Download Jarvis - - Nora Jarvis October 23, 2011 Masters in Teaching

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Nora Jarvis
October 23, 2011
Masters in Teaching
Interconnected Systems as a Route Toward Sustainability Education
Historically, education has been part of a mechanistic worldview. Theorists like
B.F. Skinner believed that teachers gave knowledge to students and students processed it
in the same form. This concept is very similar to Paulo Freire's description of the banking
model in which students are an empty vessel and the teacher puts information into the
student (Ford, 2011). Sterling (2005) explained that there are two distinct worldviews—
one is mechanistic, where cause and effect are clearly outlined and predictable. The other
sees the world as a living system, where issues are relational and depend upon one
another. Ford (2011) explained that the prevailing pedagogy in a mechanistic worldview
is the transmission of knowledge from teacher to student, whereas in an organic
worldview, knowledge is a transaction between teacher and student where collaboration
leads to new understandings. As Sterling (2005) argued, systems thinking is an important
part of an organic worldview, and an important part of sustainability. Systems thinking
in sustainability education is useful; it frames issues as relational so they are dealt with in
conjunction with other issues. In order to work toward a more sustainable world,
educators should incorporate interconnected systems into concepts of school, learning,
and teaching.
The incorporation of interconnected systems can be seen in the works of some
educational theorists. Nel Noddings, an educational theorists of the 1990s, viewed the
ideal classroom as caring and home-like. She believed that to create more moral
citizens, the school must be an environment in which students learn to care for one
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another, the classroom itself, and the world outside their classrooms (Smith, 2004). This
theory is an example of systems thinking; Noddings looked at two seemingly separate
issues—home life and school life—and connected them, seeing also how they can be
incorporated to attain a more sustainable world.
Other theorists of the time, including Cornel West and Lisa Delpit, began to look
at schools in the wider social context, stressing the importance of multi-culturalism.
Theorists began to include ethnographies as a source of research, as opposed to
quantitative tests that other theorists had used in past years (Ford, 2011). Theorists began
to view schooling as a part of social constructs, as part of a system. The incorporation of
ethnographies and other qualitative research suggests that theorists were thinking in a
systems way by moving outside of the box for what they believed to be reputable sources
of information.
In the 1950s, behaviorism was the prevailing paradigm of education. In
behaviorist theories, the learner is passive and it is through the teacher that they receive
knowledge. B.F. Skinner, a behaviorist, believed that an external stimulus created a
response within a subject. Learning is a product of responding to an outside source
(Ford, 2011). This view is very mechanistic, as it sees the relationship between teacher
and student as computational—input is equal to output.
Theories of cognitive development that embraced a more holistic view began to
emerge in the 1970s. Jean Piaget was a major developer of this theory. He believed the
learner played an active role in the learning process, going through periods of
assimilation, accommodation, dis-equilibrium, cognitive conflict, and ultimately
adaptation. These concepts of cognitive development were further explored by Lev
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Vygotsky in the 1980s. He developed the theory of social learning that viewed learning
as a social process. One of these concepts is his idea of the Zone of Proximal
Development in which learners work with an adult or other peers to gain deeper
understanding. The learner is able to use others to help him/herself along in the process
of understanding. Jerome Bruner developed a similar concept known as scaffolding. In
scaffolding, the teacher assists the student by providing him/her with resources that allow
the student to learn more affectively (Ford, 2011).
Dewey's (1938) concepts of progressive education also reflect these ideas of
education as a relationship between student and teacher. Dewey explained that in
traditional schooling, the goal is to prepare students for the future by giving them factual
information, like geography lessons or spelling words. This knowledge is coming from
the teacher and other organized information, like books. This model does not include
active participation by the learner in the creation of an educational experience. Teachers
in traditional schools do not take into account the powers that students have to offer
(Dewey, 1938). Traditional schools are an example of the mechanistic worldview that
prevails. Much like B.F. Skinner and other behaviorist theorists, the traditional schooling
model rests on the foundation that students receive input from their teachers and then
internalize that information in the same form.
Dewey also explained that in traditional schools, the lessons are learned in
isolation. Subject matter is not connected to other material. Instead, educators should
aim for collateral learning, in which subjects are connected and the understanding of
material evolves as students engage with the subjects and the educator helps the student
create educative experiences (Dewey, 1938). Dewey's concept of collateral education
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functions similarly to Sterling's (2005) concepts of systems thinking in sustainability.
Sterling explained that sustainability is an evolving process in which people should
continually reexamine existing structures. Similarly, Eaton et al. (2011) wrote of
encouraging students to see sustainability as a path, rather than a fixed state.
Sustainability is not an end state, it is a consistently changing state (Sterling, 2005 and
Eaton, et al. 2011), much like Dewey's (1938) concepts of collateral learning.
Instead of traditional schools, Dewey proposed the merit of progressive schools,
which he explained are more in line with democratic ideals and are a more humane way
of treating students. In the progressive model of schools, education is experiential.
Learning requires the active participant of the student; it is a collaboration between
teacher and student. Dewey (1938) was careful to explain that not all experiences are
educative, some are miseducative or non-educative. Miseducative experiences stop the
growth of the student, while non-educative experiences require no reflection from the
student, therefore limiting the student's growth. Educative experiences create lasting
learning for the student, in which the student continues to learn.
Zull's (2002) concepts of how the brain learns through experiences offers a
biological lens through which to view Dewey's (1938) ideas of progressive education and
the importance of experience. Zull explained that long-term learning occurs when there
is an exchange of information between the integrative front cortex and the back cortex.
The back cortex receives sensory information and then sends that information to the front
cortex for processing. Additionally, information may first enter the front cortex and then
cross the transitional line to the back cortex in what Zull refers to as internal experience.
The front cortex then recalls information either as episodic memories from the right-front
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cortex or as semantic memories from the left-front cortex (Zull, 2002).
Social control is also a part of Dewey's model of progressive education. Dewey
explained that social control requires all individuals have a role in the learning process,
that each has an opportunity to contribute (1938). Taken with Vygotsky's Zone of
Proximal Development, Dewey's (1938) concept of social control becomes more
powerful. According to Vygotsky, students have the opportunity to learn more and
deeper by utilizing knowledge from their peers (Ford, 2011). As each student contributes
through Dewey's (1938) concept of social control, students have greater opportunity to
learn from each other through Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development.
Plato (Jowett, 1995) examined how learning and teaching interact. He used
Socrates to guide Meno's slave toward an understanding of the area of a box and its
double. Socrates explained that the slave had the correct notions in his head, along with
incorrect ones, and that he needed Socrates to ask the right questions to guide him toward
the answer. Plato (Jowett, 1995) explained through Socrates, “...there have been always
true thoughts in him ...which only needed to be awakened into knowledge by putting
questions to him.” (p. 16) This is an example of the teacher's role in a classroom, it is not
necessarily about telling students the correct answer, but rather allowing them to see the
answer after approaching it from different viewpoints.
Zull (2002) explained that in order for the brain to learn and understand at a high
rate, it needs to create balance between the different components of the brain. To achieve
optimal learning, the hippocampus, which is the part of the brain that manages emotion,
needs to interact with the cortex, which is the part that manage cognizant thought. He
explained that knowing requires feeling as well. Zull suggested that simply retaining
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information is not enough for a full understanding. There must be a physical and
emotional component as well (Zull, 2002). Zull's concept of emotion and learning is
another example of the way that interrelating elements are the foundation for sustainable
education.
Eaton et al. (2011) referred to a similar concept. They described this as somatic,
affective, and moral learning. A somatic approach incorporates the knowing of the body;
an affective approach involves the feelings surrounding an issue; and a moral approach is
knowing the right choice, even if that choice is complex and unclear. They explained
that these approaches can “...allow students to integrate these multiple ways of learning
and knowing, to understand the problems we face more deeply, to hold them in our hearts
as well as our minds, and to imagine different ways of being and acting in the world”
(Eaton et al, 2011, p. 7).
The presence of systems is apparent in the brain, as well. The brain's wiring is
made up of neurons, which pass information through other neurons. An electrical
impulse enters through the the axon terminal, it then travels down the axon to the cell
body. The axon is wrapped in myelin sheath, which becomes thicker when certain
thoughts or activities have been practiced. Dendrites extend from the cell body toward
other neurons, and this electrical impulse travels through the dendrites to other neurons,
bridging a synaptic gap between the neurons. When a person becomes overly
comfortable with one way of doing things, the myelin on their neurons becomes to strong
that alternative paths to dendrites are difficult; they close themselves off to alternatives.
When a person seeks other routes to answers or activities, they are challenging those
pathways. As those alternative routes are strengthened, the dendrites from the neurons
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branch out, allowing for quicker connections between neurons. The dendrites also reach
out toward multiple neurons, mimicking the web-like structure of systems thinking
(Walton, 2011a).
Referencing Zull, Walton (2011a) discussed the implications of these functions of
the brain. If the activity between neurons can change as we challenge ourselves to solve
problems in different ways, then we have power in the reconstruction of pathways in our
brains. Through this act, we are changing the way we perceive the interrelation of
subjects. If brains are open to alternate routes for solutions and can make connections
between multiple different neurons, educators can translate that skill to the classroom
through systems thinking, which uses the same non-linear connection of ideas.
Dewey also examined how repeating experiences can affect learning. Using the
example of a burglar, Dewey explained that repeating experiences can make the burglar
more efficient. He posed the question, “Does this form of growth create conditions for
further growth, or does it set up conditions that shut off the person who has grown in this
particular direction from the occasions, stimuli, and opportunities for continuing growth
in new directions?” (Dewey, 1938, p. 36) Zull's (2002) research and Walton's (2011)
workshop certainly point to the answer that mylenating neuron pathways in only one
direction, or repeating experiences, makes it difficult to learn in other ways. This does
not qualify as learning from Dewey's (1938) perspective. Dewey's qualifications for
education is that experiences create further, continuing growth (1938).
Parks (2005) gave examples of how this interconnection can be utilized in the
classroom. One of her examples is case-in-point teaching. Dewey's (1938) concepts of
experience in education reflect the success of this strategy in the classroom. In this
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model, teachers use real instances in a classroom and connect them to a subject. Students
have a greater ability to understand and remember a concept when they learn it through
experiences. The teacher helps the students use both their surface knowledge of the 'case'
and the underlying issues to piece together a conclusion that also correlates with the
classroom material. This is a wonderful example of the world's complexity—an issue
that might be thought of as unrelated to the class becomes related when teachers skillfully
use these 'cases' as part of their curriculum.
Walton (2011c) continued to examine how brain systems can be applied to the
classroom. She explained that attention is related to levels of serotonin, dopamine, and
nor-epinephrine in the brain. Serotonin creates calmness, while dopamine activates and
nor-epinephrine excites the student. The zone in which students are most prepared to
focus is when serotonin and dopamine are pumping evenly and when there is minimal
nor-epinephrine. This focus zone is characterized by a relaxed, attentive state without the
fear and hyperactivity that result from excessive nor-epinephrine. Educators can
encourage their students to ready their brains for learning by becoming aware of their
emotional state and recognize whether they should attempt to calm down or increase
alertness (Walton, 2011c).
Arends (1997) also relied on the ecological systems metaphor that Sterling (2005)
examined. Arends referred to the multiple aspects that make-up a classroom. He
explored multidimensionality, simultaneity, immediacy, unpredictability, publicness, and
history to highlight the interconnecting issues that exist in a classroom.
Multidimensionality acknowledges the different backgrounds of students and teachers.
Simultaneity recognizes that the teacher is often juggling multiple students and tasks
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within the classroom, while immediacy is the urgency with which those students and
tasks are dealt. Unpredictability highlights events the teacher has little control over—for
example student illnesses and classroom visitors. Publicness recognizes that everything
that happens in the classroom is witnessed by students. History is the shared experiences
of the class. He explained the importance of these issues, stating “These properties
directly affect the overall classroom environment and shape the behavior of participants”
(Arends, 1997, p.19). It is necessary to acknowledge the interconnected systems within
the classroom.
Sterling (2005) examined concepts of systems, as well. He explained that the
complexity of world problems are so interconnected, they cannot be addressed without
the consideration of other problems. Systems thinking works in the same way. Systems
thinking is a web-like thinking model, where issues are connected to multiple other
issues; these relationships between issues are not linear (Cole, 2011b).
Eaton, Davies, Williams and MacGregor (2011) grappled with how to approach
sustainability education. They suggested that issues of sustainability, like environmental,
economic, and social sustainability, are separated. These issues need to be seen as parts
of a whole system, so that it becomes necessary to look at all the other issues surrounding
an issue in order to fully understand that issue. These sorts of problems, that are so
complex and far reaching, are referred to as adaptive challenges. Adaptive challenges
require a deep restructuring of the system in which these issues operate—a whole
paradigm shift that affects and is affected by other issues.
When something changes in one subject, that change affects many other subjects
(Cole, 2011c). This aligns with Eaton and her fellow authors' concepts of sustainability
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education. All these aspects of the world and the subjects within a classroom are
connected to each other.
The Washington State Integrated Environmental and Sustainability Standards
(year 2011?) aimed to incorporate many different topics of sustainability into Washington
State teaching practices. Cole (2011d) explained these topics included human rights,
intergenerational equity, environmental justice, biomimicry, and resilience and adaptive
cycles. These topics are an example of the web-like thinking that can exist. A group of
topics that could be taught individually are grouped under a single topic of
“Environmental Sustainability,” suggesting that the relationship between these issues are
a component of sustainability.
Systems run through multiple different aspects of schooling, learning, teaching,
and sustainability. It is apparent that viewing education as part of an interconnected
whole has influenced theorists in the 1980s and 1990s, allowing for a more organic
worldview. The neurons in the brain also show the systems that existing in the biological
process of learning. It is apparent as well how systems work in teaching through
examining the case-in-point teaching method and systems thinking. The complex issues
of adaptive challenges also echo the interconnected systems. Through examining the
systems that exist in schooling, learning, and teaching educators should see how those
systems help create an organic worldview that contributes to the achievement of
sustainability.
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References
Arends, R. (1997). Classroom instruction and management. Boston: McGraw Hill.
Cole, R. (2011a, September). Introduction to systems thinking. Workshop presented at
The Evergreen State College, Olympia, WA.
Cole, R. (2011b, October). Unit 2 linking thinking. Workshop presented at The Evergreen
State College, Olympia, WA.
Cole, R. (2011c, October). Unit 3 linking thinking. Workshop presented at The Evergreen
State College, Olympia, WA.
Cole, R. (2011d, October). Washington state learning standards. Workshop presented at
the Evergreen State College, Olympia, WA.
Dewey, J. (1938) Experience & education. Simon and Schuster.
Eaton, M., Davies, K., Williams, S., and MacGregor, J. (2011). Why sustainability
education needs pedagogies of reflection and contemplation. Unpublished
Manuscript.
Ford, T. (2011, October). Historical continuum theories of learning. Workshop
presented at The Evergreen State College, Olympia, WA.
Parks, S. D. (2005). Leadership for a changing world: A call to adaptive work. In
Leadership can be taught. (p.1-12). Boston, MA: Harvard Business School
Press.
Plato. (1995). Meno. (B. Jowett trans.). ILT Digital Classics, 1-27.
Sterling, S. (2005). Perspectives unit 2. linking thinking. Scotland: World Wildlife
Federation.
Smith, M.K. (2004) Nel Noddings, the ethics of care and education, the encyclopedia of
informal education, www.infed.org/thinkers/noddings.htm.
Walton, S. (2011a, September). Learning and the brain. Workshop presented at The
Evergreen State College, Olympia, WA.
Walton, S. (2011b, October). Learning as physiological change. Workshop presented at
The Evergreen State College, Olympia, WA.
Walton, S. (2011c, October). Zull and implications for teaching. Workshop presented at
The Evergreen State College, Olympia, WA.
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Zull, J. (2002). The art of the changing brain: Enriching the practice of teaching by
exploring the biology of learning. Stylus Publishing.
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