
transmission risk.
Keywords: Behavioral avoidance; Culex quinquefasciatus; Deltamethrin; Excito-repellency;
Fenitrothion; Propoxur
Journal of Vector Ecology 31 (1), pp. 89-101.2006
Influence of nutritional and physiological status on behavioral responses of Aedes aegypti
(Diptera: Culicidae) to deltamethrin and cypermethrin
Chareonviriyaphap, T.a , Kongmee, M.a , Bangs, M.J.b , Sathantriphop, S.a , Meunworn,
V.a , Parbaripai, A.c , Suwonkerd, W.d , Akratanakul, P.a e
a
Department of Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
U.S. Naval Medical Research Unit No. 2, Jl. Percetakan Negara 29, Jakarta 10560, Indonesia
c
Division of Computer and Biostatistics, Faculty of Liberal Arts and Science, Kasetsart University,
Kampheangsean, Nakhonphatom 73140, Thailand
d
Center of Vector Borne Diseases, Department of Disease Control, Ministry of Public Health,
Nontaburi 11000, Thailand
e
Center of Agricultural and Biotechnology, Kasestart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
b
ABSTRACT
Excito-repellency responses of Aedes aegypti (L.) exposed to deltamethrin and cypermethrin were
assessed using an excito-repellency test system. Contact irritancy and non-contact repellency assays
compared non-bloodfed (unfed) parous (post-gravid), nulliparous, early blood-fed, late blood-fed,
sugar-fed, and unmated female mosquitoes for behavioral responses based on nutritional and
physiological conditions at the time of testing. Rates of escape during contact exposure with either
compound were most pronounced in parous mosquitoes, followed by unmated mosquitoes, when
compared to other conditional states. Significantly higher numbers of parous females also escaped
from control chambers compared to other cohorts (P<0.05). Irritability of blood- and sugar-fed
mosquitoes was noticeably suppressed. We conclude that nutritional and physiological conditions
(including age) of mosquitoes at the time of testing can significantly influence behavioral responses
(excito-repellency) to insecticides. The findings indicate that whether due to chronological age,
nutrition, physiological state, or innate (circadian) activity patterns, careful consideration must be
given to the selection of appropriate conditioned mosquitoes for testing.
Keywords: Aedes aegypti; Behavior; Cypermethrin; Deltamethrin; Excito-repellency
Journal of Medical Entomology 41(6):1055-1063. 2004
doi: 10.1603/0022-2585-41.6.1055
Behavioral Responses of Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) Exposed to Deltamethrin and
Possible Implications for Disease Control
Kongmee, M.a , Prabaripai, A.b , Akratanakul, P.a c , Bangs, M.J.d , Chareonviriyaphap, T.a
a
b
c
d
Department of Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
Faculty of Liberal Arts and Science, Kasetsart University, Nakhonpathom, 73140, Thailand
Ctr. for Agricultural Biotechnology, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, 10900, Thailand
U.S. Nav. Medical Research Unit No.2, Jl. Percetakan Negara No. 29, Jakarta, 10560, Indonesia
Abstract
Behavioral responses of nine Aedes aegypti (L.) strains, six from recent field collections and three
from the long-established laboratory colonies, were tested under laboratory-controlled conditions by
using an excito-repellency test system. All nine strains showed significant behavioral escape
responses when exposed to deltamethrin at the standard field dose (0.02 g/m2), regardless of
background insecticide susceptibility status (susceptible or tolerant/resistant). Insecticide contact
irritancy played a predominate role in overall female mosquito escape responses, whereas noncontact
repellency was not observed at levels significantly different from paired noncontact control tests (P >
0.01). Among the six field populations, the Jakarta (Indonesia) Toba (north Sumatra), and Bangkok
female mosquitoes showed rapid exit (>78%) during 30 min of direct contact with insecticide-treated
surfaces, whereas the other three strains demonstrated only moderate escape responses (32–56%)
from the chambers. Moderate escape responses during direct insecticidal contact also were observed
in the three laboratory test populations (44–60%). Higher percentage of mortality was observed from
laboratory strains (8–33%) that failed to escape compared with nonescape females of field strains (2–
16%), possibly a reflection of background deltamethrin susceptibility status. We conclude that
contact irritancy is a major behavioral response of Ae. aegypti when exposed directly to deltamethrin
and that rapid flight escape from areas exposed to space sprays or surfaces treated with residual
pyrethroids could have a significant impact on the effectiveness of adult mosquito control and disease
transmission reduction measures.
Keywords: Aedes aegypti, behavioral avoidance, excito-repellency, deltamethrin
Journal of Medical Entomology 41(4):657-663. 2004 doi: 10.1603/0022-2585-41.4.657
Allozyme Patterns of Aedes albopictus, a Vector of Dengue in Thailand
Chareonviriyaphap, T.a , Akratanakul, P.a b , Huntamai, S.a , Nettanomsak, S.a , Prabaripai, A.a c
a
Department of Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture, Kasetsart University, Bangkean, Bangkok
10900, Thailand
b
Center of Agricultural Biotechnology, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
Abstract
Isozyme frequencies in six wild-caught populations of Aedes albopictus (Skuse) from various parts of
Thailand were compared using starch gel electrophoresis. Four populations were sampled from the
south of the country, one from Samui Island and three from the mainland. The remaining two
populations were obtained from central (Bangkok) and northern (Tak) Thailand. There were large
differences in allele frequencies at two of 22 loci: Glutamate oxaloacetate transminase-2 (Got-2) and
Hexokinase-1 (Hk-1). Got-2 (allele 100) was absent from the Bangkok population, whereas it was
observed in high frequencies in all other populations. The Bangkok population showed the highest
percentage of polymorphic loci (63.6%), whereas the population from Tak demonstrated the smallest
percentage of polymorphic loci (18.2%).
Keywords: Aedes albopictus, isozymes, dengue vector, Thailand
Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health 34 (3), pp. 529-535.2003
Larval habitats and distribution patterns of Aedes aegypti (Linnaeus) and Aedes albopictus
(Skuse), in Thailand
Chareonviriyaphap, T.a c , Akratanakul, P.a b , Nettanomsak, S.a , Huntamai, S.a
a
Department of Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
Center of Agricultural Biotechnology, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
c
Department of Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture, Kasetsart University, Bang Khen, Bangkok
10900, Thailand
b
Abstract
This study was conducted to survey larval breeding habitats and to obtain larval abundance during
the dry period covering all 5 geographical zones of Thailand. Our results indicated Aedes aegypti is
prevalent all over the country, whereas Aedes albopictus is more restricted to the remote area of the
south. Water storage containers, especially water jars, served as a main larval breeding habitats of
Ae. aegypti, whereas broken cans and plastic containers are considered primary breeding sites for Ae.
alpopictus during the dry period. In addition, Aedes larval indices, container index (CI), house index
(HI), and Breteau index (BI) were measured. CI and HI values from the central part were
significantly higher than those from other areas (p<0.01). BI values of all collection sites were greater
than 50 (a maximum BI value accepted by the Ministry of Public Health, Thailand). In brief, Ae.
aegypti and Ae. albopictus populations heavily infested many towns and residential areas of the
country. Drought could not limit the density of Aedes mosquitos in Thailand. Systematic vector
control and vector surveillance programs by public health organizations, if practical, should be
continuously conducted to reduce or prevent dengue risk.
Keywords
EMTREE medical terms: Aedes aegypti; Aedes albopictus; article; breeding; container; controlled
study; dengue; geographic distribution; habitat quality; habitat selection; infection control;
infestation; larva; nonhuman; parasite vector; risk assessment; risk factor; storage; Thailand; water
supply
MeSH: Aedes; Analysis of Variance; Animals; Dengue; Environment; Insect Control; Insect
Vectors; Larva; Population Density; Thailand
Proc. VIIth Int. Conf. on Tropical Bees: Management and diversity, and Vth Asian Apicultural
Association Conf , pp. 395-398. 2000
Apiculture development in Thailand
Akratanakul, P.
FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin 68, pp. 95-103. 1986
Beekeeping in Asia
Akratanakul, P.
American Bee Journal 125, pp. 112-114. 1985
Tropilaelaps clareae, the little known honey bee brood mite
Burgett, M., Akratanakul, P.
Scientific American 253: 128 – 137. 1985
Yellow Rain
Thomas D. Seeley, Joan W. Nowicke, Matthew Meselson, Jeanne Guillemin and Pongthep
Akratanaku
Proceedings of the Expert Consultation on Beekeeping with Apis Mellifera in Tropical and
Subtropical Asia, Bangkok/Chiang Mai, Thailand, 9-14 April 1984 , pp. 222-234
Beekeeping industry with Apis mellifera in Thailand
Akratanakul, P.
Bee World 64, pp. 25-28. 1983
Tropilaelaps clareae: A parasite of honeybees in south-east Asia
Burgett, M., Akratanakul, P., Morse, R.A.
Psyche 89, pp. 347-350. 1982
Predation on the Western Honey Bee, Apis Mellifera L., by the Hornet, Vespa Tropica(L.)
Michael Burgett1 and Pongthep Akratanakul2
1
Department of Entomology, Oregon State University, Corvallis 97331, Oregon, USA
2
Department of Entomology, Kasetsart University, Kamphaeng Saen, Thailand
Ecol. Monogr. 52 (1), pp. 43-63. 1982
Colony defense strategies of the honeybees in Thailand
Seeley, T.D., Seeley, R.H., Akratanakul, P.
Abstract
The colony defense strategies of the three honeybee species in Thailand were studied to examine the
influence of predation on tropical honeybee societies. Each species focuses its defenses upon
different stages in the predation sequence of detection-approach-consumption. This radiation in
defense strategies apparently reflects each species' preadaptation by worker size (small, mediumsized, or large) and nest site (cavity or tree branch) to a different pattern of colony defense. Wasps,
birds, and primates probably have difficulty finding the small, dispersed colonies of Apis florea,
whose nests are built low on the branches of dense, shrubby vegetation. Once found, however, they
are easily approached and overpowered because their low, exposed nests are accessible and their
small workers inflict relatively painless stings. When overwhelmed, the bees quickly abandon their
nest; later, they return to salvage wax. Ants find A. florea nests easily and at least one species
(Oecophylla smaragdina) easily kills these small bees. However, sticky bands of resin encircling the
nests' slender substrate branches prevent ants from invading A. florea nests. Cavity-nesting colonies
of Apis cerana are conspicuous with their medium-sized bees streaming in and out of low, clearly
visible entrance holes in caves and hollow tress. However, gaining access to A. cerana nests is
difficult. Large predators cannot pass through the small entrance opening and small predators are
overpowered by entrance guards. But if a large predator can breach a nest cavity's walls, it faces an
only moderately powerful stinging defense. Apis cerana colonies are relatively small and their
workers are not fiercely aggressive. Predators easily find the large, sometimes aggregated colonies of
Apis dorsata, whose nests hang in the crowns of the tallest forest trees. But only skilled fliers and
climbers can reach these lofty nests. Those which do face massive stinging attacks from the large
colonies of these relatively giant, ferocious bees. Nests of both open-nesting species, Apis florea and
A. dorsata, are protected by a three- to six-layer curtain of bees over the comb. Apis cerana colonies
lack these curtains but are protected by their nest cavity walls. A curtain of inactive guards requires a
large labor force. The high worker: brood ratio in A. florea relative to A. cerana colonies suggests
that the age polyethism schedules of the open- and cavity-nesting species are tuned differently to
generate the appropriate proportions of guard bees. Each species' colony defense system consists of
numerous interwoven lines of adaptation, including nest site, nest architecture, colony population,
labor allocation to defense, age polyethism schedule, colony mobility, and worker morphology,
physiology, and behavior. Predation has been a pervasive and powerful force in the evolution of these
tropical bee societies.
The Natural History of the Dwarf Honey Bee. 1977
Akratanakul, P.
The Natural History of the Dwarf Honey Bee, Apis florea F. in Thailand , pp. 88. 1977
Akratanakul, P.
J. Apic. Res. 15, pp. 11-13. 1976
Euvarroa sinhai Delfinado and Baker (Acarina: Mesostigmata) a parasitic mite of Apis florea
Akratanakul, P., Burgett, M.
American Bee Journal 116 (3), pp. 120-121. 1976
Honey bees in Thailand
Akratanakul, P.
Bee World 56 (3), pp. 119-121 . 1975
Varroa jacobsoni: A prospective pest of honeybees in many parts of the world
Akratanakul, P., Burgett, M.