Download Buddhism - Old Tappan School

You will be writing a report that illustrates and promotes understanding of the
fundamental beliefs and practices of a major world religion. You will be assigned one
of the following religions to report on:
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•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Buddhism
Christianity
Confucianism
Hinduism
Islam
Judaism
Shintoism
Sikhism
Taoism
You will then begin your research by using the internet and books available in the
classroom.
Your report must answer the following questions about your religion:
1. Who was the founder of this religion? In what year?
2. Who are the religious leaders of this religion?
3. What is the place of worship of this religion?
4. Where did this religion begin? Where is it practiced today?
5. What are the main beliefs of this religion?
6. Does this religion have a god(s)? Describe the god(s).
7. What is(are) the sacred writing(s) of this religion? What do they contain?
8. Describe the religious practices of this religion. How do they worship? How do they
practice their beliefs?
9. What are the religious festivals? How, when, and why do they celebrate these
festivals?
10. What are the main symbols of this religion? What do they represent?
Web Resources on the Major World Religions:
Buddhism:
"Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance: Buddhism"
http://www.religioustolerance.org/buddhism.htm
"Om Sakthi: The Major World Religions" www.omsakthi.org/religions.html
“Religions of the World” http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/cultural/religion/buddhism/buddhism.html
Christianity:
"Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance: Christianity"
http://www.religioustolerance.org/christ.htm
"Om Sakthi: The Major World Religions" www.omsakthi.org/religions.html
"Mr. Dowling's Electronic Passport: Christianity" http://www.mrdowling.com/605-christianity.html
“Religions of the World” http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/cultural/religion/christianity/christianity.html
Confucianism:
"Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance: Confucianism"
http://www.religioustolerance.org/confuciu.htm
"Om Sakthi: The Major World Religions" www.omsakthi.org/religions.html
Hinduism:
"Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance: Hinduism"
http://www.religioustolerance.org/hinduism.htm
"Om Sakthi: The Major World Religions" www.omsakthi.org/religions.html
“Religions of the World” http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/cultural/religion/hinduism/hinduism.html
Islam:
"Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance: Islam" http://www.religioustolerance.org/islam.htm
"Om Sakthi: The Major World Religions" www.omsakthi.org/religions.html
"Mr. Dowling's Electronic Passport: Islam" http://www.mrdowling.com/605-islam.html
“Religions of the World” http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/cultural/religion/islam/islam.html
Judaism:
"Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance: Judaism" http://www.religioustolerance.org/judaism.htm
"Om Sakthi: The Major World Religions" www.omsakthi.org/religions.html
"Mr. Dowling's Electronic Passport: Judaism" http://www.mrdowling.com/605-judaism.html
“Religions of the World” http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/cultural/religion/judaism/judaism.html
Shintoism:
"Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance: Shintoism" http://www.religioustolerance.org/shinto.htm
"Om Sakthi: The Major World Religions" www.omsakthi.org/religions.html
Sikhism:
"Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance: Sikhism" http://www.religioustolerance.org/sikhism.htm
"Om Sakthi: The Major World Religions" www.omsakthi.org/religions.html
Taoism:
"Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance: Taoism" http://www.religioustolerance.org/taoism.htm
"Om Sakthi: The Major World Religions" www.omsakthi.org/religions.html
BUDDHISM
MENU:
BUDDHISM
...based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama
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Quotation:
"Buddhism has the characteristics of what would be expected in a cosmic religion for the future: it transcends
a personal God, avoids dogmas and theology; it covers both the natural & spiritual, and it is based on a
religious sense aspiring from the experience of all things, natural and spiritual, as a meaningful unity" Albert
Einstein
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Overview:
Buddhism is the fourth largest religion in the world, being exceeded in numbers only by Christianity, Islam and
Hinduism. It was founded in Northern India by the first known Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama. In 535 BCE, he attained
enlightenment and assumed the title Lord Buddha (one who has awakened)
As Buddhism expanded across Asia, it evolved into two main forms, which evolved largely independently from each
other:
Theravada Buddhism (sometimes called Southern Buddhism; occasionally spelled Therevada) "has been the
dominant school of Buddhism in most of Southeast Asia since the thirteenth century, with the establishment of
the monarchies in Thailand, Burma, Cambodia and Laos."
Mahayana Buddhism (sometimes called Northern Buddhism) is largely found in China, Japan, Korea, Tibet
and Mongolia.
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BUDDHISM
To which might be added:
Tibetan Buddhism, which developed in isolation from Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism because of the
remoteness of Tibet.
Since the late 19th century:
Modern Buddhism has emerged as a truly international movement. It started as an attempt to produce a
single form of Buddhism, without local accretions, that all Buddhists could embrace.
Topics covered in this section:
A brief overview of the Buddha's life
Core Buddhist beliefs
Comparison of Buddhism with Christianity
Buddhist traditions in the East and West
Mahayana tradition (Northern Buddhism)
Theravada Buddhism (Southern Buddhism; being written)
Tibetan Buddhism (being written)
Zen Buddhism (Being written)
Information sources
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A brief overview of the life of Buddha
A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE LIFE OF BUDDHA
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Note:
Little is known about the Buddha's early life. No biography was written during his lifetime. Only isolated events
from his life before he attained enlightenment were preserved. Some of the following is probably mythical in
nature.
The birth of the Buddha:
He was born a prince circa 563 BCE in Lumbin• in the Terai lowlands near the foothills of the Himalayas. At the
time, this was part of northern India. It is now part of Nepal, a small country located between India and Tibet. He
was a member of the •ãkyas clan. His father, Suddhodana, was king of the clan. His mother was named Maya.
In common with many other great religious leaders, many miraculous stories were associated with his birth. He
emerged from his mother's side without causing her any pain. The earth shook as he was born. As a newborn, he
was miraculously showered with water. He stood up, took seven steps, announced that he would be the "chief of
the world." He also stated that this would be his last reincarnation.
He was given the name Siddhãrtha Gautama. Siddhãrtha means "one who has achieved his aim." Gautama was his
clan name. He was sometimes referred to as •ãkyamuni which means "the sage of the •ãkyas."
He may have been born into the second of the four Indian castes -- the aristocratic warrior caste called K•atriyas.
His early life in the palace:
•ãkyamuni was raised as a Hindu. His parents assumed that he would succeed his father later in his life. His
parents were concerned about a prophecy that astrologers gave at the time of his birth. They predicted that he
would become either a universal monarch or a monk who would be a great religious teacher. His parents raised
him in a state of luxury in the hope that he would become attached to earthly things and to pleasure. This would
make it less likely that he choose the religious life.
At the age of 16, he was married to his wife Ya•odharã. When he was 29, his wife had a son, Rãhula. Shortly after
his son's birth, some sources say that he took four journeys by chariot. Other sources say he had four visions.
During the first trip/vision he was deeply disturbed by seeing an elderly, helpless, frail man. On the second, he
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A brief overview of the life of Buddha
saw an emaciated and depressed man suffering from an advanced disease. On the third, he spotted a grieving
family carrying the corpse of one of their own to a cremation site. He reflected deeply upon the suffering brought
about by old age, illness and death. On his fourth trip/vision, he saw a religious mendicant -- a •rama•a -- who
led a reclusive life of meditation, and was calm and serene. The four encounters motivated him to follow the
path of the mendicant and find a spiritual solution to the problems brought about by human suffering.
He left his wife, child, luxurious lifestyle, and future role as a leader of his people in order to seek truth. It was
an accepted practice at the time for some men to leave their family and lead the life of an ascetic.
Seeking the solution to human suffering:
He first tried meditation, which he learned from two teachers. He felt that these were valuable skills. However,
meditation could not be extended forever, He eventually had to return to normal waking consciousness and face
the unsolved problems relating to birth, sickness, old age and death.
He then joined a group of similarly-minded students of Brahmanism in a forest where he practiced breath control
and fasted intensely for six years. He is said to have brought himself to the brink of death by only eating a few
grains of rice each day. Some sources say that he consumed only a spoonful of bean soup per day. This technique
produced a series of physical discomforts. Ultimately, he rejected this path as well. He realized that neither the
extremes of the mortification of the flesh or of hedonism would lead to enlightenment. He determined that a
better path to achieve the state of Nirvana -- a state of liberation and freedom from suffering -- was to pursue a
"Middle Way." This way was largely defined by moderation and meditation.
Attaining enlightenment:
One night In 535 BCE, at the age of 35, he was seated underneath a large tree -- later known as the Bodhi tree
(species Pipal or ficus religiosus). He began to experience some major spiritual breakthroughs:
During the first watch of the night, he developed the ability to recall the events of his previous
reincarnations in detail.
During the second watch, he was able to see how the good and bad deeds that many living entities
performed during their lifetimes led to the nature of their subsequent reincarnation into their next life.
During the third watch, he learned that he had progressed beyond "spiritual defilements," craving, desire,
hatred, hunger, thirst, exhaustion, fear, doubt, and delusions. He had attained nirvana. He would never
again be reincarnated into a future life.
He had attained enlightenment! "He became a savior, deliverer, and redeemer."
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The events under the Bodhi tree are often described in mythological terms in Buddhist literature and art. His
experiences are portrayed as a battle with Mãra, the Buddhist equivalent of the Judeo-Christian-Islamic Satan.
This essay continues below.
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A brief overview of the life of Buddha
After his enlightenment:
He assumed the title Lord Buddha (one who has awakened; the one who has attained enlightenment by himself).
For seven days, he puzzled over his future: whether to withdraw from the world and live a life of seclusion, or
whether to reenter the world and teach his Middle Way. He decided on the latter course: to proclaim his Dharma
(teachings) to other humans so that they could also attain enlightenment.
He located five of his fellow seekers with whom he had earlier fasted, and rejoined them near Benares. They
quickly became aware of the changes brought about by his enlightenment. It was to them that he preached his
first sermon. It contained the essential teachings of Buddhism. All five accepted his teachings and were ordained
as monks. After the Buddha's second sermon, all five achieved enlightenment. They are referred to as Arhants
(saints).
The Buddha's later life:
He wandered around Northeast India for decades, teaching all who would listen. He covered a "territory some 150
miles long by 250 miles wide, an area somewhat smaller than Ireland or the state of Pennsylvania." He had tens
2
of thousands of disciples and accumulated a large public following. He later established an order of monks and a
corresponding order of nuns. His wife Ya•odharã became the first nun.
His health began to fail when he was in this late 70s. After forty-five years of teaching, he died in a small town
named Ku•inagara, apparently of natural causes. His final words were: "Decay is inherent in all things. Be sure to
strive with clarity of mind" for Nirvana. The traditional date of his death is 483 BCE. However, some recent
research indicates that he actually died circa 405 BCE.
He did not choose a successor. He felt that the Dharma -- his teachings -- plus the Vinaya -- his code of rules for
the monks and nuns -- would be a sufficient guide. Two and a half centuries later, a council of Buddhist monks
collected his teachings and the oral traditions of the faith into written form, called the Tripitaka. This included a
very large collection of commentaries and traditions; most are called Sutras (discourses).
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References used:
1.
2.
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4.
5.
Sri Swami Sivananda, "Lord Buddha," (1996), at: http://www.sivanandadlshq.org/
Charles Prebish & Damien Keown, "Buddhism - the eBook. Chapter 2," at: http://www.jbeonlinebooks.org/
"Gandhara, Pakistan," Biblical Archeology Review, 2004-MAY/JUN, Page 64.
André Vellino "About Buddhism," at: http://www.ncf.carleton.ca/
Joseph Tamney, "Buddhism," Encyclopedia of Religion and Society, at: http://www.hartfordinstitute.org/
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BUDDHISM
BUDDHISM'S CORE BELIEFS
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Core beliefs of Buddhism:
Buddhism, like most of the great religions of the world, is divided into a number of different traditions. However,
most traditions share a common set of fundamental beliefs.
One fundamental belief of Buddhism is often referred to as reincarnation -- the concept that people are reborn
after dying. In fact, most individuals go through many cycles of birth, living, death and rebirth. A practicing
Buddhist differentiates between the concepts of rebirth and reincarnation. In reincarnation, the individual may
recur repeatedly. In rebirth, in a person does not necessarily return to Earth as the same entity ever again. He
compares it to a leaf growing on a tree. When the withering leave falls off, a new leaf will eventually replace it.
It is similar to the old leaf, but it is not identical to the original leaf.
After many such cycles, if a person releases their attachment to desire and the self, they can attain Nirvana. This
is a state of liberation and freedom from suffering.
The Three Trainings or Practices:
These three consist of:
1. Sila: Virtue, good conduct, morality. This is based on two fundamental principles:
The principle of equality: that all living entities are equal.
The principle of reciprocity: This is the "Golden Rule" in
Christianity -- to do onto others as you would wish them do
onto you. It is found in all major religions.
2. Samadhi: Concentration, meditation, mental development. Developing one's mind is the path to wisdom
which in turn leads to personal freedom. Mental development also strengthens and controls our mind; this
helps us maintain good conduct.
3. Prajna: Discernment, insight, wisdom, enlightenment. This is the real heart of Buddhism. Wisdom will
emerge if your mind is pure and calm.
The first two paths listed in the Eightfold Path, described below, refer to discernment; the last three belong to
concentration; the middle three are related to virtue.
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BUDDHISM
The Four Noble Truths:
The Buddha's Four Noble Truths explore human suffering. They may be described (somewhat simplistically) as:
1. Dukkha: Suffering exists: (Suffering is real and and almost universal. Suffering has many causes: loss,
sickness, pain, failure, the impermanence of pleasure.)
2. Samudaya: There is a cause for suffering. (It is the desire to have and control things. It can take many
forms: craving of sensual pleasures; the desire for fame; the desire to avoid unpleasant sensations, like
fear, anger or jealousy.)
3. Nirodha: There is an end to suffering. (Suffering ceases with the final liberation of Nirvana (a.k.a.
Nibbana). The mind experiences complete freedom, liberation and non-attachment. It lets go of any desire
or craving.)
4. Magga: In order to end suffering, you must follow the Eightfold Path.
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The Five Precepts:
These are rules to live by. They are somewhat analogous to the second half of the Ten Commandments in Judaism
and Christianity -- that part of the Decalogue which describes behaviors to avoid.
Do not kill. This is sometimes translated as "not harming" or an absence of violence.
Do not steal. This is generally interpreted as including the avoidance of fraud and economic exploitation.
Do not lie. This is sometimes interpreted as including name calling, gossip, etc.
Do not misuse sex. For monks and nuns, this means any departure from complete celibacy. For the laity,
adultery is forbidden, along with any sexual harassment or exploitation, including that within marriage.
The Buddha did not discuss consensual premarital sex within a committed relationship; Buddhist traditions
differ on this.
5. Do not consume alcohol or other drugs. The main concern here is that intoxicants cloud the mind. Some
have included as a drug other methods of divorcing ourselves from reality -- e.g. movies, television, the
Internet.
1.
2.
3.
4.
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The Eightfold Path:
The Buddha's Eightfold Path consists of:
Panna: Discernment, wisdom:
1) Samma ditthi Right Understanding of the Four Noble Truths
2) Samma sankappa: Right thinking; following the right path in life
Sila: Virtue, morality:
3) Samma vaca: Right speech: no lying, criticism, condemning, gossip, harsh language
4) Samma kammanta Right conduct by following the Five Precepts
5) Samma ajiva: Right livelihood; support yourself without harming others
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BUDDHISM
Samadhi: Concentration, meditation:
6) Samma vayama Right Effort: promote good thoughts; conquer evil thoughts
7) Samma sati Right Mindfulness: Become aware of your body, mind and feelings
8) Samma samadhi Right Concentration: Meditate to achieve a higher state of consciousness
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Site navigation: Home page > World Religions > Buddhism > here
References:
1. Guy Newland, Untitled essay at: http://www.chsbs.cmich.edu/
2. Bhikkhu Bodhi, "The Noble Eightfold Path. The Way to the End of Suffering," Buddhist Information, at:
http://www.buddhistinformation.com/
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Copyright © 1996 to 2006 by Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance
Latest update: 2006-FEB-19
Author: B.A. Robinson
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Comparison of Buddhism and Christianity
BUDDHISM
Comparison of Buddhism & Christianity
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Comparison of Buddhism with Christianity:
Since about 75% of American adults identify themselves as Christian and only 0.5% view themselves as Buddhist, it
may be useful to compare Buddhism with the U.S.'s dominant religion.
We define as "Christian" any person or group who thoughtfully, sincerely, prayerfully regard themselves as
Christian. This is the definition that pollsters and the census offices of many countries use. It includes as
Christians the full range of faith groups who consider themselves to be Christians, including Assemblies of God
members, Presbyterians, Roman Catholics, Southern Baptists, United Church members, Jehovah's Witnesses,
Mormons, etc. Many Christians have a much less inclusive definition of the term "Christian."
Beliefs not shared: Buddhists do not share most of the core beliefs of historical Christianity. These include:
An original golden era in the Garden of Eden, and a subsequent fall of humanity.
Original sin shared by all present-day humans, derived from Adam and Eve.
A world-wide flood in the time of Adam, causing the greatest human genocide in history.
The need for a personal savior whose death enabled individual salvation.
A god-man savior who was born of a virgin, executed, resurrected and ascended to heaven.
Salvation achieved through good works, specific beliefs and/or sacraments.
Eternal life spent in either a heaven or hell after death.
Return of the savior to earth at some time in the future.
An end of the world as we know it in the near future.
Some shared beliefs: Buddhism and Christianity share some features:
Ethic of Reciprocity: Buddhism, Christianity and all of the other major world religions share a basic
rule of behavior which governs how they are to treat others. Two quotations from Buddhist texts
which reflect this Ethic are:
"...a state that is not pleasing or delightful to me, how could I inflict that upon another?"
Samyutta NIkaya v. 353.
Hurt not others in ways that you yourself would find hurtful." Udana-Varga 5:18.
This compares closely to Christianity's Golden Rule, which is seen in:
"Therefore all things whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to
them." Matthew 7:12.
"...and don't do what you hate...", Gospel of Thomas 6.
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Comparison of Buddhism and Christianity
Life after death: Almost all religions teach that a person's personality continues after death. In fact,
many religious historians believe that this belief was the prime reason that motivated people to
originally create religions. Christianity and Buddhism are no exception. However, they conceive of
life after death in very different forms:
Buddhism teaches that humans are trapped in a repetitive cycle of birth, life, death and
rebirth. One's goal is to escape from this cycle and reach Nirvana. The mind experiences
complete freedom, liberation and non-attachment. Suffering ends because desire and craving
-- the causes of suffering -- are no more.
Christianity has historically taught that everyone has only a single life on earth. After death,
an eternal life awaits everyone: either in Heaven or Hell. There is no suffering in Heaven;
only joy. Suffering is eternal without any hope of cessation for the inhabitants of Hell.
Themes of morality, justice, love: These themes are found through both the Buddha's teaching and
the Hebrew and Christian Bible.
Beliefs shared by some Buddhist traditions and Christianity:
In its original forms, Buddhism did not teach of the existence of transcendent, immanent, or any
other type of God, Gods, Goddess, and/or Goddesses. However, many Buddhists -- particularly in
Japan -- do believe in a pantheon of deities.
Some traditions within Buddhism believe in the power of prayer; others do not.
Some Buddhists believe in Miroku, the "future Buddha." They expect him to be reincarnated and
spread Buddhism further.
Site navigation:
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Copyright © 1996 to 2006 by Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance
Latest update: 2006-JAN-08
Author: B.A. Robinson
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BUDDHISM
BUDDHISM
Buddhist traditions: East & West
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Buddhist traditions in the East:
Buddhism is not a single monolithic religion. Many of its adherents have combined the teachings of the Buddha
with local religious rituals, beliefs and customs. Little conflict occurs, because Buddhism at its core is a
philosophical system to which such additions can be easily grafted.
After the Buddha's death, splits occurred. There are now three main systems of thought within Buddhism which
are geographically and philosophically separate. Each tradition in turn has many sects. One source divides the
religion into three main groups by their location:
Theravada Buddhism (a.k.a. as Southern Buddhism) now has 100 million followers.
Buddhist missionaries from India took the religion to a number of countries, but it initially only achieved a
foothold in Sri Lanka. It later spread from Sri Lanka to Burma, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and parts of
Vietnam. They promoted the Vibhajjavada school (Separative Teaching). By the 15th century, this form of
the religion reached almost its present geographical extent.
Concepts and practices include:
Dana - thoughtful, ceremonial giving
Sila - accepting Buddhist teaching and following it in practice; refraining from killing, stealing,
wrong behavior, use of drugs. On special days, three additional precepts may be added, restricting
adornment, entertainment and comfort.
Karma - the balance of accumulated sin and merit, which will determine one's future in the present
life, and the nature of the next life to come.
The Cosmos - consists of billions of worlds grouped into clusters; clusters are grouped into galaxies,
which are themselves grouped into super-galaxies. The universe also has many levels: four
underworlds and 21 heavenly realms.
Paritta - ritual chanting.
Worship - of relics of a Buddha, of items made by a Buddha, or of other symbolic relics.
Festivals - days of the full moon, and three other days during the lunar cycle are celebrated. There
is a new year's festival, and celebrations tied to the agricultural year.
Pilgrimages - particularly to Buddhist sites in Sri Lanka and India.
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BUDDHISM
Mahayana Buddhism (a.k.a. Northern Buddhism) is the predominant religion in China, Japan, Korea and
much of Vietnam. The tradition entered China during the Han dynasty (206 BCE to 220 CE). It found initial
acceptance there among the workers; later, it gradually penetrated the ruling class. Buddhism reached
Japan in the 6th century. It underwent severe repression during the 1960's in China during the Cultural
Revolution.
Eastern Buddhism contains many distinct schools: T'ein-t'ai, Hua-yen, Pure Land teachings, and the
Meditation school. They celebrate the New Year, harvest festivals, and five anniversaries from the lives of
Buddha and of the Bodhissattva Kuan-yin. They also engage in Dana, Sila, Chanting, Worship and
Pilgrimage.
Vajrayana Buddhism (a.k.a. Tantric Buddhism) has perhaps 10 million adherents in parts of China,
Mongolia, Russia and Tibet. It entered Tibet circa 640 CE. Conflict with the native Tibetan religion of Bon
caused it to go largely underground until its revival in the 11th century CE. The head of the Gelu school of
Buddhist teaching became the Dalai Lama, and ruled Tibet. It has been, until recently, wrongly dismissed
as a degenerate form of Buddhism.
Ceremony and ritual are emphasized. They also engage in Dana, Sila, Chanting, Worship and Pilgrimage.
They developed the practice of searching out a young child at the time of death of an important teacher.
The child is believed to be the successor to the deceased teacher. They celebrate New Years, harvest
festivals and anniversaries of five important events in the life of the Buddha. Buddhist and Tibetan culture
suffered greatly during the Cultural Revolution when an attempt was made to destroy all religious belief.
1
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Buddhism in the West:
Southern Buddhism became established in Europe early in the 20th century.
Buddhism came to the U.S. in the early 19th century, with the arrival of Chinese and Japanese immigrants to
Hawaii and to the west coast of the U.S. mainland. The Zen Buddhist tradition of Eastern Buddhism has developed
a large following, particularly after the "Beat" generation, which began in the 1950's. Today, there are racial and
cultural divides in American Buddhism, between nationalities of new immigrants, and between Caucasians and
Asians. They exist largely as two solitudes, with little interaction.
For Asian-American Buddhists, the temple "has more congregational importance, playing a key religious,
social and cultural role in the community." Many have come to America recently, escaping wars in the Far
East.
Caucasians Buddhists focus on meditation. Their groups tend to be "more lay orientated, with more women
in positions of leadership. For some converts, Buddhism is more a philosophy than a religion."
2
Tricycle: The Buddhist review maintains a listing of 834 centers in the U.S., Canada and Europe at:
http://208.2.76.27/tricycle/
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Mahayana Buddhism
The Mahayana Tradition
Its origin and spread
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Buddhism Continues to Grow:
The original tradition within Buddhism, Theravadan, continues to flourish even today, but around the First
Century BCE, a split began to develop. The Theravadans held fast to the ideas of monastic discipline, scholarly
attainment, and strict adherence to the scriptures of the Buddha, while others saw this as being inflexible and
difficult for anyone besides a monk to come to terms with. As a result, a movement to bring Buddhism to the
"common people" began to gain popularity. This movement would eventually lead to the development of
Mayahana Buddhism.
"Theravada Buddhism focused primarily on meditation and concentration, the eighth of the
Eightfold Noble Path; as a result, it centered on a monastic life a an extreme expenditure of time in
meditating. This left little room for the bulk of humanity to join in, so a new schism erupted within
the ranks of Buddhism in the first century AD, one that would attempt to reformulate the teachings
of Buddha to accommodate a greater number of people. They called their new Buddhism, the
"Greater Vehicle" (literally, "The Greater Ox-Cart") or Mahayana, since it could accommodate more
people and more believers from all walks of life. They distinguished themselves from mainstream
Theravada Buddhism by contemptuously referring to Theravada as Hinayana, or 'The Lesser Vehicle.'
"
1
The story goes that at first, the abilities of Buddha’s followers to comprehend what he had attained was limited,
thus his teachings had to focus on the most important concepts of enlightenment and Nirvana. It is often said that
The Buddha foresaw a time when his disciples would be ready for more than these basic teachings. This slow
evolution of Buddhist thought beyond the original teachings of the Buddha demonstrated the great flexibility and
openness that was possible in Buddhism, thus as it moved out of India to other countries, it was rapidly integrated
into the cultures it encountered.
"Many Buddhists, especially Westerners, tend to see both the Theravada and Mahayana approaches
as not being contradictory or in opposition but rather as complimentary to each other. The
Mahayana is often seen as an expansion of or commentary on Theravadan teachings."
2
Bohdisattva Warriors:
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Mahayana Buddhism
Theravada or Hinayana Buddhism embraced the concept of the Bodhisattva, or "one who achieves perfect
attainment." Theravadan Buddhists saw this as merely a guide or a model to the journey of individual
enlightenment. Thus any adherent of the Theravadan Tradition who through strict discipline and devotion to
scripture became enlightened had lived up to the ideal of the Bodhisattva. But Bodhisattva was seen merely as a
teaching tool, only as a part of the individual’s path in reaching Nirvana. It would not reach beyond this until the
formation of the Mahayana Tradition.
The Mahayana determined that Bodhisattva was a mandate not for individual perfection, but to save all sentient
beings from suffering. Mahayana Buddhists take a vow NOT to enter Nirvana, even though they too strive to reach
enlightenment. Instead their vow is to return to the world of suffering and assist all others in reaching Nirvana
first, thus casting the role of Buddhists as compassionate protectors and saviors.
"The bodhisattva is translated literally as 'one whose essence is perfect wisdom' or 'one destined for
enlightenment.' The essential characteristics of the bodhisattva in both sects are compassion,
selflessness, wisdom, and servitude. The bodhisattva takes a vow: 'I must lead all beings to
liberation, I will stay here until the end, even for the sake of one living mortal'. "
3
The Spread of Mahayana in Asia:
Theravada Buddhism continued to be dominant in Southern India and Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and spread South and
East through the Indo-Chinese Peninsula while Mahayana Buddhism grew and spread to the North and East.
Mahayana broke into several sub-types:
In China: Cha’an, (more popularly known by its Japanese name, Zen), and Pure Land. Both would later be
transmitted to Japan. Zen migrated to Korea.
Vajrayana, or Tantric Buddhism which moved North and West, finally taking root in Tibet.
Over time, several schools of the Mahayana Buddhist philosophy evolved, but the main ones today are Pure Land
and the Zen, both of which originally developed in China. A third school, the Nirchiren group developed in most
recent times and is based on the White Lotus Sutra teaching of the Buddha.
4
"The dominant group today is the Mahayana following, and this is in part due to a Royal supporter.
In the third century BC, Buddhism was boosted by the patronage of a powerful king, the Emperor
Ashoka who converted after a particularly vicious victory in battle. He became a major supporter of
the Mahayana Buddhism and funded its growth around many parts of India. In conjunction with the
council, he also sent missionaries to regions outside India, beginning the spread of Buddhism around
the world."
5
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Common Roots Run Deep:
While the various sects and followers of the Buddha’s teachings may vary, the core values established by The
Buddha are still shared by all Buddhists. Their methods may differ, the ultimate goal of enlightenment through
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Mahayana Buddhism
patient discipline, meditation, right living, and compassion for all life is a common thread that runs deep through
all Buddhist thought and tradition. It is proper to say that Mahayana Buddhism is an extension or continuation of
Theravada Buddhism, but without there first being Theravada, there could be no Mahayana.
Major Differences Between Theravadan & Mahayanan Traditions:
Theravada Buddhism
Intense, dedicated and time-consuming effort required
to attain enlightenment.
Reaching Nirvana is the ultimate goal of the Theravada
Buddhist.
Strives for wisdom first .
Centers on meditation, and requires personal
dedication such as being a monk or nun.
Mahayana Buddhism
Enlightenment is achieved through a normal life with
varying degrees of spiritual involvement.
Vow to be reborn in order to help all other sentient
beings reach Nirvana first.
Compassion is the highest virtue.
Encourages practice in the world and among the general
community.
Followed with reference to higher beings, more like a
Followed as a teaching or Philosophy.
religion.
Moved primarily South and West covering Indochina and Moved Primarily North and West, covering China, Korea,
Ceylon (Sri-Lanka).
Japan, and Tibet.
Early work written in Pali (e.g. kamma, dhamma).
Early texts are in Sanskrit (e.g. karma, dharma)
References:
"Mahayana Buddhism," at: http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/
Graeme Lyall "The Rise of Mahayana," at: http://www.zip.com.au/~lyallg/RiseMahyan.htm
Molly C. King, "Bodhisattva," at: http://web.presby.edu/~gramsey/
Mary Hendriks, "The History, Philosophy and Practice of Buddhism -Buddhism in Japan" at: http://www.
acay.com.au/~silkroad/
5. Mary Hendriks, "The History, Philosophy and Practice of Buddhism -Mahayana Buddhism and Theravadan
Buddhism," at: http://www.acay.com.au/~silkroad/buddha/h_early.htm
6. Stephen Evans, "Basic Points Unifying The Theravada and the Mahayana," at: http://www.serve.com/
cmtan/buddhism/Misc/unify.html
7. Mary Hendriks, "The History, Philosophy and Practice of Buddhism," at: http://www.acay.com.au/
~silkroad/buddha/
1.
2.
3.
4.
Resources For Further Study:
Foundation for the Preservation of The Mahayana Tradition
“The Rise of Mahayana,” by Graeme Lyall
About.Com Index on Mahayana Buddhism
Religion 325: The Mahayana Buddhist Tradition in India, China and Japan
Buddhism Today (with items of general interest to all traditions of Budhism)
The Rise of Mahayana Buddhism
Buddhist Village, an online Buddhist Community
Godserver.Com: Mahayana Buddhism
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The major world religions
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The Major World Religions
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Home : Major World Religions
The information provided below is intended to provide a short introduction to the major world religions as
defined classically. Each description has been kept very short so that it is easy to read straight through all of
them and get a general impression of the diversity of spiritual paths humanity takes to live the kind of life
God wants. As a result, a great many things have been omitted. No omissions are intentional and readers are
encouraged to consult other resources on the web as well as books for more in-depth information.
For an excellent introduction to Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, Confucianism, Christianity, and Judaism,
Huston Smith's "The World's Religions" is highly recommended.
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Hinduism - 4000 to 2500 BCE*
The origins of Hinduism can be traced to the Indus Valley civilization sometime between 4000 and 2500
BCE. Though believed by many to be a polytheistic religion, the basis of Hinduism is the belief in the unity
of everything. This totality is called Brahman. The purpose of life is to realize that we are part of God and by
doing so we can leave this plane of existance and rejoin with God. This enlightenment can only be achieved
by going through cycles of birth, life and death known as samsara. One's progress towards enlightenment is
measured by his karma. This is the accumulation of all one's good and bad deeds and this determines the
person's next reincarnation. Selfless acts and thoughts as well as devotion to God help one to be reborn at a
higher level. Bad acts and thoughts will cause one to be born at a lower level, as a person or even an animal.
Hindus follow a strict caste system which determines the standing of each person. The caste one is born into
is the result of the karma from their previous life. Only members of the highest caste, the brahmins, may
perform the Hindu religious rituals and hold positions of authority within the temples.
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More Resources on Hinduism
Site maintained by
Lansdale Mandram
Hinduism Books - Check out the most popular books concerning Hinduism and Hindus.
Sacred Texts of Hinduism - Hindu sacred texts available for free online viewing at sacred-texts.com.
Hinduism at OCRT - Article on Hinduism at the web site of the Ontario Consultants for Religious Tolerance.
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The major world religions
Judaism - 2000 BCE
Judaism, Christianity, Islam and the Baha'i faith all originated with a divine covenant between the God of the
ancient Israelites and Abraham around 2000 BCE. The next leader of the Israelites, Moses, led his people out
of captivity in Egypt and received the Law from God. Joshua later led them into the promised land where
Samuel established the Israelite kingdom with Saul as its first king. King David established Jerusalem and
King Solomon built the first temple there. In 70 CE the temple was destroyed and the Jews were scattered
throughout the world until 1948 when the state of Israel was formed.
Jews believe in one creator who alone is to be worshipped as absolute ruler of the universe. He monitors
peoples activities and rewards good deeds and punishes evil. The Torah was revealed to Moses by God and
can not be changed though God does communicate with the Jewish people through prophets. Jews believe in
the inherent goodness of the world and its inhabitants as creations of God and do not require a savior to save
them from original sin. They believe they are God's chosen people and that the Messiah will arrive in the
future, gather them into Israel, there will be a general resurrection of the dead, and the Jerusalem Temple
destroyed in 70 CE will be rebuilt.
More Resources on Judaism
Judaism Books - Check out the most popular books concerning Judaism.
Sacred Texts of Judaism - Jewish sacred texts available for free online viewing at sacred-texts.com.
Judaism at OCRT - Article on Judaism at the web site of the Ontario Consultants for Religious Tolerance.
Zoroastrianism - 1000 BCE
Zoroastrianism was founded by Zarathushtra (Zoroaster) in Persia which followed an aboriginal polytheistic
religion at the time. He preached what may have been the first monotheism with a single supreme god,
Ahura Mazda. Zoroastrians belief in the dualism of good and evil as either a cosmic one between Ahura
Mazda and an evil spirit of violence and death, Angra Mainyu, or as an ethical dualism within the human
consciousness. The Zoroastrian holy book is called the Avesta which includes the teachings of Zarathushtra
written in a series of five hymns called the Gathas. They are abstract sacred poetry directed towards the
worship of the One God, understanding of righteousness and cosmic order, promotion of social justice, and
individual choice between good and evil. The rest of the Avesta was written at a later date and deals with
rituals, practice of worship, and other traditions of the faith.
Zoroastrians worship through prayers and symbolic ceremonies that are conducted before a sacred fire which
symbolizes their God. They dedicate their lives to a three-fold path represented by their motto: "Good
thoughts, good words, good deeds." The faith does not generally accept converts but this is disputed by some
members.
More Resources on Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrianism Books - Check out the most popular books concerning Zarathushtra and Zoroastrianism.
Sacred Texts of Zoroastrianism - Zoroastrian sacred texts available for free online viewing at sacred-texts.
com.
Zoroastrianism at OCRT - Article on Zoroastrianism at the web site of the Ontario Consultants for Religious
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The major world religions
Tolerance.
Buddhism - 560 to 490 BCE
Buddhism developed out of the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama who, in 535 BCE, reached enlightenment
and assumed the title Buddha. He promoted 'The Middle Way' as the path to enlightenment rather than the
extremes of mortification of the flesh or hedonism. Long after his death the Buddha's teachings were written
down. This collection is called the Tripitaka. Buddhists believe in reincarnation and that one must go through
cycles of birth, life, and death. After many such cycles, if a person releases their attachment to desire and the
self, they can attain Nirvana. In general, Buddhists do not believe in any type of God, the need for a savior,
prayer, or eternal life after death. However, since the time of the Buddha, Buddhism has integrated many
regional religious rituals, beliefs and customs into it as it has spread throughout Asia, so that this
generalization is no longer true for all Buddhists. This has occurred with little conflict due to the
philosophical nature of Buddhism.
More Resources on Buddhism
Buddhism Books - Check out the most popular books concerning Buddha and Buddhism.
Sacred Texts of Buddhism - Buddhist sacred texts available for free online viewing at sacred-texts.com.
Buddhism at OCRT - Article on Buddhism at the web site of the Ontario Consultants for Religious
Tolerance.
Shinto - 500+ BCE
Shinto is an ancient Japanese religion, closely tied to nature, which recognizes the existance of various
"Kami", nature dieties. The first two deities, Izanagi and Izanami, gave birth to the Japanese islands and their
children became the deities of the various Japanese clans. One of their daughters, Amaterasu (Sun Goddess),
is the ancestress of the Imperial Family and is regarded as the chief deity. All the Kami are benign and serve
only to sustain and protect. They are not seen as separate from humanity due to sin because humanity is
"Kami's Child." Followers of Shinto desire peace and believe all human life is sacred. They revere "musuhi",
the Kami's creative and harmonizing powers, and aspire to have "makoto", sincerity or true heart. Morality is
based upon that which is of benefit to the group. There are "Four Affirmations" in Shinto:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Tradition and family: the family is the main mechanism by which traditions are preserved.
Love of nature: nature is sacred and natural objects are to be worshipped as sacred spirits.
Physical cleanliness: they must take baths, wash their hands, and rinse their mouth often.
"Matsuri": festival which honors the spirits.
More Resources on Shinto
Shinto Books - Check out the most popular books concerning Shinto.
Sacred Texts of Shinto - Shinto sacred texts available for free online viewing at sacred-texts.com.
Shinto at OCRT - Article on Shinto at the web site of the Ontario Consultants for Religious Tolerance.
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The major world religions
Confucianism - 500 BCE
K'ung Fu Tzu (Confucius) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu in China. He traveled throughout China
giving advice to its rulers and teaching. His teachings and writings dealt with individual morality and ethics,
and the proper exercise of political power. He stressed the following values:
●
●
●
●
●
●
Li: ritual, propriety, etiquette, etc.
Hsiao: love among family members
Yi: righteousness
Xin: honesty and trustworthiness
Jen: benevolence towards others; the highest Confucian virtue
Chung: loyalty to the state, etc.
Unlike most religions, Confucianism is primarily an ethical system with rituals at important times during
one's lifetime. The most important periods recognized in the Confucian tradition are birth, reaching maturity,
marriage, and death.
More Resources on Confucianism
Confucianism Books - Check out the most popular books concerning Confucianism and Confucius.
Sacred Texts of Confucianism - Confucian sacred texts available for free online viewing at sacred-texts.com.
Confucianism at OCRT - Article on Confucianism at the web site of the Ontario Consultants for Religious
Tolerance.
Jainism - 420 BCE
The founder of the Jain community was Vardhamana, the last Jina in a series of 24 who lived in East India.
He attained enlightenment after 13 years of deprivation and committed the act of salekhana, fasting to death,
in 420 BCE. Jainism has many similarities to Hinduism and Buddhism which developed in the same part of
the world. They believe in karma and reincarnation as do Hindus but they believe that enlightenment and
liberation from this cycle can only be achieved through asceticism. Jains follow fruititarianism. This is the
practice of only eating that which will not kill the plant or animal from which it is taken. They also practice
ahimsa, non-violence, because any act of violence against a living thing creates negative karma which will
adversely affect one's next life.
More Resources on Jainism
Jainism Books - Check out the most popular books concerning Jainism.
Sacred Texts of Jainism - Jain sacred texts available for free online viewing at sacred-texts.com.
Jainism at OCRT - Article on Jainism at the web site of the Ontario Consultants for Religious Tolerance.
Taoism - 440 CE
Taoism was founded by Lao-Tse, a contemporary of Confucius in China. Taoism began as a combination of
psychology and philosophy which Lao-Tse hoped would help end the constant feudal warfare and other
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The major world religions
conflicts of his time. His writings, the Tao-te-Ching, describe the nature of life, the way to peace and how a
ruler should lead his life. Taoism became a religion in 440 CE when it was adopted as a state religion.
Tao, roughly translated as path, is a force which flows through all life and is the first cause of everything.
The goal of everyone is to become one with the Tao. Tai Chi, a technique of exercise using slow deliberate
movements, is used to balance the flow of energy or "chi" within the body. People should develop virtue and
seek compassion, moderation and humility. One should plan any action in advance and achieve it through
minimal action. Yin (dark side) and Yang (light side) symbolize pairs of opposites which are seen through
the universe, such as good and evil, light and dark, male and female. The impact of human civilization upsets
the balance of Yin and Yang. Taoists believe that people are by nature, good, and that one should be kind to
others simply because such treatment will probably be reciprocated.
More Resources on Taoism
Taoism Books - Check out the most popular books concerning Taoism.
Sacred Texts of Taoism - Taoist sacred texts available for free online viewing at sacred-texts.com.
Taoism at OCRT - Article on Taoism at the web site of the Ontario Consultants for Religious Tolerance.
Exploring Tao with Fun - Informative site written by Taoists for beginners and non-beginners.
Images of Taoism from Lao Tzu's Tao Te Ching - Illustrated Tao Te Ching based on Jeff Rasmussen's "Spirit
of Tao Te Ching", introduction to Taoism, literal pictograph-by-pictograph translation, annotated links.
Christianity - 30+ CE
Christianity started out as a breakaway sect of Judaism nearly 2000 years ago. Jesus, the son of the Virgin
Mary and her husband Joseph, but conceived through the Holy Spirit, was bothered by some of the practices
within his native Jewish faith and began preaching a different message of God and religion. During his
travels he was joined by twelve disciples who followed him in his journeys and learned from him. He
performed many miracles during this time and related many of his teachings in the form of parables. Among
his best known sayings are to "love thy neighbor" and "turn the other cheek." At one point he revealed that
he was the Son of God sent to Earth to save humanity from our sins. This he did by being crucified on the
cross for his teachings. He then rose from the dead and appeared to his disciples and told them to go forth
and spread his message.
Since Christianity and Judaism share the same history up to the time of Jesus Christ, they are very similar in
many of their core beliefs. There are two primary differences. One is that Christians believe in original sin
and that Jesus died in our place to save us from that sin. The other is that Jesus was fully human and fully
God and as the Son of God is part of the Holy Trinity: God the Father, His Son, and the Holy Spirit. All
Christians believe in heaven and that those who sincerely repent their sins before God will be saved and join
Him in heaven. Belief in hell and satan varies among groups and individuals.
There are a multitude of forms of Christianity which have developed either because of disagreements on
dogma, adaptation to different cultures, or simply personal taste. For this reason there can be a great
difference between the various forms of Christianity they may seem like different religions to some people.
More Resources on Christianity
Christianity Books - Check out the most popular books concerning Christianity.
Sacred Texts of Christianity - Christian sacred texts available for free online viewing at sacred-texts.com.
Christianity at OCRT - Articles on Christianity at the web site of the Ontario Consultants for Religious
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The major world religions
Tolerance.
Islam - 622 CE
Islam was founded in 622 CE by Muhammad the Prophet, in Makkah (also spelled Mecca). Though it is the
youngest of the world's great religions, Muslims do not view it as a new religion. They belief that it is the
same faith taught by the prophets, Abraham, David, Moses and Jesus. The role of Muhammad as the last
prophet was to formalize and clarify the faith and purify it by removing ideas which were added in error. The
two sacred texts of Islam are the Qur'an, which are the words of Allah 'the One True God' as given to
Muhammad, and the Hadith, which is a collection of Muhammad's sayings. The duties of all Muslims are
known as the Five Pillars of Islam and are:
1. Recite the shahadah at least once.
2. Perform the salat (prayer) 5 times a day while facing the Kaaba in Makkah.
3. Donate regularly to charity via the zakat, a 2.5% charity tax, and through additional donations to the
needy.
4. Fast during the month of Ramadan, the month that Muhammad received the Qur'an from Allah.
5. Make pilgrimage to Makkah at least once in life, if economically and physically possible.
Muslims follow a strict monotheism with one creator who is just, omnipotent and merciful. They also believe
in Satan who drives people to sin, and that all unbelievers and sinners will spend eternity in Hell. Muslims
who sincerely repent and submit to God will return to a state of sinlessness and go to Paradise after death.
Alcohol, drugs, and gambling should be avoided and they reject racism. They respect the earlier prophets,
Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, but regard the concept of the divinity of Jesus as blasphemous and do not
believe that he was executed on the cross.
More Resources on Islam
Islam Books - Check out the most popular books concerning Islam.
Sacred Texts of Islam - Muslim sacred texts available for free online viewing at sacred-texts.com.
Islam at OCRT - Article on Islam at the web site of the Ontario Consultants for Religious Tolerance.
www.jannah.org - Independent site on Islam with good information on the response of mainstream Muslims
to terrorism.
The Islam Page - One of the oldest Islam pages on the web. Many articles/books and resources.
Islamic Circle of North America - Great resource with news, articles, family, youth pages, etc.
Islaam.com - Tons of informative articles and information.
Sikhism - 1500 CE
The Sikh faith was founded by Shri Guru Nanak Dev Ji in the Punjab area, now Pakistan. He began
preaching the way to enlightenment and God after receiving a vision. After his death a series of nine Gurus
(regarded as reincarnations of Guru Nanak) led the movement until 1708. At this time these functions passed
to the Panth and the holy text. This text, the Shri Guru Granth Sahib, was compiled by the tenth Guru,
Gobind Singh. It consists of hymns and writings of the first 10 Gurus, along with texts from different
Muslim and Hindu saints. The holy text is considered the 11th and final Guru.
Sikhs believe in a single formless God with many names, who can be known through meditation. Sikhs pray
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The major world religions
many times each day and are prohibited from worshipping idols or icons. They believe in samsara, karma,
and reincarnation as Hindus do but reject the caste system. They believe that everyone has equal status in the
eyes of God. During the 18th century, there were a number of attempts to prepare an accurate portrayal of
Sikh customs. Sikh scholars and theologians started in 1931 to prepare the Reht Maryada -- the Sikh code of
conduct and conventions. This has successfully achieved a high level of uniformity in the religious and social
practices of Sikhism throughout the world. It contains 27 articles. Article 1 defines who is a Sikh:
"Any human being who faithfully believes in:
●
●
●
●
●
One Immortal Being,
Ten Gurus, from Guru Nanak Dev to Guru Gobind Singh,
The Guru Granth Sahib,
The utterances and teachings of the ten Gurus and
the baptism bequeathed by the tenth Guru, and who does not owe allegiance to any other religion, is a
Sikh."
More Resources on Sikhism
Sikhism Books - Check out the most popular books concerning Sikhism.
Sacred Texts of Sikhism - Sikh sacred texts available for free online viewing at sacred-texts.com.
Sikhism at OCRT - Article on Sikhism at the web site of the Ontario Consultants for Religious Tolerance. A
Sikh Youth Site - Excellent Sikh site with lots of information and resources for youths and others.
Bahá'í - 1863 CE
The Bahá'í Faith arose from Islam in the 1800s based on the teachings of Baha'u'llah and is now a distinct
worldwide faith. The faith's followers believe that God has sent nine great prophets to mankind through
whom the Holy Spirit has revealed the "Word of God." This has given rise to the major world religions.
Although these religions arose from the teachings of the prophets of one God, Bahá'í's do not believe they
are all the same. The differences in the teachings of each prophet are due to the needs of the society they
came to help and what mankind was ready to have revealed to it. Bahá'í beliefs promote gender and race
equality, freedom of expression and assembly, world peace and world government. They believe that a single
world government led by Bahá'ís will be established at some point in the future. The faith does not attempt to
preserve the past but does embrace the findings of science. Bahá'ís believe that every person has an immortal
soul which can not die but is freed to travel through the spirit world after death.
More Resources on Bahá'í
Bahá'í Books - Check out the most popular books concerning Bahá'í.
Sacred Texts of Bahá'í - Bahá'í sacred texts available for free online viewing at sacred-texts.com.
Bahá'í at OCRT - Article on Bahá'í at the web site of the Ontario Consultants for Religious Tolerance.
www.bahaifaith.com - Gateway to the official sites of the Bahá'í Faith.
Religion Statistics and General Info
GeoHive - Country by country listing detailing the religious makeup of each.
Adherents.com - Major religions of the world ranked by the number of adherents.
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THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION
MENU:
CHRISTIANITY
FROM ALL POINTS OF VIEW.
(THERE ARE MANY!)
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Quotations:
"Christianity started out in Palestine as a fellowship; it moved to Greece and became a philosophy; it moved to
Italy and became an institution; it moved to Europe and became a culture; it came to America and became an
enterprise." Sam Pascoe, American scholar.
"Christianity is not a religion; it is a personal relationship with Jesus Christ." Anonymous posting to a Christian
mailing list.
"The world is equally shocked at hearing Christianity criticized and seeing it practiced." Elton Trueblood, (1900
- 1994), American author and theologian.
Many people think that the Bible is the authentic word of God and they worship the Bible, making it an idol..."
Alan Watts, from "The Essence of Alan Watts series - GOD.
About Christianity:
The contents of this section might not be what you expect.
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THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION
There are over a million religious web sites on the Internet. Almost all promote a single viewpoint -- that of the
webmaster. This web site is different. Our goal is to help religious people understand the diversity of beliefs and
practices within Christianity.
This web site has a lot more material on Christianity than on any other religion. That is because about 75% of
American adults identify themselves as Christian. In comparison, the next largest religions are Islam and Judaism,
whose memberships total only one or two percent of the U.S. population.
There are probably thousands of different definitions of the word "Christian." We have chosen the same inclusive
definition as is used by public opinion pollsters and government census offices: A "Christian" includes any group or
individual who seriously, devoutly, prayerfully describes themselves as Christian. Under this definition, Christianity
includes: Roman Catholics, Southern Baptists, Jehovah's Witnesses, Mormons, United Church members, even a
small minority of Unitarian Universalists, etc.
We try to explain the full diversity of Christian beliefs: from those held by very conservative to very liberal believers.
Sometimes we also include the diversity of beliefs of the very early Christian movement from the 1st and 2nd century
CE.
Many of our visitors are distressed because they find the material on our site which describes beliefs by Christians
from other denominations. They regard these beliefs to be in gross error, unacceptable, and even blasphemous and
un-Christian or anti-Christian. If you are distressed by these beliefs, please do not write us angry Emails. Please
take up your complaints with the people who hold those beliefs. We are religious reporters, not theologians.
However, if you find that we have incorrectly explained the beliefs of a Christian group, please do inform us.
Points of concern:
It is our policy to compare and contrast the beliefs and practices of very conservative with very liberal Christians.
Most North American Christians belong to either a mainline denomination or the Roman Catholic Church. Their own
faith group may teach some beliefs similar to the conservative wing of Christianity. Some beliefs are similar to that of
the liberal wing. Some beliefs are intermediate between the two.
We feel that it is important for persons of all faith groups (Christian and non-Christian) to understand the great
diversity of Christian beliefs -- both among denominations today and throughout history. Many Christians are aware
of their own denomination's current beliefs, but are unfamiliar with the history of those beliefs, or of the teachings of
other denominations. Whether you want to convert others or dialogue with them, it helps to know what they believe.
People in the U.S. and Canada are going to need religious understanding and tolerance in the future. These two
countries are the most religiously diverse countries in the world -- and we are becoming increasingly diverse. If
current trends continue, Protestants will probably become a minority during 2006, Christians will become a minority in
in Canada about 2023 and in the U.S. about the year 2042.
A place to begin:
Introduction: << We recommend that you read these essays first: Otherwise the remaining information
may not make much sense.
These essays describe:
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Mr. Dowling's Judaism Page
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Understanding Others | Judaism | Christianity | Islam
Time and Space
Prehistory
Mesopotamia
Ancient Egypt
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The Middle East
and North Africa
Conflicts in the
Middle East
African History
Africa Today
India and the
Himalayas
China
Japan
Ancient Greece
Rome
The Middle Ages
The Renaissance
The World Wars
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Communism
Christianity
Christianity is based of the teachings of Jesus Christ, a Jew who lived
about 2000 years ago in what we
now call Israel. Jesus taught his
followers to "Do unto others as you
would have them do unto you."
The followers of Jesus called him
Christ. Christ is a Greek word that
means, “chosen one.” They
believed he was the son of God. In
time followers of Jesus became
known as Christians. Early
Christians taught that the sins of
the people would be forgiven if
they became Christian.
Some years after Jesus died,
Christians combined the stories of
the life and wisdom of Jesus into
four books known as the Gospels.
Gospel means “good news.” The
holy book of Christianity is known
as the Bible and has two parts. The
Old Testament consists of the
sacred writings of the Jewish
people, and was written mostly in
Hebrew long before Jesus. The
New Testament of the Bible includes the Gospels, along with letters by
Christian writers. The Bible has been translated into more than 1,500
languages and has been read by more people than any other book.
Almost two billion Christians live on every continent. They comprise the
majority of people living in the United States and Canada (86%), Latin
America (92%), Europe (76%) and Australia (85%). Christianity is also
the most prevalent faith in Africa (48%). Christianity is a dominant force
on every continent but Asia (9%). Most of the world’s population is in
Canada
The Caribbean
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Mr. Dowling's Judaism Page
Asia, so only one-third of the
world's population is Christian.
Mexico and Central
America
South America
Christianity is divided into many
sects. About half of the world’s
Christian population is Roman
Catholic. Pope John Paul II is the
leader of the Roman Catholic
Church. Catholic is a Latin word
that means “universal,” and at one
time it was the faith of almost all
Christians. Roman refers to the fact
that the Pope has lived in Rome for
over five hundred years. Most
Christians in Eastern Europe
belong to Eastern Orthodox
Churches. The Orthodox churches
split with the Roman church in the Middle Ages. Many European leaders,
including Martin Luther and John Calvin, protested against the Pope in a
period known as the Reformation. The churches they started became
known as Protestant sects. Major Protestant sects in America today are
the Baptists (34 million), Methodists (13 million), Lutherans (8 million),
Presbyterians (4 million), Episcopalians (2.5 million), and Pentecostals
(2.4 million).
Christians worship in churches led by ministers and priests. Most
Christians practice acts of religious significance called sacraments. The
sacraments include baptism, when a Christian joins the church;
confirmation, when a Christian confirms his or her faith; and matrimony.
The Eucharist is the holiest of Christian sacraments in many Christian
churches. During the service, members of a church will eat a small wafer
of bread. Christian tradition states that at the Last Supper before his
execution, Jesus asked his followers to think of the meal as the body and
blood he would soon sacrifice.
Christian holy days include Christmas (the birth of Jesus), Easter (when
Christians believe Jesus rose from the dead and ascended to heaven), and
Lent, a forty-day holy period of penitence and self-denial.
Christianity
Christians believe that Jesus Christ was both a man and
the son of God. They believe God sent Jesus as a
messiah, or messenger. The Roman governor of
Palestine executed Jesus by nailing him to a cross.
Today the cross is Christianity's most important icon.
Most Christians have crosses in and on top of their
churches. Some Christians wear a cross as a necklace.
The cross symbolizes a Christian's connection with
Jesus.
NEXT: Islam
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CONFUCIANISM
CONFUCIANISM:
Founded by K'ung Fu Tzu
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History:
K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day
Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty, an era known for its moral laxity. Later in life, he
wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He accumulated a small band of students
during this time. The last years of his life were spent back in Lu, where he devoted himself to teaching.
His writings deal primarily with individual morality and ethics, and the proper exercise of political power by the
rulers.
In China, and some other areas in Asia, the social ethics and moral teachings of Confucius are blended with the
Taoist communion with nature and Buddhist concepts of the afterlife, to form a set of complementary, peacefully
co-existent and ecumenical religions.
There are approximately 6 million Confucians in the world. About 26,000 live in North America; almost all of the
remainder are found throughout China and the rest of Asia.
Beliefs:
Confucian ethical teachings include the following values:
Li: includes ritual, propriety, etiquette, etc.
Hsiao: love within the family: love of parents for their children and of children for their parents
Yi: righteousness
Xin: honesty and trustworthiness
Jen: benevolence, humaneness towards others; the highest Confucian virtue
Chung: loyalty to the state, etc.
Practices:
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CONFUCIANISM
Confucianism does not contain all of the elements of some other religions, like Christianity and Islam. It is
primarily an ethical system to which rituals at important times during one's lifetime have been added.
Since the time of the Han dynasty (206 CE) four life passages have been recognized and regulated by Confucian
tradition:
birth: The T'ai-shen (spirit of the fetus) protects the expectant woman and deals harshly with anyone who
harasses the mother to be. A special procedure is followed when the placenta is disposed of. The mother is
given a special diet and is allowed rest for a month after delivery. The mother's family of origin supplies all
the items required by the baby on the first, fourth and twelfth monthly anniversary of the birth.
reaching maturity: This life passage is no longer being celebrated, except in traditional families. It takes
the form of a group meal in which the young adult is served chicken.
marriage: This is performed in six stages:
Proposal: the couple exchange the eight characters: the year, month, day and hour of each of their
births. If any unpropitious event occurs within the bride-to-be's family during the next three days,
then the woman is believed to have rejected the proposal.
Engagement: after the wedding day is chosen, the bride announces the wedding with invitations and
a gift of cookies made in the shape of the moon.
Dowry: This is carried to the groom's home in a solemn procession. The bride-price is then sent to
the bride by the groom's parents. Gifts by the groom to the bride, equal in value to the dowry, are
sent to her.
Procession: The groom visits the bride's home and brings her back to his place, with much fanfare.
Marriage and Reception: The couple recite their vows, toast each other with wine, and then take
center stage at a banquet.
Morning after: The bride serves breakfast to the groom's parents, who then reciprocate.
death: At death, the relatives cry out aloud to inform the neighbors. The family starts mourning and puts
on clothes made of a coarse material. The corpse is washed and placed in a coffin. Mourners bring incense
and money to offset the cost of the funeral. Food and significant objects of the deceased are placed into
the coffin. A Buddhist or Taoist priest (or even a Christian minister) performs the burial ritual. Friends and
family follow the coffin to the cemetery, along with a willow branch which symbolizes the soul of the
person who has died. The latter is carried back to the family altar where it is used to "install" the spirit of
the deceased. Liturgies are performed on the 7th, 9th, 49th day after the burial and on the first and third
anniversaries of the death.
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HINDUISM: The world's third largest religion
MENU:
HINDUISM
The world's third largest religion
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Overview:
Hinduism differs from Christianity and other Western religions in that it does not have a single founder, a specific
theological system, a single system of morality, or a central religious organization. It consists of "thousands of
different religious groups that have evolved in India since 1500 BCE."
1
Hinduism has grown to become the world's third largest religion, after Christianity and Islam. It claims about 837
million followers - 13% of the world's population. It is the dominant religion in India, Nepal, and among the Tamils
2
in Sri Lanka. According to the "Yearbook of American & Canadian Churches," there are about 1.1 million Hindus in
the U.S. The "American Religious Identification Survey" is believed to be more accurate. They estimated smaller
3
4
number: 766,000 Hindus in 2001. Still, this is a very significant increase from 227,000 in 1990. Statistics Canada
estimates that there are about 157,015 Hindus in Canada.
5
Hinduism is generally regarded as the world's oldest organized religion.
Most forms of Hinduism are henotheistic religions. They recognize a single deity, and view other Gods and
Goddesses as manifestations or aspects of that supreme God. Henotheistic and polytheistic religions have
traditionally been among the world's most religiously tolerant faiths. However, until recently, a Hindu nationalistic
political party controlled the government of India. The linkage of religion, the national government, and nationalism
led to a degeneration of the separation of church and state in India. This, in turn, has decreased the level of religious
tolerance in that country. The escalation of anti-Christian violence was one manifestation of this linkage. With the
recent change in government, the level of violence will diminish.
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HINDUISM: The world's third largest religion
Topics covered in this section:
A general introduction to Hinduism: Name of the religion, early history, sacred texts, beliefs, practices.
Additional information: The caste system, divisions within Hinduism, the forehead mark, Hindu web sites.
Is there a Christ - Krishna linkage?
Were details of Jesus' life copied from legends about Krishna?
Similarities between Krishna and Christ
Christian-Hindu conflicts:
Controversy over a Hindu invocation in Congress
The Southern Baptist prayer guides
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HINDUISM
HINDUISM
A general introduction
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Name of the religion:
This religion is called:
Sanatana Dharma, "eternal religion," and
Vaidika Dharma, "religion of the Vedas," and
Hinduism -- the most commonly used name in North America. Various origins for the
word "Hinduism" have been suggested:
It may be derived from an ancient inscription translated as: "The country lying
between the Himalayan mountain and Bindu Sarovara is known as Hindusthan by
combination of the first letter 'hi' of 'Himalaya' and the last compound letter
'ndu' of the word `Bindu.'" Bindu Sarovara is called the Cape Comorin sea in
modern times.
1
It may be derived from the Persian word for Indian.
It may be a Persian corruption of the word Sindhu (the river Indus)
It was a name invented by the British administration in India during colonial
times.
Early history of Hinduism:
Beliefs about the early development of Hinduism are currently in a state of flux:
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HINDUISM
The classical theory of the origins of Hinduism traces the religion's roots to the Indus
valley civilization circa 4000 to 2200 BCE. The development of Hinduism was influenced
by many invasions over thousands of years. The major influences occurred when lightskinned, nomadic "Aryan" Indo-European tribes invaded Northern India (circa 1500 BCE)
from the steppes of Russia and Central Asia. They brought with them their religion of
Vedism. These beliefs mingled with the more advanced, indigenous Indian native
beliefs, often called the "Indus valley culture.". This theory was initially proposed by
Christian scholars in the 19th century. Their conclusions were biased by their preexisting belief in the Hebrew Scriptures (Old Testament). The Book of Genesis, which
they interpreted literally, appears to place the creation of the earth at circa 4,000
BCE, and the Noahic flood at circa 2,500 BCE. These dates put severe constraints on the
date of the "Aryan invasion," and the development of the four Veda and Upanishad
Hindu religious texts. A second factor supporting this theory was their lack of
appreciation of the sophisticated nature of Vedic culture; they had discounted it as
primitive. 2 The classical theory is now being rejected by increasing numbers of
archeologists and religious historians. The originators of the theory were obviously
biased by their prior beliefs about the age of the earth and the biblical story of the
flood of Noah.
Emerging theory: The Aryan Invasion view of ancient Indian history has been
challenged in recent years by new conclusions based on more recent findings in
archaeology, cultural analysis, astronomical references, and literary analysis.
Archeologists, including Jim Schaffer and David Frawley, have established convincing
arguments for this new interpretation. Archeological digs have revealed that the Indus
3
Valley culture lasted from about 3500 to 1800 BCE. It was not "destroyed by outside
invasion, but...[by] internal causes and, most likely, floods." The "dark age" that was
believed to have followed the Aryan invasion may never have happened. A series of
cities in India have been studied by archeologists and shown to have a level of
civilization between that of the Indus culture and later more highly developed Indian
culture, as visited by the Greeks. Finally, Indus Valley excavations have uncovered
many remains of fire altars, animal bones, potsherds, shell jewelry and other evidences
of Vedic rituals. "In other words there is no racial evidence of any such Indo-Aryan
invasion of India but only of a continuity of the same group of people who traditionally
considered themselves to be Aryans...The Indo-Aryan invasion as an academic concept
in 18th and 19th century Europe reflected the cultural milieu of the period. Linguistic
data were used to validate the concept that in turn was used to interpret
archeological and anthropological data." "There was no invasion by anyone."
2
7
During the first few centuries CE, many sects were created, each dedicated to a specific
deity. Typical among these were the Goddesses Shakti and Lakshmi, and the Gods Skanda and
Surya.
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HINDUISM
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Sacred texts:
Hindu sacred texts are perhaps the most ancient religious texts still surviving today. Some
appear to be millennia older than the Hebrew Scriptures (Old Testament) which conservative
Christians date to circa 1500 BCE and liberal scholars date to circa 900 BCE.
The primary sacred texts of Hinduism are the Vedas: the Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur
Veda and Atharva Veda. The Vedas contain hymns, incantations, and rituals from
ancient India. The Rig Veda (a.k.a. Rigveda) may be the oldest of the four. Estimates
4
of its date of composition in oral form range from 1500 BCE to 4000 BCE. The Yajur and
Atharva Vedas refer to the vernal equinox having occurred in the Pleiades constellation
-- an event dating from about 2500 BCE.
The date when the Vedas were placed in written form is unknown. Various dates from
600 to after 300 BCE have been suggested.
The Upanishadas deal with Vedic philosophy and form the conclusions of each of
the Vedas. "They elaborate on how the soul (Atman) can be united with the
ultimate truth (Brahman) through contemplation and mediation, as well as the
doctrine of Karma-- the cumulative effects of a persons' actions."
4
An important text is the Ramayana. Various sources have dated it to:
The first century CE in written form, based on oral traditions dating back six or
seven centuries earlier.
4
4th century BCE in written form, based on oral traditions dating back to 1500
BCE.
6
4000 BCE in oral form, based on astronomical constellations and other features
mentioned.
6
It is "a moving love story with moral and spiritual themes that has deep appeal in India
to this day" concerning the exploits of the hero Rama who is viewed as an avatar of
6
Vishnu, and as "...a principal deity in his own right."
attributed to the poet Valmiki.
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7
The written form has been
HINDUISM
The Mahabharata is a group of books attributed to the sage Vyasa. They have been
variously dated as having been composed between 540 and 300 BCE, between 200 BCE
and 2000 CE, the to the 15th century BCE. They record "the legends of the Bharatas,
one of the Aryan tribal groups." The Bhagavad Gita is the sixth book of the
Mahabharata. It is a poem describing a conversation between a warrior Arjuna and the
God Krishna. It is an ancient text that has become a main sacred text of Hinduism and
other belief systems.
Other texts include the Brahmanas, the Sutras, Puranas, and the Aranyakas.
Many of these sacred texts are available online.
4
One web site has a search engine available.
5
Hindu beliefs and practices:
Categorizing the religion of Hinduism is somewhat confusing:
Hinduism has commonly been viewed in the west as a polytheistic religion - one which
worships multiple deities: gods and goddesses. Although a widespread belief, this is not
particularly accurate.
Some have viewed it as a monotheistic religion, because it recognizes only one
supreme God: the panentheistic principle of Brahman, that all reality is a unity. The
entire universe is seen as one divine entity who is simultaneously at one with the
universe and who transcends it as well.
Some view Hinduism as Trinitarian because Brahman is simultaneously visualized as a
triad -- one God with three persons:
Brahma the Creator who is continuing to create new realities
Vishnu, (Krishna) the Preserver, who preserves these new creations. Whenever
dharma (eternal order, righteousness, religion, law and duty) is threatened,
Vishnu travels from heaven to earth in one of ten incarnations.
Shiva, the Destroyer, is at times compassionate, erotic and destructive.
Strictly speaking, most forms of Hinduism are henotheistic; they recognize a single
deity, and recognizes other gods and goddesses as facets, forms, manifestations, or
aspects of that supreme God.
Most urban Hindus follow one of two major divisions within Hinduism:
Vaishnavaism: which generally regards Vishnu as the ultimate deity
Shivaism: which generally regards Shiva as the ultimate deity.
However, many rural Hindus worship their own village goddess or an earth goddess. She is
believed to rule over fertility and disease -- and thus over life and death. The priesthood is
less important in rural Hinduism: non-Brahmins and non-priests often carry out ritual and
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HINDUISM
prayer there.
Hindus believe in the repetitious Transmigration of the Soul. This is the transfer of one's soul
after death into another body. This produces a continuing cycle of birth, life, death and
rebirth through their many lifetimes. It is called samsara. Karma is the accumulated sum of
ones good and bad deeds. Karma determines how you will live your next life. Through pure
acts, thoughts and devotion, one can be reborn at a higher level. Eventually, one can escape
samsara and achieve enlightenment. Bad deeds can cause a person to be reborn as a lower
level, or even as an animal. The unequal distribution of wealth, prestige, suffering are thus
seen as natural consequences for one's previous acts, both in this life and in previous lives.
Hindus organize their lives around certain activities or "purusharthas." These are called the
"four aims of Hinduism," or "the doctrine of the fourfold end of life." They are:
The three goals of the "pravritti," those who are in the world, are:
dharma: righteousness in their religious life. This is the most important of the
three.
artha: success in their economic life; material prosperity.
kama: gratification of the senses; pleasure; sensual, sexual, and mental
enjoyment.
The main goal for the "nivritti," those who renounce the world. is:
moksa: Liberation from "samsara." This is considered the supreme goal of
mankind.
Meditation is often practiced, with Yoga being the most common. Other activities include
daily devotions, public rituals, and puja, a ceremonial dinner for a God.
Hinduism has a deserved reputation of being highly tolerant of other religions. Hindus have a
saying: "Ekam Sataha Vipraha Bahudha Vadanti," which may be translated: "The truth is One,
but different Sages call it by Different Names"
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References:
1. "Origin of 'Hindu'," at: http://www.hindunet.org/
2. David Frawley, "The myth of the Aryan invasion of India," at: http://www.hindunet.
org/
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HINDUISM
HINDUISM
Additional information
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The caste system:
Although the caste system was abolished by law in 1949, it remains a significant force
throughout India.
Each follower of Hinduism belonged to one of the thousands of Jats (communities) that
existed in India. The Jats were grouped into four Varna (social castes), plus a fifth group
called the "untouchables." A person's Jat determined the range of jobs or professions from
which they could choose. Marriages normally took place within the same Jat. There were rules
that prohibited persons of different groups from eating, drinking or even smoking with each
other. People were once able to move from one Varna to another. However, at some time in
the past (estimates range from about 500 BCE to 500 CE), the system became rigid, so that a
person was generally born into the Jat and Varna of their parents, and died in the same group.
"The caste system splits up society into a multitude of little communities, for every caste,
1
and almost every local unit of a caste, has its own peculiar customs and internal regulations."
2 The Rigveda defined four castes. In decreasing status, they are normally:
Brahmins (the priests and academics)
Kshatriyas (rulers, military)
Vaishyas (farmers, landlords, and merchants)
Sudras (peasants, servants, and workers in non-polluting jobs).
The Dalit were outcasts who did not belong to one of the castes. Until the late 1980's they
were called Harijan (children of God). They worked in what are considered polluting jobs.
They were untouchable by the four castes; in some areas of the country, even a contact with
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HINDUISM
their shadow by a member of the Varnas was considered polluting.
Practicing untouchability or discriminating against a person because of their caste is now
illegal. The caste system has lost much of its power in urban areas; however it tradition is
largely unchanged in some rural districts. The government has instituted positive
discrimination in order to help the Dalit and lower castes.
Many Dalit have left Hinduism in recent years. This has sometimes been motivated by a desire
to escape the caste system. On 2001-NOV-4, one million low-caste Dalits were scheduled to
meet in Delhi, India, for a mass conversion to Buddhism. According to Gospel for Asia, Dalits
feel that: "The only way for our people to find freedom from 3,000 years of slavery is to quit
Hinduism and Castism and embrace another faith." Mass conversions to Christianity have also
occurred.
3
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Hindu sects and denominations:
About 80% of Hindus are Vaishnavites, who worship Lord Vishnu. Others follow various reform
movements or neo-Hindu sects.
Various sects of Hinduism have evolved into separate religious movements, including Hare
Krishna, Sikhism and Theosophy. Transcendental Meditation was derived from a Hindu
technique of meditation. The New Age movement has borrowed many of its concepts from
Hinduism.
What does the mark on the forehead mean?
The colored dot is variously referred to as a "tilaka," "bottu," "bindiya," "kumkum," or "bindi."
It is a sign of piety, and a reveals to other people that the wearer is a Hindu. It symbolizes the
third eye -- the one focused inwards toward God. Both men and women wear it, although the
practice among men is gradually going out of style. In the past, many unmarried women wore
black marks, whereas many married women wore red. But in recent times, women often wear
dots that match the color of their saris.
4
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The religion of Islam
MENU:
ISLAM
The second largest world religion...and growing.
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Quotations:
"The messenger of Allah said: "Islam is to testify that there is no god but Allah and Muhammad is the
messenger of Allah, to perform the prayers, to pay the zakat, to fast in Ramadhan, and to make the
pilgrimage to the House if you are able to do so." He said: " You have spoken rightly", Jebreel (Gabriel) from
Number 2 of "Al-Nawawi's Forty Hadiths."
1
"If anyone harms (others), God will harm him, and if anyone shows hostility to others, God will show hostility
to him." Sunan of Abu-Dawood, Hadith 1625.
"Jim Jones, David Koresh and Meir Kahane do not typify Christianity and Judaism in the eyes of the civilized
West, but those same eyes are prone to see Osama bin Laden and Mullah Muhammad Omar as typifying
Islam," Richard Bulliet
2
About Islam:
Estimates of the total number of Muslims range from 0.7 to 1.2 billion worldwide and 1.1 to 7 million in the U.S.
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3
The religion of Islam
About 21% of all people on earth follow Islam. The religion is currently in a period of rapid growth.
Christianity is currently the largest religion in the world. It is followed by about 33% of all people -- a percentage that
has remained stable for decades. If current trends continue, Islam will become the most popular world religion
sometime in the mid-21st century.
Topics included in this section:
About Islam:
"The Truth About Islam": A description in about 600 words
Introduction to Islam:
Part 1: Its origin, Muhammad, texts, beliefs, etc.
Part 2: Its practices, schools, holy days, etc.
Comparing the beliefs of Islam and Christianity
Comparing their growth rates
How many Muslims are there in the U.S. and in the rest of the world?
Books, web sites, and web rings
Links to web sites featuring clothing, cards, etc.
Quotations:
Quotations from the Qur'an
Hadiths: sayings of Muhammad
Comparison of Qur'an verses with the Hebrew Scriptures' Ten Commandments
Beliefs and Practices:
Apostasy (Irtidãd) -- abandoning Islam
Status of women:
Female genital mutilation among Animists, Christians, and Muslims
The role of women in predominately Muslim countries
The Hajj -- pilgrimage to Mecca
The significance of Eid-Ul-Adha
Holy days of Islam -- seasonal days of observance and celebration
Homosexuality
The concept of Jihad
Paradise: life after death
When is killing innocent humans permitted? Terrorist attacks and the principle of tattarrus
Punishment for non-marital sex
The fast of Ramadan
Tolerance items:
Accommodating Islamic prayers in public schools
Senate/House resolutions promoting religious tolerance towards Muslims.
A prayer for peace and unity
Why do "they" hate the West?
"Terror has no faith" An essay by Ibraham Hooper of CAIR
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The religion of Islam
Conflicts:
Verbal attacks on Muslims by Fundamentalist and other conservative Christian leaders
Beliefs about Islam by the American public
Is Islam a religion of violence or peace?
Hate crimes against Muslims and mosques
Sharia law as practiced in Ontario
A joint Senate/House resolution promoting religious tolerance towards Muslims.
A book about Islam on the University of Northern California reading list
Terrorist attacks in America 2001-SEP-11, not by typical Muslims, but by extremist, radical,
fundamentalist, Muslim terrorists.
The Washington-area sniper
Al Qaeda's beheading of Paul Johnson in Saudi Arabia
An excerpt about Iran from a book by Reza Aslan titled "No god but God"
A sampling of fatwas and other statements during 2005 condemning terrorist acts
Radical Muslim group(s) in U.S. Prisons
Religious terms:
"Fundamentalism" within Christianity and Islam
Names given to the "Holy Land"
Religious terms used to refer to Islam and Muslims
In addition to the above, we have short passages on:
Virgin birth of Jesus (pbuh)
Jesus' (pbuh) sinlessness
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Introduction to Islam
INTRODUCTION TO ISLAM
PART 1
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Quotations:
"The best jihad [struggle] is (by) the one who strives against his own self for Allah, The Mighty and
Majestic," by the Prophet Muhammad. More info on "jihad."
1
"It is a declaration of the truth and light to show the right path. It is the wise, the complete exhortation
and a clear message...it is the embodiment of the fairest statements and Divine words of wisdom." Islamic
scholar Abdur Rahman I. Doi, referring to the Qur'an
2
"[T]his is nothing but a manifestation of injustice, oppression and tyranny...and it is amongst the greatest
of sins." Sheik Abdul-Azeez Aal ash-Sheik, grand mufti of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and head of the
Council of Senior Scholars, speaking about the 9-11 terrorist attack.
3
Topics discussed in this essay:
Origin of Islam
About Muhammad (pbuh)
About Islam
Important Texts
Beliefs
Origin of Islam:
The name of this religion, Islam, is derived from the Arabic word "salam," which is often interpreted as meaning
"peace." However "submission" would be a better translation. A Muslim is a follower of Islam. "Muslim" is an Arabic
word that refers to a person who submits themselves to the will of God. Many Muslims are offended by the
phrases "Islamic terrorist" or "Muslim terrorist," which have been observed so often in the media; they are viewed
as oxymorons.
Most religious historians view Islam as having been founded in 622 CE by Muhammad the Prophet (peace be upon
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Introduction to Islam
him).* He lived from about 570 to 632 CE). The religion started in Mecca, when the angel Jibril (a.k.a. Jibreel;
Gabriel in English) read the first revelation to Muhammad (pbuh). (Mohammed and Muhammed (pbuh) are
alternate spellings for his name.) Islam is the youngest of the world's very large religions -- those with over 300
million members -- which include Christianity, Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism.
* Muslims traditionally acknowledge respect for Muhammad, Jesus and other prophets (peace be upon them) by
adding this phrase or an abbreviation "(pbuh)" after their names.
However, many if not most of the followers of Islam believe that:
Islam existed before Muhammad (pbuh) was born,
The origins of Islam date back to the creation of the world, and
Muhammad (pbuh) was the last and by far the greatest of a series of Prophets.
Followers of Islam are called Muslims. "Allah" is an Arabic word which means "the One True God." An alternate
spelling for "Muslim" that is occasionally used is "Moslim"; it is not recommended because it is often pronounced
"mawzlem": which sounds like an Arabic word for "oppressor". Some Western writers in the past have referred to
Islam as "Mohammedism"; this is deeply offensive to many Muslims, as its usage can lead some to the concept that
Muhammad the Prophet (pbuh) was in some way divine.
About Muhammad (pbuh) :
Unlike other great religious leaders, like the Buddha, Moses, and Yeshua of Nazareth (Jesus Christ), Muhammad
was born relatively recently, in the late 7th century CE. Omid Safi, assistant professor of religion and philosophy
at Colgate University, commented that Muhammad was probably the first religious leader to rise up in the full
glare of history.
6
Many unusual events have been recorded about Muhammad's (pbuh) birth and childhood:
His mother said "When he was born, there was a light that issued out of my pudendum and lit the places
of Syria."
Also at the time of his birth, "...fourteen galleries of Kisra's palace cracked and rolled down, the Magians'
sacred fire died down and some churches on Lake Sawa sank down and collapsed."
His foster family had many experiences of amazingly good luck while he was in their care.
As a young child, the angel Jibril visited the boy, ripped his chest open, removed his heart, extracted a
blood clot from it, and returned him to normalcy.
4
While still young, he was sent into the desert to be raised by a foster family. This was a common practice at the
time. He was orphaned at the age of 6 and brought up by his uncle. As a child, he worked as a shepherd. He was
taken on a caravan to Syria by his uncle at the age of 9 (or perhaps 12). Later, as a youth, he was employed as a
camel driver on the trade routes between Syria and Arabia. Muhammad (pbuh) later managed caravans on behalf
of merchants. He met people of different religious beliefs on his travels, and was able to observe and learn about
Judaism, Christianity and the indigenous Pagan religions.
After marriage, he was able to spend more time in meditation. At the age of 40, (610 CE), he was visited in Mecca
by the angel Gabriel. He developed the conviction that he had been ordained a Prophet and given the task of
converting his countrymen from their pagan, polytheistic beliefs and what he regarded as moral decadence,
idolatry, hedonism and materialism.
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Introduction to Islam
He met considerable opposition to his teachings. In 622 CE he moved north to Medina due to increasing
persecution. The trek is known as the hegira. Here he was disappointed by the rejection of his message by the
Jews. Through religious discussion, persuasion, military activity and political negotiation, Muhammad (pbuh)
became the most powerful leader in Arabia, and Islam was firmly established throughout the area.
About Islam:
By 750 CE, Islam had expanded to China, India, along the Southern shore of the Mediterranean and into Spain. By
1550 they had reached Vienna. Wars resulted, expelling Muslims from Spain and Europe. Since their trading routes
were mostly over land, they did not an develop extensive sea trade (as for example the English and Spaniards). As
a result, the old world occupation of North America was left to Christians.
Believers are currently concentrated from the West coast of Africa to the Philippines. In Africa, in particular,
they are increasing in numbers, largely at the expense of Christianity.
Many do not look upon Islam as a new religion. They feel that it is in reality the faith taught by the ancient
Prophets, Abraham, David, Moses and Jesus (Peace be upon them). Muhammad's (pbuh) role as the last of the
Prophets was to formalize and clarify the faith and to purify it by removing foreign ideas that had been added in
error.
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Important texts:
There are two main texts consulted by Muslims:
the Qur'an (Recitation) are the words of God. Muslims believe that it was revealed to Muhammad by the
archangel Jibril. This was originally in oral and written form; they were later assembled together into a
single book, the Qur'an. Its name is often spelled "Koran" in English. This is not recommended, as some
Muslims find it offensive.
The Hadith, which are collections of the sayings of Muhammad (pbuh). They are regarded as the Sunnah
(lived example) of Muhammad. The Quran gives legitimacy to the Hadith. It states: "Nor does he say aught
of his own desire. It is no less than inspiration sent down to him" (53:3-4). However, the writings are not
regarded as having the same status as the Holy Qur'an; the latter is considered to be God's word. The great
Islamic scholar Yahya bin Sharaf Ul-Deen An-Nawawi compiled a collection of 43 sayings of Prophet
Muhammad (PBUH). It is is now known as "Al-Nawawi's Forty Hadiths"
5
Islamic beliefs:
Islam considers six fundamental beliefs to be the foundation of their faith:
1. A single, indivisible God. (God, the creator, is just, omnipotent and merciful. "Allah" is often
used to refer to God; it is the Arabic word for God.)
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Introduction to Islam
2. The angels.
3. The divine scriptures, which include the Torah, the Psalms, the rest of the Bible, (as they
were originally revealed) and the Qur'an (which is composed of God's words, dictated by the
Archangel Gabriel to Muhammad).
4. The Messengers of God, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, David, Jesus and Muhammad
-- the last prophet; (peace be upon them). Muhammad's message is considered the final,
universal message for all of humanity.
5. The Day of Judgment when people will be judged on the basis of their deeds while on earth,
and will either attain reward of Heaven or punishment in Hell. They do not believe that Jesus
or any other individual can atone for another person's sin. Hell is where unbelievers and
sinners spend eternity. One translation of the Qur'an, 98:1-8, states: "The unbelievers among
the People of the Book and the pagans shall burn for ever in the fire of Hell. They are the
vilest of all creatures." ("People of the Book" refers to Christians, Jews and Muslims). Paradise
is a place of physical and spiritual pleasure where the sinless go after death
6. The supremacy of God's will.
Other beliefs include:
God did not have a son.
Jesus (pbuh) is a prophet, born of the Virgin Mary. They regard the Christian concept of the deity of
Jesus (pbuh) to be blasphemous; it is seen as a form of polytheism.
Jesus (pbuh) was not executed on the cross. He escaped crucifixion and was taken up into Paradise.
The existence of Satan drives people to sin.
Muslims who sincerely repent and submit to God return to a state of sinlessness.
All people are considered children of Adam. Islam officially rejects racism.
All children are born on Al-Fitra (a pure, natural state of submission to Islam). His parents
sometimes make him Christian, Jewish, etc.
When a child reaches puberty an account of their deeds is opened in Paradise. When the person
dies, their eventual destination (Paradise or Hell) depends on the balance of their good deeds
(helping others, testifying to the truth of God, leading a virtuous life) and their bad deeds.
Alcohol, illegal drugs, eating of pork, etc. are to be avoided.
Gambling is to be avoided.
Please continue to Part 2 of this topic
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References used:
1. "Jihad explained," by the Institute of Islamic Information and Education at: http://www.irshad.org/
2. Abdur Rahman I. Doi. Sharia, "The Islamic Law," Ta Ha Publishers, (1984), Page 21.
3. "Shaykh 'Abdul-'Azeez Aal ash-Shaykh says attacks are an 'oppression, injustice and tyranny...' ," 2001-SEP17, at: http://www.fatwa-online.com/news/
4. "His birth," at: http://www.geocities.com/ No longer online.
5. Yahya bin Sharaf Ul-Deen An-Nawawi , "Al-Nawawi's Forty Hadiths" at: http://www.dartmouth.edu/ No
longer online.
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Introduction to Islam
INTRODUCTION TO ISLAM
PART 2
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Continued from Part 1 of this topic
Topics discussed in this essay:
Practices
Holy days
Beliefs about Jesus
Schools within Islam
The Egypt Air tragedy
Deviations from Islam
Criticisms of Islam
References
Practices:
A Muslim's duties as described in the Five Pillars of Islam are:
1. To recite at least once during their lifetime the shahadah (the creed: "There is no God but
God and Muhammad is his Prophet"). Most Muslims repeat it at least daily.
2. To perform the salat (prayer) 5 times a day, if possible. This is recited while orienting one's
body with qibia (the shorter of the two great circle routes towards the Kaaba at Mecca) This is
generally North East in the U.S. The five prayers are:
4
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Introduction to Islam
Fajr (Morning Prayer) which is performed some time
between the break of dawn and just before sunrise.
Zuhr (Noon Prayer) offered from just after midday to
afternoon.
'Asr (Afternoon Prayer) offered from late afternoon until
just before sunset
Maghrib (Sunset Prayer) offered between sunset and
darkness
Isha (Night Prayer) offered at night time, often just before
sleeping.
1
3. To donate regularly to charity through zakat. This is a 2.5% charity tax on the income and
property of middle and upper class Muslims. Believers are urged to make additional donations
to the needy as they feel moved.
4. to fast during the lunar month of Ramadan. This is believed to be the month that Muhammad
(pbuh) received the first revelation of the Qur'an from God.
5. if economically and physically able, to make at least one hajj (pilgrimage) to Mecca.
Jihad (struggle) is probably the most misunderstood religious word in existence. It often mentioned on
Western TV and radio during news about the Middle East, where it is implied to be a synonym of "holy war"
- a call to fight against non-Muslims in the defense of Islam. The vast majority of Muslims have an entirely
different definition of Jihad. It is seen as a personal, internal struggle with one's self. The goal may be
achievement in a profession, self-purification, the conquering of primitive instincts or the attainment of
some other noble goal. 2 More details.
Calendar: Muslims follow a lunar calendar which started with the hegira, a 300 mile trek in 622 CE when
Muhammad (pbuh) relocated from Mecca to Medina. Al-Hijra/Muharram is the Muslim New Year, the
beginning of the first lunar month. The beginning of the year 1434H occurred on 2002-MAR-15 of the
Gregorian calendar.
Separation of church and state: Originally, in Islamic countries, there was no separation between religious
and civil law, between Islam and the state. Muhammad and his successors were both religious and political
leaders. Turkey became a secular state during the 20th century. This is a controversial move in
conservative Islamic circles.
Proselytizing: Muslims are not required to actively recruit others to Islam. In the Qur'an, Allah told
Muhammad that "You certainly cannot guide whomever you please; It is Allah who guides whom He will.
He best knows those who accept guidance." (28:56). Muslims are expected to explain Islam to followers of
other faiths, but it is up to Allah to guide those whom he wishes to.
Suicide: This is forbidden. The Qur'an clearly states: "Do not kill yourselves as God has been to you very
merciful" (4:29). Only Allah is to take a life. Since death must be left up to Allah, physician assisted suicide
is not allowed. On the other hand, Muslim physicians are not "encouraged to artificially prolong the misery
[of a person who is] in a vegetative state."
5
Islamic holy days:
The main holy days are listed below. They are scheduled according to a lunar calendar and thus happen about
eleven days earlier each month.
Al-Hijra/Muharram is the Muslim New Year, the beginning of the first lunar month.
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Introduction to Islam
'Ashura recalls an event circa 680-OCT-20 CE in Iraq when an army of the Umayyad regime martyred a
group of 70 individuals who refused to submit to the Caliph. One of the martyrs was Imam Husain, the
youngest grandson of Prophet Muhammad.
Mawlid al-Nabi is a celebration of the birthday of the Prophet Muhammad, the founder of Islam in 570 CE.
"The Mawlid al-Nabi was first observed around the thirteenth century and was preceded by a month of
celebration. The actual day of Muhammad's birthday included a sermon, recitation of litanies, honoring of
religious dignitaries, gift giving, and a feast. The festival spread throughout the Muslim world and is
celebrated in many countries today. However, some conservative sects (e.g., the Wahhabiyah) consider
the celebration to be idolatrous."
Ramadan is the holiest period in the Islamic year; it is held during the entire 9th lunar month of the year.
This was the month in which the Qura'n was revealed to the Prophet Muhammad. The first day of Ramadan
is listed above. It is a time at which almost all Muslims over the age of 12 are expected to fast from sunup
to sundown.
Id al-Fitr (a.k.a. "'Id") is the first day of the 10th month -- i.e. the day after the end of Ramadan. It is a
time of rejoicing. Houses are decorated; Muslims buy gifts for relatives.
Id al-Adha (a.k.a. the Feast of Sacrifice or Day of Sacrifice) occurs during the 12th month of the Islamic
year. This is the season of the Haj (pilgrimage to Mecca). It recalls the day when Abraham intended to
follow the instructions of God, and sacrifice his son Ishmael. (This is not a typo; Muslims believe that
Abraham was prepared to sacrifice his elder son Ishmael; Judeo-Christians believe that Isaac was involved
in the near sacrifice).
The dates for the past, current, and future years are listed elsewhere on this web site.
Beliefs about Jesus (pbuh), within Islam and Christianity:
Traditional Christians and Muslims have certain beliefs in common concerning Jesus (pbuh). They both accept
that:
His birth was miraculous.
He was the Messiah.
He cured people of illness.
He restored dead people to life.
However, they differ from Christians in a number of major areas. Muslims do not believe:
In original sin (that everyone inherits a sinful nature because of Adam and Eve's transgression)
That Jesus (pbuh) was killed during a crucifixion. Muslims believe that he escaped being executed, and
later reappeared to his disciples without having first died.
That Jesus (pbuh) was resurrected (or resurrected himself) circa 30 CE.
Salvation is dependent either upon belief in the resurrection of Jesus (pbuh) (as in Paul's writings) or belief
that Jesus (pbuh) is the Son of God (as in the Gospel of John).
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Schools within Islam:
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Introduction to Islam
There are different schools of jurisprudence within Islam. The main divisions are:
Sunni Muslims: These are followers of the Hanifa, Shafi, Hanibal and Malik schools. They constitute a 90%
majority of the believers, and are considered to be main stream traditionalists. Because they are
comfortable pursuing their faith within secular societies, they have been able to adapt to a variety of
national cultures, while following their three sources of law: the Qur'an, Hadith and consensus of Muslims.
Shi'ite Muslims: These are followers of the Jafri school who constitute a small minority of Islam. They split
from the Sunnis over a dispute about the successor to Muhammad (pbuh). Their leaders promote a strict
interpretation of the Qur'an and close adherence to its teachings. They believe in 12 heavenly Imams
(perfect teachers) who led the Shi'ites in succession. Shi'ites believe that the 12th Imam, the Mahdi (guided
one), never died but went into hiding waiting for the optimum time to reappear and guide humans towards
justice and peace.
Sufism: This is a mystic tradition in which followers seek inner knowledge directly from God through
meditation and ritual and dancing. They developed late in the 10th century CE as an ascetic reaction to the
formalism and laws of the Qur'an. There are Sufis from both the Sunni and Shi'ite groups. However, some
Sunni followers to not consider Sufiism as a valid Islamic practice. They incorporated ideas from
Neoplatonism, Buddhism, and Christianity. They emphasize personal union with the divine. In the Middle
East, some Sufi traditions are considered to be a separate school of Islam. In North and sub-Saharan Africa,
Sufism is more a style and an approach rather than a separate school.
Islam does not have denominational mosques. Members are welcome to attend any mosque in any land.
The Egypt Air tragedy:
An Egypt Air airliner crashed of the east coast of New England, with the loss of all of the lives on board. The
cause of the crash is unknown; some people suggested that an officer on the plane had committed suicide, thus
murdering all of the occupants. The co-pilot allegedly recited the "Shahada" shortly before the plane descended.
Shahada means "testimony." It states: "There is no god but God, and Muhammad is his messenger." This was
described by some uninformed media writers as "a Muslim death prayer." It is not. The Shahada is a prayer
recited by many Muslims every day. It affirms the unity of God, and that Muhammad (pbuh) is His Prophet. It is no
more a death prayer than is the Christian Lord's prayer.
Deviations from Islam:
There are over 70 other groups which originated within Islam and broke away from the Sunni or Shi'ite faith
communities. Some are:
Baha'i World Faith: This religion attempts to integrate all of the world religions. It was originally a breakaway sect from Islam but has since grown to become a separate religion. Members are heavily persecuted
in some Muslim countries because they are regarded as apostates to the true Muslim faith. Oppression is
particularly heavy in Iran.
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Introduction to Islam
Ahmadis: Followers of the Ahmadiyya Movement believe that God sent Ahmad as a Messiah, "a messenger
of His in this age who has claimed to have come in the spirit and power of Jesus Christ. He has come to
call all people around one Faith, i.e. Islam..."
The movement's founder was Hazrat Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1835-1908). He was born in Qadian, India. He
felt that he had a mandate from God to correct a serious error within Christianity. Most Christians believe
that Jesus (pbuh) is a member of the Godhead. "...because Jesus, whom God sent as a Messiah to the
Israelites was taken for a God, Divine jealousy ordained that another man [Ahmad] should be sent as
Messiah so that the world may know that the first Messiah was nothing more than a weak mortal."
After his death, the community elected a series of Khalifas (successors). The current and "Fourth Successor
(Khalifatul Masih IV), to the Promised Messiah was chosen in the person of Hazrat Mirza Tahir Ahmad" on
1982-JUN-10.
The Ahmadiyya Community currently has more than 10 million members worldwide. They prefer to call
themselves "Muslims of the Amadiyya sect." They are very heavily persecuted in Pakistan. They regard
themselves as a reform movement within Islam.
3
Black Muslim Movement (BMM): This is largely a black urban movement in the US. One driving force was a
rejection of Christianity as the religion of the historically oppressing white race. It was started by Wallace
Fard who built the first temple in Detroit. Elijah Muhammad (born Elijah Poole) established a second
temple in Chicago and later supervised the creation of temples in most large cities with significant black
populations. They taught that blacks were racially superior to whites and that a racial war is inevitable.
The charismatic Malcolm X was perhaps their most famous spokesperson; he played an important role in
reversing the BMM's anti-white beliefs. In its earlier years, the movement deviated significantly from
traditional Islamic beliefs (particularly over matters of racial tolerance the status of the BMM leaders as
prophets). This deviation is being reversed.
Criticisms of Islam:
Islam is growing rapidly and is now followed by more than 20% of the world's population. Christianity is not
growing; its popularity has been stuck at about 33% of the worlds population for many decades. It is in decline in
the United States (in terms of "market share"). Christian attacks on Islam are inevitable. Most criticisms are not
well grounded in reality:
Islam is often blamed for female genital mutilation. But it is obvious that FGM is grounded in cultural
tradition, not religious belief, in those countries where it is practiced. In some countries, the mutilation is
practiced by Animists, Christians, and Muslims.
A number of anti-Islamic books have been written recently, criticizing some Islamic countries for lack of
religious tolerance, equality for women, lack of democracy, etc. One of the most famous of these books is
"Why I am Not a Muslim" by Ibn Warraq, an ex-Muslim. Many reviews by readers of this controversial book
are available on-line from the Amazon.com web site. An excellent rebuttal of the book by Jeremiah D.
McAuliffe, Jr., titled "Trends and Flaws in Some Anti-Muslim Writing as Exemplified by Ibn Warraq" is at:
http://idt.net/~balboa19/warraq/warraq1a.html
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Introduction to Islam
Some conservative Christian web sites include attacks on Islam. They base their position on the inerrancy
of the Bible, and their belief that Christianity is the only valid religion. An essay by Ric Llewellyn at http://
www.seafox.com/islam.html is typical. He makes heavy use of emotionally loaded, judgmental terms, such
as: false religion, false doctrines, dubious beginnings, fanaticism, irrational, accursed, religious bondage,
cults, wicked doctrines, etc. It is our belief that these attacks are counter-productive. The main result of
these web pages is to demonstrate the degree of intolerance and hatred held by their Webmasters; this
does not reflect well on Christianity.
The media has historically disseminated a very negative image of Islam. It overwhelmingly reports on the
beliefs and practices of the most conservative wing of the religion. Many non-Muslims are unaware that a
moderate wing even exists in Islam. A number of anti-defamation groups have been organized to combat
these negative portrayals. CAIR, The Council on American-Islamic Relations is a leader in this field.
References:
1. "Correctional Institution's Guide to Islamic Religious Practices," by the Council on American-Islamic
Relations (CAIR). Excerpts are available at: http://www.cair-net.org/downloads/correctionalguide.pdf
2.
3.
4.
5.
You need software to read this file. It can be obtained free from:
"His birth," at: http://www.geocities.com/our_purpose/
Louis Hammann, "Ahmadiyyat: An introduction," at: http://www.alislam.org/introduction/ahmadiyyat.
html
"Calculating Qibla Direction," at: http://www.geocities.com/SiliconValley/
Shadid Athar, "Euthanasia and Physician Assisted Suicide," at: http://islam-usa.com/e2.html
Site navigation: Home page > World Religions > Islam > here
Copyright © 1995 to 2005 by Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance
Last update: 2005-DEC-01
Author: B. A. Robinson
Hyperlinks checked: 2001-OCT-15
Go back to the previous page, or return to the Islamic menu, or choose:
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Comparing and contrasting Christianity and Islam
COMPARING CHRISTIANITY & ISLAM
THE WORLD'S TWO LARGEST RELIGIONS:
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Overview:
Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are three closely related religions. Because they all revere Abraham and certain
other patriarchs mentioned in the Bible as their spiritual ancestors, they are called Abrahamic religions. (The
Baha'i world faith is sometimes also included in this grouping.) However, their many points of similarity are no
guarantee that their followers can get along. Most of the serious religiously motivated conflicts, mass crimes
against humanity and genocides in the 20th century have been between Muslims and Christians. This has included
genocides Bosnia Herzegovina, East Timor, and the Sudan, as well as serious conflicts in Cyprus, Kosovo,
Macedonia, and the Philippines. As of mid-2001, two of these conflicts (Sudan and Philippines) are still active,
and three others are inert only because of peacekeepers on the ground.
It is difficult to compare Christianity to any other religion, because there is such a wide range of beliefs and
practices among various wings of Christianity: Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodox churches, the Anglican
communion and the tens of thousands of Protestant faith groups. Some commentators have suggested that
Christianity consists of a number of different religions which share little more than the Bible and the name of
their religion. Protestant Christianity is obviously divided into a least liberal and conservative wings -- divisions
which hold few beliefs in common. Some of the descriptions below will thus necessarily be somewhat simplistic
and lacking in precision.
About the religions themselves:
Name of the religion:
Christianity
Islam
Meaning of the name:
Believer in Christ (a Greek word
meaning Messiah).
Submission to the will of God.
Christian.
Muslim.
Name of a believer:
Date of founding:
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circa 30 CE.
1
622 CE.
2
Comparing and contrasting Christianity and Islam
Name of founder(s):
Yeshua of Nazareth (aka Jesus
Christ, (pbuh) & Paul.
3
% of world's population as followers:
Worldwide growth rate in numbers
of members
4
Growth rate: % of world's
population:
Estimated year when Islam will
become the most popular world
religion:
Most religious historians credit
Muhammad (pbuh) as the founder.
However, Muslims generally regard
Islam as dating back to the time of
creation
33%.
20%.
2.3%/year.
2.9%/yr.
About 0.0%/year. Numbers have
been steady for decades.
3
Increase of about 0.6%/yr.
2023 CE (if above numbers are valid) to beyond 2200 CE (as estimated by
some religious futurists)
2001 ARIS study estimates 76%,
declining about 0.8% a year.
2001 ARIS study estimates 0.5%;
some Muslim groups estimate 6
million (2%).
Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox,
Anglican, Protestant, and others.
Shi'ite, Sunni, Sufi. Sufi is a mystical
tradition.
Christianity
Islam
Most believe in the Trinity; three
persons in one Godhead: Father,
Son and Holy Spirit.
God (Allah) is one and indivisible.
They believe in a strict monotheism.
"Allah" means God in Arabic.
Status of Yeshua of Nazareth (Jesus
Christ):
Generally considered the Son of
God, worshiped as God; part of the
Trinity.
Very highly respected as the secondlast prophet.
Birth of Yeshua:
Conservatives: virgin birth; liberals:
normal birth.
Virgin birth.
Death of Yeshua:
Executed by Roman Army circa 30
CE.
Was neither killed nor crucified, nor
suffer death. Muslims believe that he
ascended alive into heaven.
Ascended into Heaven
Ascended into Heaven
Conservatives: expect in near
future. Liberals: varied.
Anticipate the second coming in the
future.
Disobeyed God in the Garden of
Eden.
Free from all major sins and faults.
Some regard him as a prophet.
Bible.
Qur'an.
Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek.
Arabic.
Conservatives: the inerrant Word of
God. Liberals: a historical spiritual
document.
God's word and final revelation,
dictated by angel Gabriel.
% of U.S. population as followers:
Internal divisions:
Beliefs:
Name of the religion:
Concept of deity:
Yeshua's location
Second coming of Jesus
Status of Adam:
Holy book:
Original languages:
Status of the holy book:
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2
Comparing and contrasting Christianity and Islam
Additional guidance:
Writings of the leaders of the early
Church. For Roman Catholics:
church tradition.
Ethic of reciprocity (Golden rule):
"Therefore all things whatsoever ye "Not one of you is a believer until he
would that men should do to you,
loves for his brother what he loves
do ye even so to them." Matthew
for himself." Fourth Hadith of an7:12
Nawawi 13
A baby's status at birth
Conservatives: A baby is born with a
sin nature, separated from God.
God needs to give him grace so that
he may be saved.
All babies are a born in a pure state
of submission to Islam. However, as
they mature they are often taught
other beliefs.
Life after death:
Either Heaven or Hell. Catholics
believe in Purgatory as a third state.
Heaven or Hell.
There is no consensus in
Christianity. Different faith groups
hold Various diverse beliefs:
trusting Jesus as Lord and Savior,
good works, church sacraments,
baptism, avoiding certain actions.
Once they reach puberty, his/her
account of deeds is opened in
Paradise. To attain paradise, at
death, their good deeds (helping
others, testifying to the truth of
God, leading a virtuous life) must
outweigh their evil deeds.
Confessing sins:
Roman Catholic: to a priest; Others:
to God or Jesus
To Allah
Probably the most misunderstood
term:
Immaculate Conception: Roman
Catholics believe that the
conception of the Virgin Mary, circa
20 BCE, was without sin. Many
incorrectly relate it to Yeshua's'
conception.
Jihad: internal, personal struggle
towards the attainment of a noble
goal. Many incorrectly equate it to
"holy war."
Basis of determining destination
after death:
The Hadith -- sayings of Muhammad
(pbuh).
This essay continues below
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Practices:
Christianity
Islam
Ranges from statements of the
Pope in Roman Catholicism to
resolutions at conventions among
Protestants.
Learned scholars in various
countries. There is no single
spokesperson or authoritative group.
Church, cathedral.
Mosque.
Sunday; Saturday for some.
Friday.
Largely considered separate. Most
Christian countries are democracies
Integrated. Most Muslim countries
are dictatorships.
Name of the religion:
Current interpretation of the Holy
Book:
Name of worship center:
Main worship:
Church and state:
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Comparing and contrasting Christianity and Islam
Notes:
1. The Christian church is normally considered to have begun at Pentecost, 50 days after Christians believe
that Jesus was executed. Unfortunately, the year of his death is unknown.
2. Most religious historians view Islam as having been founded in 622 CE. However, many if not most of the
followers of Islam believe that:
Islam existed before Muhammad (pbuh) was born.
The origins of Islam date back to the creation of the world.
3. Muslims traditionally acknowledge respect for Muhammad, Jesus and other prophets (peace be upon them)
by adding this phrase or an abbreviation "(pbuh)" after their names.
4. Greg H. Parsons, Executive Director, "U.S. Center for World Mission," Pasadena, CA; quoted in Zondervan
News Service, 1997-FEB-21.
5. One exception is the Nation of Islam which promotes a black supremacist ideology. For example, leader
Louis Farrakhan stated that "White people are potential humans…they haven’t evolved yet." (Philadelphia
Inquirer, 2000-MAR-18). However, most Muslims do not consider the Nation of Islam to be part of Islam,
because of its unique beliefs about God, humanity and the rest of the universe.
Related menus on this web site:
Religions of the world
Christianity
Islam
Related essays on this web site:
Growth rates of Christianity and Islam
Religious calendars
Useful sources of information:
"The Wisdom Fund's" purpose is to promote truth about Islam. See: http://www.twf.org
"Death of Jesus in Quran 'reasonable and valid," Light & Islamic Review, Vol. 70 #3, 1993-MAY/JUN, Pages 9
& 10. See: http://www.muslim.org/light/93-3.htm
Arif Shamim Khan, "Muslim woman and non-Muslim man," at: http://www.nikahsearch.com/marriage/
Copyright © 2001 to 2005 by Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance
Originally written: 2001-AUG-4
Latest update: 2005-DEC-14
Author: B.A. Robinson
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Mr. Dowling's Islam Page
Home | E-Mail | Download Lessons | Interactive Quiz
Understanding Others | Judaism | Christianity | Islam
Time and Space
Prehistory
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and North Africa
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Communism
Canada
The Caribbean
Mexico and Central
America
South America
Islam
Islam is an
Arabic word
that means
“surrender
to God.”
Believers in
Islam are
called
Muslims, or
“those who
surrender."
Muslims
believe that
Muhammad
was the last
of a series of
holy
prophets
that
included
Abraham,
Moses, and
Jesus. A
prophet is a
holy
messenger.
Christians
believe that
Jesus is
God, while
Muslims
believe
Allah is the
only God
and that
Muhammad
was his
messenger.
Allah is an
Arabic term
that means
"the
God" (alEl).
Muhammad
lived about
600 years
after Jesus
in what we
http://www.mrdowling.com/605-islam.html (1 of 5)2/20/2006 8:18:00 PM
Mr. Dowling's Islam Page
now call
Saudi
Arabia.
Muslims
believe that
Muhammad
was visited
in a cave by
an angel.
Muhammad
repeated the
words of the
angel to
others who
learned
them by
heart.
Eventually,
Mohammad's
followers
collected
these
messages
and gathered
them into a
book known
as the
Quran. The
Quran is the
holy book of
Islam. It has
been
translated
into many
languages,
but many
Muslims
believe that
the only true
version of
the Quran is
written in
Arabic. This
is why
Arabic
spread
throughout
the Middle
East and
North
Africa.
Often
Muslims
will learn
Arabic as a
second
language, as
a Jew would
learn
Hebrew.
The Islamic
house of
worship is a
mosque.
Unlike Jews
and
Christians,
Muslims do
not have a
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Mr. Dowling's Islam Page
holy day,
but many
Muslims
gather in
mosques on
Friday
afternoon
for prayers.
Muhammad
taught that
believers
should pray
five times
every day.
Faithful
Muslims
will stop
whatever
they are
doing and
bow down
to pray.
Mecca is a
holy city to
Muslims
because it is
the site of
the Kaaba, a
small shrine
that
Muslims
believe to be
the most
sacred spot
on earth.
Muslims
orient
themselves
toward the
Kaaba
during their
daily
prayers.
Every
Muslim who
makes the
pilgrimage
to Mecca
walks
around the
Kaaba seven
times.
Islamic
tradition
states that
the stone
was
originally
white, but it
had become
black by
absorbing
the sins of
the millions
of pilgrims
who have
kissed and
touched it.
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Icons of Islam
The crescent, star, and the color green are symbols often
associated with Islam. The star represents knowledge and
light, and the crescent represents progress. You will find
these symbols on the flags of many Muslim nations.
Islamic art includes calligraphy, or decorative
penmanship, but no images of people. The Quran forbids
recreating any living thing because no one should copy what
Allah has made. This is why you will not find a picture of
Muhammad in Islamic literature.
Mr. Dowling's Islam Page
Ramadan is
a sacred
month to
Muslims,
and faithful
Muslims
fast between
dawn and
dusk during
Ramadan.
To fast
means to
abstain from
eating.
Ramadan is
sacred
because it is
the month in
which the
Quran was
revealed to
Muhammad.
Muslims use
a lunar
calendar, so
Ramadan
falls at
different
times each
year.
Ramadan
will begin
November
17, 2001.
There are
more than
one billion
Muslims,
but only five
million live
in the
United
States.
Nations with
large
Muslim
populations
include
Indonesia
(180
million),
Pakistan
(125
million),
Bangladesh
(109
million),
India (84
million),
Iran (66
million),
Egypt (60
million),
Turkey (60
million),
Nigeria (52
million),
Algeria (29
million),
Morocco
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How Do You Spell That?
The Quran is spelled many different ways because it is an
Arabic word. Arabic is written in a different script than
English. The generally accepted spelling for the Quran is
with a 'Q' to represent the glottal 'K' sound. You will often
see the holy book of Islam spelled Qur'ran or Koran. Many
words associated with Islam have more than one accepted
spelling. Muslim is more common than Moslem, and
Mohammad is more common than Muhammad.
Mr. Dowling's Islam Page
(29 million),
Ethiopia (24
million),
Sudan (22
million),
Afghanistan
(22 million),
Iraq (20
million) and
Saudi
Arabia (19
million).
Russia also
has a large
Muslim
population,
but
estimates on
its size vary.
NEXT: The Middle East and North Africa
To cite this page:
Dowling, Mike, "Mr. Dowling's Islam Page," available from http://www.mrdowling.com/605-iWednesday, January
5, 2005 --> --> --> --> --> --> --> --> -->. ©2005, Mike Dowling. All rights reserved.
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Description of Judaism
DESCRIPTION OF
JUDAISM
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The term "G-d" is used in this essay to respect the Jewish prohibition against spelling the name or title of the
deity in full. Dates listed which are prior to the 4th century BCE are approximate.
Early History of Judaism, according to the Hebrew Scriptures:
Circa 2000 BCE, the G-d of the ancient Israelites established a divine covenant with Abraham, making him the
patriarch of many nations. The term Abrahamic Religions is derived from his name. These are the three or four
major religions which trace their roots back to Abraham: Judaism, Christianity, Islam and the Baha'i World Faith.
The Baha'i faith is often not included among the Abramic religions. Also, smaller non-Jewish groups such as
Falashas, Karaits, Mandaeanism, Rastafarians, Samaritans, etc. trace their spiritual roots back to Abraham.
The book of Genesis describes the events surrounding the lives of the three patriarchs: Abraham, Isaac, and
Jacob. (Joseph, who is recognized as a fourth patriarch by Christians is not considered one by Jews). Moses was
the next major leader of the ancient Israelites. He led his people out of captivity in Egypt, and received the
Mosaic Law from G-d. After decades of wandering through wilderness, Joshua led the tribes into the promised
land, driving out the Canaanites through a series of military battles.
The original tribal organization was converted into a kingdom by Samuel; its first king was Saul. The second king,
David, established Jerusalem as the religious and political center. The third king, Solomon built the first temple
there.
Division into the Northern kingdom of Israel and the Southern kingdom of Judah occurred shortly after the death
of Solomon in 922 BCE. Israel fell to Assyria in 722 BCE; Judah fell to the Babylonians in 587 BCE. The temple was
destroyed. Some Jews returned from captivity under the Babylonians and started to restore the temple in 536
BCE. (Orthodox Jews date the Babylonian exile from 422 to 352 BCE). Alexander the Great invaded the area in
332 BCE. From circa 300 to 63 BCE, Greek became the language of commerce, and Greek culture had a major
influence on Judaism. In 63 BCE, the Roman Empire took control of Judea and Israel.
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Description of Judaism
Jewish developments during the 1st century CE:
About 24 religious sects had formed by the 1st century CE of which the largest were the Basusim, Essenes,
Pharisees, Sadducees and Zealots. Many anticipated the arrival of the Messiah, a religious-political-military leader
who was expected to drive out the Roman invaders and restore independence.
Christianity was established initially as a Jewish sect, centered in Jerusalem. The group followed the teachings of
Yeshua of Nazareth, who is now commonly referred to as Jesus Christ. The group was led by James, one of Jesus'
four brothers. They are generally referred to as Jewish Christians. Paul broke with this tradition, created an
alternative belief system of Pauline Christianity and spread the religion to the Gentiles (non-Jews) in much of the
Roman Empire. A third religion, Gnosticism, emerged in a number of forms, such as Christian and Jewish
Gnosticism.
Many mini-revolts led to the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple in 70 CE. The Jewish Christians were wiped
out or scattered at this time. The movement started by Paul flourished and quickly evolved into the religion of
Christianity. Jews were scattered throughout the known world. Their religion was no longer centered in
Jerusalem; Jews were prohibited from setting foot there. Judaism became decentralized and stopped seeking
converts. The local synagogue became the new center of Jewish life. Animal sacrifice was abandoned. Authority
shifted from the centralized priesthood to local scholars and teachers, giving rise to Rabbinic Judaism.
The period from the destruction of the temple onward give rise to heavy persecution by Christians throughout
Europe and Russia. Many groundless stories were spread, accusing Jews of ritual murder, the desecration of the
Catholic host and continuing responsibility for the execution of Jesus . Unsubstantiated rumors continue to be
circulated today. In the 1930s and 1940s, Adolph Hitler and the German Nazi party drew on centuries of Christianbased anti-Semitism, and upon their own psychotic beliefs in racial purity. They organized the Holocaust, the
attempted extermination of all Jews in Europe. About 6 million were killed in one of the world's greatest
examples of religious and racial intolerance.
The Zionist movement was a response within all Jewish traditions to centuries of Christian persecution. Their
initial goal was create a Jewish homeland in Palestine. The state of Israel was formed on 1948-MAY-18.
There are currently about 18 million Jews throughout the world. They are mainly concentrated in North America
(about 7 million) and Israel (about 4.5 million).
Jewish Texts
The Tanakh corresponds to the Jewish Scriptures, (often referred to as the Old Testament by Christians). It is
composed of three groups of books:
the Torah (aka Pentateuch): Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy.
the Nevi'im: Joshua, Judges, Samuel (2), Kings (2), Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah,
Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zachariah, and MalachiIsaiah.
the Ketuvim, the "Writings" including Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, Ruth, Esther,
Lamentations, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, Chronicles (2).
The Talmud contains stories, laws, medical knowledge, debates about moral choices, etc. It is composed of
material which comes mainly from two sources:
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Description of Judaism
the Mishnah's, 6 "orders" containing hundreds of chapters, including series of laws from the Hebrew
Scriptures. It was compiled about 200 CE.
the Gemara (one Babylonian and one Palestinian) is encyclopedic in scope. It includes comments from
hundreds of Rabbis from 200 - 500 CE, explaining the Mishnah with additional historical, religious, legal,
sociological, etc. material. It often records many different opinions on a topic without giving a definitive
answer.
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Basic Jewish Beliefs:
There is a story in wide circulation about a question asked of Rabbi Hillel -- a notable rabbi from the 1st century
BCE. A non-Jew asked the rabbi to teach him everything about the Torah while standing on one foot. Rabbi Hillel
responded: "What is hateful to you, don't do unto your neighbor. The rest is commentary. Now, go and study."
Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon, (a.k.a. Maimonides) is generally accepted as one of the most important Jewish scholars
from Medieval times. He wrote a list of thirteen principles of faith. This list has been generally accepted by Jews
for centuries as a brief summary of the Jewish faith. However, the liberal wings of Judaism dispute some of the
13 today.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
G-d exists.
G-d is one and unique.
G-d is incorporeal.
G-d is eternal.
Prayer is to be directed to G-d alone and to no other.
The words of the prophets are true.
Moses was the greatest of the prophets, and his prophecies are true.
The Written Torah (first 5 books of the Bible) and Oral Torah (teachings now contained in the Talmud and
other writings) were given to Moses.
There will be no other Torah.
G-d knows the thoughts and deeds of men.
G-d will reward the good and punish the wicked.
The Messiah will come.
The dead will be resurrected.
9
Additional Jewish beliefs:
Some additional beliefs found commonly among Jews are:
Some Jews view Jesus as a great moral teacher. Others see him as a false prophet or as an idol of
Christianity. Some sects of Judaism will not even say his name due to the prohibition against saying an
idol's name.
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Description of Judaism
The Jews are often referred to as G-d's chosen people. This does not mean that they are in any way to be
considered superior to other groups. Biblical verses such as Exodus 19:5 simply imply that G-d has selected
Israel to receive and study the Torah, to worship G-d only, to rest on the weekly Sabbath, and to celebrate
the festivals. Jews were not chosen to be better that others; they were simply selected to receive more
difficult responsibilities, and more onerous punishment if they fail.
The 613 commandments found in Leviticus and other books regulate all aspects of Jewish life
The Ten commandments, as delineated in Exodus 20:1-17 and Deuteronomy 5:6-21, form a brief synopsis of
the Law
The Messiah (the anointed one of G-d) will arrive in the future and gather Jews once more into the land of
Israel. There will be a general resurrection of the dead at that time. The Jerusalem Temple, destroyed in
70 CE, will be rebuilt.
A fetus gains full personhood when it is half-emerged from its mother's body.
Boys reach the status of Bar Mitzvah on their 13th birthday; girls reach Bat Mitzvah on their 12th birthday.
This means that they are recognized as adults and are personally responsible to follow the Jewish
commandments and laws. Males are allowed to lead a religious service; they are counted in a "minyan" (a
quota of men necessary to perform certain parts of religious services). Following their Bar Mitzvah or Bat
Mitzvah they can sign contracts; they can testify in religious courts; theoretically, they can marry,
although the Talmud recommends 18 to 24 as the proper age for marriage.
The more liberal movements within Judaism differ from some of the above beliefs concerning the source of the
Torah, the concept of direct reward and punishment according to one's behavior, etc.
Judaism and Christianity compared:
Although Christians base much of their faith on the same Hebrew Scriptures as Jews, there are major differences
in belief:
Jews are strict monotheists: they view G-d as a single, indivisible entity. Most Christians view God as a
Trinity: a single entity with three personalities -- the Father, Son and Holy Spirit.
Jews generally consider actions and behavior to be of primary importance; beliefs come out of actions.
This conflicts with conservative Christians for whom belief is of primary importance and actions tend to be
derivative from beliefs.
Jewish belief does not accept the Christian concept of original sin (the belief that all people have inherited
Adam and Eve's sin when they disobeyed G-d's instructions in the Garden of Eden).
Judaism affirms the inherent goodness of the world and its people as creations of G-d.
Jewish believers are able to sanctify their lives and draw closer to G-d by performing fulfilling mitzvot
(divine commandments).
Jews do not recognize the need for a savior as an intermediary with G-d.
Jewish Practices
They include:
Observation of the weekly Sabbath as a day of rest, starting at sundown on Friday evening.
Strict discipline, according to the Law, which governs all areas of life
Regular attendance by Jewish males at Synagogue
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Description of Judaism
Celebration of the annual festivals including:
Passover, or Pesach is held each Spring to recall the Jews' deliverance out of slavery in Egypt circa
1300 BCE. A ritual Seder meal is eaten in each observant Jewish home at this time. Six different
foods are placed on the seder plate in the order in which they area eaten:
Karpas (vegetables dipped in salt water) recalls the bitter tears shed during slavery
Maror (bitter herbs) to symbolize the bitterness of slavery.
Chazeret (bitter vegetables) also to symbolize the bitterness of slavery.
Choroset (apple, nuts & spices with wine) represents the mortar used by Hebrew slaves.
Also placed on the seder plate, but uneaten during the Seder meal:
Zeroa (lamb shankbone) to recall the Passover sacrifice in the ancient temple.
Beitzah (roasted egg) symbolizes mourning, sacrifice, spring, and renewal.
Not placed on the Seder plate, but often eaten, is a boiled egg.
After women were first allowed to become Rabbim, some Jews commented: "A woman belongs as a
Rabbi like an orange belongs on a seder plate." As such, many Reform Jews now include an orange
with their Seder Plate to commemorate female Rabbim.
Rosh Hashanah is the Jewish New Year, and is the anniversary of the completion of creation, about
5760 years ago. It is held in the fall.
The 10 days from Rosh Hashanah to Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement, are days of penitence. Yom
Kippur is a day of fasting until sundown.
Sukkoth or the Feast of Booths is an 8 day harvest festival; a time of thanksgiving.
Hanukkah or the Feast of Lights is an 8 day feast of dedication. It recalls the war fought by the
Maccabees in the cause of religious freedom. It also commemorates a miracle in the Temple, when
one-day's worth of oil lasted eight days. It is typically observed in December. Originally a minor
Jewish holy day, it has become more important in recent years.
Purim, the Feast of Lots recalls the defeat by Queen Esther of the plan to slaughter all of the
Persian Jews, circa 400 BCE.
Shavout, the Feast of Weeks recalls G-d's revelation of the Torah to the Jewish people. It is held in
late May or early June.
Rules for calculating Rosh Hashanah and Passover are available online at: http://quasar.as.utexas.edu/
The local synagogue is governed by the congregation and is normally led by a rabbi who has been chosen by
the congregation. A rabbi is a teacher who has been well educated in Jewish law and tradition.
Any adult male with sufficient knowledge can lead religious services. In reform and some conservative
congregations, a woman can also preside. This is often done in those Jewish communities who lack a rabbi.
The Chief Rabbis in France and Great Britain have authority only by the agreement of those who accept it.
Two Chief Rabbis in Israel have civil authority in areas of family law.
Jewish Movements:
There are five main forms of Judaism in the world today. However, the most conservative traditions do not
necessarily recognize the most liberal as being part of Judaism. This is a common problem among many of the
world's great religions.
In alphabetic order, the main traditions active in North America are:
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Description of Judaism
Conservative* Judaism: This began in the mid-nineteenth century as a reaction against the Reform
movement. It is a main-line movement midway between Reform and Orthodox.
Humanistic Judaism: This is a very small group, mainly composed of atheists and agnostics, who regard
mankind as the measure of all things.
Orthodox* Judaism: This the oldest, most conservative, and most diverse form of Judaism. Modern
Orthodox, Chasidim and Ultra Orthodox share a basic belief in the derivation of Jewish law, even as they
hold very different outlooks on life. They attempt to follow the original form of Judaism as they view it to
be. They look upon every word in their sacred texts as being divinely inspired.
Reconstructionist Judaism: This is a new, small, liberal movement started by Mordecai Kaplan as an
attempt to unify and revitalize the religion. They reject the concept that Jews are a uniquely favored and
chosen people. They have no connection at all with Christian Reconstructionism, which is an ultraconservative form of Christianity.
Reform* Judaism: They are a liberal group, followed by many North American Jews. The movement
started in the 1790's in Germany. They follow the ethical laws of Judaism, but leave up to the individual
the decision whether to follow or ignore the dietary and other traditional laws. They use modern forms of
worship. There are many female rabbis in reform congregations.
* These are the largest forms of Judaism.
A survey conducted in 2001 for the 2002 edition of the American Jewish Year Book indicated that fewer that 10%
of American Jews are estimated to be Orthodox. However, Orthodox synagogues represent 40% of all U.S.
synagogues. Reform Judaism has 26 percent of all synagogues; Conservatives have 23 percent. "Every other
denomination or group representing synagogues –- Reconstructionist, Sephardi, Traditional, Humanistic, Gay/
Lesbian –- accounts for 3 percent or less of synagogue affiliations..." The total number of U.S. synagogues has
8
increased from 2,851 in 1936 to 3,727 in 2001.
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Jewish-Christian Relations:
The faith of Israel, as described in the Hebrew Scriptures, had divided into a number of Jewish Sects (the
Basusim, Pharisees, Essenes, Saducees, Zealots and others) by the early first century CE. Subsequently, a number
of events of momentous importance occurred:
30 CE: Some Jews, following the teachings of Jeshua of Nazareth (known by Christians as Jesus Christ),
formed a Jewish Christian reform movement within Judaism. It was led by James, an apostle of Jeshua of
Nazareth who is referred to in the Bible as the brother of Jesus. Christian denominations are divided on
whether he is a true brother, or just a cousin, or a step-brother, or simply a friend of Jesus.
circa 55 CE: Paul, a Jewish persecutor of Christians, created an alternative religion involving the teachings
and person of Yeshua. He started to organize Pauline Christian churches throughout much of the Roman
empire in conflict with the Jewish Christians.
70 CE: The Roman army destroyed the Temple and the rest of Jerusalem. The Jewish Christian movement
was scattered and went into gradual decline.
132 CE: Many Jews accepted Bar Kochba as the Messiah. This led to a hopeless three-year revolt against
the Roman Empire. About a half-million Jews were killed; thousands were sold into slavery or taken into
captivity. The rest were exiled from Palestine and scattered throughout the known world."
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SHINTO
SHINTO
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Brief history of Shinto:
Shinto is an ancient Japanese religion. Starting about 500 BCE (or earlier) it was originally "an amorphous mix of
nature worship, fertility cults, divination techniques, hero worship, and shamanism." Its name was derived
4
from the Chinese words "shin tao" ("The Way of the Gods") in the 8th Century CE. At that time:
The Yamato dynasty consolidated its rule over most of Japan.
Divine origins were ascribed to the imperial family.
Shinto established itself as an official religion of Japan, along with Buddhism.
The complete separation of Japanese religion from politics did not occur until just after World War II. The
Emperor was forced by the American army to renounce his divinity at that time.
Unlike most other religions, Shinto has no real founder, no written scriptures, no body of religious law, and only a
very loosely-organized priesthood.
Shinto beliefs:
Shinto creation stories tell of the history and lives of the "Kami" (deities). Among them was a divine couple,
Izanagi-no-mikoto and Izanami-no-mikoto, who gave birth to the Japanese islands. Their children became
the deities of the various Japanese clans. Amaterasu Omikami (Sun Goddess) was one of their daughters.
She is the ancestress of the Imperial Family and is regarded as the chief deity. Her shrine is at Ise. Her
descendants unified the country. Her brother, Susano came down from heaven and roamed throughout the
earth. He is famous for killing a great evil serpent.
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SHINTO
The Kami are the Shinto deities. The word "Kami" is generally translated "god" or "gods." However, the Kami
bear little resemblance to the gods of monotheistic religions. There are no concepts which compare to the
Christian beliefs in the wrath of God, his omnipotence and omni-presence, or the separation of God from
humanity due to sin. There are numerous other deities who are conceptualized in many forms:
Those related to natural objects and creatures, from "food to rivers to rocks."
2
Guardian Kami of particular areas and clans
Exceptional people, including all but the last of the emperors.
Abstract creative forces
They are seen as generally benign; they sustain and protect the people.
9
About 84% of the population of Japan follow two religions: both Shinto and Buddhism. (As in much of Asia,
Fewer than 1% of adults are Christians.) Buddhism first arrived in Japan from
Christianity is quite rarely.
12
Korea and China during the 6th through 8th centuries CE. The two religions share a basic optimism about
human nature, and for the world. Within Shinto, the Buddha was viewed as another "Kami". Meanwhile,
Buddhism in Japan regarded the Kami as being manifestations of various Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. Most
weddings are performed by Shinto priests; funerals are performed by Buddhist priests.
Shinto does not have as fully developed a theology as do most other religions. It does not have its own
moral code. Shintoists generally follow the code of Confucianism.
Their religious texts discuss the "High Plain of Heaven" and the "Dark Land" which is an unclean land of the
dead, but give few details of the afterlife.
Ancestors are deeply revered and worshipped.
All of humanity is regarded as "Kami's child." Thus all human life and human nature is sacred.
Believers revere "musuhi", the Kamis' creative and harmonizing powers. They aspire to have "makoto",
sincerity or true heart. This is regarded as the way or will of Kami.
Morality is based upon that which is of benefit to the group. "Shinto emphasizes right practice, sensibility,
and attitude."
2
There are "Four Affirmations"in Shinto:
1. Tradition and the family: The family is seen as the main mechanism by which traditions are
preserved. Their main celebrations relate to birth and marriage.
2. Love of nature: Nature is sacred; to be in contact with nature is to be close to the Gods. Natural
objects are worshipped as sacred spirits.
3. Physical cleanliness: Followers of Shinto take baths, wash their hands, and rinse out their mouth
often.
4. "Matsuri": The worship and honor given to the Kami and ancestral spirits.
The desire for peace, which was suppressed during World War II, has been restored.
Shinto practices:
Shinto recognizes many sacred places: mountains, springs, etc.
Each shrine is dedicated to a specific Kami who has a divine personality and responds to sincere prayers of
the faithful. When entering a shrine, one passes through a Tori a special gateway for the Gods. It marks
the demarcation between the finite world and the infinite world of the Gods.
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SHINTO
In the past, believers practiced "misogi,", the washing of their bodies in a river near the shrine. In recent
years they only wash their hands and wash out their mouths in a wash basin provided within the shrine
grounds.
Believers respect animals as messengers of the Gods. A pair of statues of "Koma-inu" (guard dogs) face each
other within the temple grounds.
Shrine ceremonies, which include cleansing, offerings, prayers, and dances are directed to the Kami.
Kagura are ritual dances accompanied by ancient musical instruments. The dances are performed by skilled
and trained dancers. They consist of young virgin girls, a group of men, or a single man.
Mamori are charms worn as an aid in healing and protection. They come in many different forms for
various purposes.
An altar, the "Kami-dana" (Shelf of Gods), is given a central place in many homes.
Seasonal celebrations are held at spring planting, fall harvest, and special anniversaries of the history of a
shrine or of a local patron spirit. A secular, country-wide National Founding Day is held on FEB-11 to
commemorate the founding of Japan; this is the traditional date on which the first (mythical) emperor
Jinmu ascended the throne in 660 BCE. Some shrines are believed to hold festivities on that day. Other
festivals include: JAN 1-3 Shogatsu (New Year); MAR-3 Hinamatsuri (Girls' festival); MAY-5 Tango no Sekku
(Boys' festival); JUL-7 Hoshi Matsuri (Star festival).
Followers are expected to visit Shinto shrines at the times of various life passages. For example, the
Shichigosan Matsuri involves a blessing by the shrine Priest of girls aged three and seven and boys aged
five. It is held on NOV-15.
Many followers are involved in the "offer a meal movement," in which each individual bypasses a breakfast
(or another meal) once per month and donates the money saved to their religious organization for
international relief and similar activity.
Origami ("Paper of the spirits"): This is a Japanese folk art in which paper is folded into beautiful shapes.
They are often seen around Shinto shrines. Out of respect for the tree spirit that gave its life to make the
paper, origami paper is never cut.
Forms of Shinto:
Shinto exists in four main forms or traditions:
Koshitsu Shinto (The Shinto of the Imperial House): This involves rituals performed by the emperor, who
the Japanese Constitution defines to be the "symbol of the state and of the unity of the people." The most
important ritual is Niinamesai, which makes an offering to the deities of the first fruits of each year's grain
harvest. Male and female clergy (Shoten and Nai-Shoten) assist the emperor in the performance of these
rites.
Jinja (Shrine) Shinto: This is the largest Shinto group. It was the original form of the religion; its roots date
back into pre-history. Until the end of World War II, it was closely aligned with State Shinto. The Emperor
of Japan was worshipped as a living God. Almost all shrines in Japan are members of Jinja Honcho, the
Association of Shinto Shrines. It currently includes about 80,000 shrines as members. The association urges
followers of Shinto
1. "To be grateful for the blessings of Kami and the benefits of the ancestors, and to be diligent in the
observance of the Shinto rites, applying oneself to them with sincerity. brightness, and purity of
heart."
2. "To be helpful to others and in the world at large through deeds of service without thought of
rewards, and to seek the advancement of the world as one whose life mediates the will of Kami."
3. "To bind oneself with others in harmonious acknowledgment of the will of the emperor, praying
that the country may flourish and that other peoples too may live in peace and prosperity."
5
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SHINTO
Kyoha (Sectarian) Shinto (aka Shuha Shinto): This consists of 13 sects which were founded by individuals
since the start of the 19th century. Each sect has its own beliefs and doctrines. Most emphasize worship of
their own central deity; some follow a near-monotheistic religion.
Minzoku (Folk) Shinto This is not a separate Shinto group; it has no formal central organization or creed. It
is seen in local rural practices and rituals, e.g. small images by the side of the road, agriculture rituals
practiced by individual families, etc. A rural community will often select a layman annually, who will be
responsible for worshiping the local deity.
These four forms are closely linked. Shinto is a tolerant religion which accepts the validity of other religions. It is
common for a believer to pay respects to other religions, their practices and objects of worship.
Shinto texts:
Many texts are valued in the Shinto religion. Most date from the 8th century CE:
The
The
The
The
Kojiki (Record of Ancient Matters)
Rokkokushi (Six National Histories)
Shoku Nihongi and its Nihon Shoki (Continuing Chronicles of Japan)
Jinno Shotoki (a study of Shinto and Japanese politics and history) written in the 14th century
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Number of adherents:
Estimates of the number of adherents are hopelessly unreliable. Some sources give numbers in the range of 2.8 to
3.2 million. One states that 40% of Japanese adults follow Shinto; that would account for about 50 million
adherents. Others state that about 86% of Japanese adults follow a combination of Shinto and Buddhism; that
would put the number of followers of Shinto at 107 million.
One source estimates 1000 followers of Shinto in North America. The Canadian Census (1991) recorded only 445 in
Canada.
Essentially all followers of Shinto are Japanese. It is difficult for a foreigner to embrace Shintoism. Unlike most
other religions, there is no book to help a person learn about the religion. It is transmitted from generation to
generation by experiencing the rituals together as a group.
Some Internet References:
1. "Shinto: A Portrait" is at: http://www.silcom.com/~origin/sbcr/sbcr131
2. "Shinto, the Way of the Gods" is at: http://www.trincoll.edu/~tj/tj4.4.96/articles/cover.html
3. "Shinto and Buddhism: the Wellsprings of Japanese Spirituality" is at: http://www.askasia.org/frclasrm/
readings/r000009.htm
4. "The Fountainhead of Miracles," is at: http://www.shinreikyo.or.jp
5. "The Jinja Shinto (The Shrine Shinto)," is at: http://www.jinja.or.jp/
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SIKHISM
Sikhism
History, beliefs, practices, etc.
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Sikh Origins:
No consensus exists on the origins of this religion.
Historians and specialists in Eastern religions generally believe that Sikhism is a syncretistic religion,
originally related to the Bhakti movement within Hinduism and the Sufi branch of Islam, to which many
independent beliefs and practices were added.
Some Sikhs believe that their religion is a re-purification of Hinduism; they view Sikhism as part of the
Hindu religious tradition.
Many Sikhs disagree; they believe that their religion is a direct revelation from God - a religion that was
not derived from either Hinduism or Islam.
Sikhism does contain many unique postulates and principles that are quite different from both Hinduism and
Islam. Joseph D. Cunningham (1812-1851), the author of "A History of the Sikhs" (1848), observed: "It has been
usual to regard the Sikhs as essentially Hindu... yet in religious faith and worldly aspiration, they are wholly
different from other Indians, and they are bound together by an objective unknown elsewhere."
Sikh History:
The name of the religion means learner. It is often mispronounced 'seek' It should be pronounced 'se-ikh', with the
final 'kh' sound like the 'kh' in Mikhail Gorbachev.
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SIKHISM
Its founder was Shri Guru Nanak Dev Ji, (1469-1538) who was born in the Punjab area of what is now Pakistan. At
Sultanpur, he received a vision to preach the way to enlightenment and God. He is responsible for the saying
"There is no Hindu, there is no Muslim" which has since become one of the pillars of Sikhism. He taught a strict
monotheism, the brotherhood of humanity. He rejected idol worship, and the Hindu concept of caste. Guru Nanak
and Panth (his followers) later built the first Sikh temple at Katarpur.
A succession of nine Gurus (regarded as reincarnations of Guru Nanak) led the movement during the period from
Guru Nanak's death until 1708. At that time, the functions of the Guru passed to the Panth and to the holy text,
considered the 11th Guru.
Mogul emperors ruled a large area of South Asia from the 16th century until the end of the 18th century. They
attempted to convert the Sikhs to Islam, but were unsuccessful. It has been said of one of the Sikh Gurus
(considered by many Sikhs to have been the last guru) that "Had there been no Guru Gobind Singh, the entire
country would have gotten circumcised" i.e. been converted to Islam.
In 1801, the Sikh state of Punjab was founded in Northern India by Maharaja Ranjit Singh. According to a historian
Vincent Smith, "The Punjab State was neither a traditional Indian territorial State and monarchy, nor merely a
dictatorship of one community over another. There was an element of partnership with other communities."
An invasion by Great Britain triggered the Sikh Wars (1845-1849). The British successfully gained control over all
of India. After independence in 1947, occupied India was partitioned on religious grounds into a mostly Muslim
Pakistan and mostly Hindu India. A mass migration of Sikhs from Pakistan to India and a reverse migration of
Muslims resulted, with immense loss of life. Some Sikhs have been seeking an independent homeland since the
late 1940's.
Sikhs number about 22.5 million worldwide. 1 Most live in the Punjab. Close to 500,000 live in North America, 1 of
whom about 150,000 live in Canada. 2
Sikh Holy Texts:
The holy granth, the Shri Guru Granth, was initially compiled by the fifth guru, Shri Arjan Dev Ji. Subsequently, it
was updated to include the writings of the sixth to ninth gurus. The tenth guru, Gobind Singh Ji assembled his
writings separately into a number of books, including "Dasam Granth"
The holy granth consists of hymns and writings by the first nine Gurus, along with religious text from different
Muslim and Hindu saints like: Kabir Ji, Baba Sheik Farid Ji, Bhagat Namdev, Bhagat Rav Dass Ji, etc. The Shri Guru
Granth itself is considered the 11th and final Guru, and the Sikh's holiest religious text. It was made so by Shri
Guru Gobind Singh Ji.
At least two English translations are available online:
"The Khalsa Consensus Translation [of the Guru Granth Sahib]...is regarded by some Sikh scholars as being
among the finest and most accurate English translation currently available." It is available online at
http://www.sikhs.org/english/frame.html
Srigranth.org allows people to search the Sikh scriptures in English, Punjabi, Hindi and Transliteration.
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SIKHISM
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Sikh Beliefs:
Beliefs include:
Goal: The goal of Sikhs is to build a close, loving relationship with God.
Deity: Sikhs believe in a single, Formless God, with many names, who can be known through meditation.
This concept is similar to Islam whose followers believe in a single God who has 99 names. Only he can be
worshiped. Rahras, a Sikh evening prayer states: "[O God] since I have fallen at your feet, I do not care for
anybody else. I do not follow the religious ways preached by various religions believing in Ram,
Mohammed, Puran or Qur'an. The Simritis, Shastras and the Vedas lay down different doctrines. But I do
not recognize any of these. O God, I have written these hymns with your grace and kindness. All that has
been said is in fact spoken by you."
7
Reincarnation: They believe in samsara (the repetitive cycle of birth, life and death), karma (the
accumulated sum of one's good and bad deeds, and reincarnation the belief of a rebirth following death.
These beliefs are similar to Hinduism. "Each individual has many reincarnations, but being born a human
means the soul is nearing the end of rebirth. God judges each soul at death and may either reincarnate
the soul or, if pure enough, allow it to rest with him."
8
Caste system: Sikhs have rejected the caste system of the Hindu religion. They believe that everyone has
equal status in the eyes of God. This is a very important principle that permeates all Sikh beliefs,
behaviors, and rituals.
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SIKHISM
Code of Conduct: During the 18th century, there were a number of attempts to prepare an accurate
portrayal of Sikh customs. None received the support of most Sikhs. Sikh scholars and theologians started in
1931 to prepare the Reht Maryada -- the Sikh code of conduct and conventions. It is "the only version
authorized by the Akal Takht, the seat of supreme temporal authority for Sikhs. It's implementation has
successfully achieved a high level of uniformity in the religious and social practices of Sikhism" 4
throughout the world. It contains 27 articles. Article 1 defines who is a Sikh:
"Any human being who faithfully believes in
(i) One Immortal Being,
(ii) Ten Gurus, from Guru Nanak Dev to Guru Gobind Singh,
(iii) The Guru Granth Sahib,
(iv) The utterances and teachings of the ten Gurus and
(v) the baptism bequeathed by the tenth Guru, and who does not owe allegiance to any other
religion, is a Sikh."
There are a number of traditions within Sikhism. Thousands of Sikhs, both in India and worldwide, follow
living gurus who have lineages traceable back to Guru Gobind Singh. In Canada and elsewhere, major
strains are becoming evident between liberal and conservative wings of the religion, as some Sikhs
accommodate to the surrounding culture.
Sikh Practices:
Prayers: repeated multiple times each day.
Worship: Sikhs are prohibited from worshipping idols, images, or icons.
Temples: There are over 200 Gurdwaras (temples, shrines or holy places) in India alone. The most sacred is
at Amritsar.
The Five K's: These are clothing practices followed by stricter Sikhs, called Khalsa saints:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Kesa (long hair, which is never cut)
Kangah (comb)
Kacha (short pants)
Kara (metal bracelet)
Kirpan (a ceremonial dagger)
The Khanda -- the Sikh symbol
The Khanda is the main Sikh symbol. It is seen at the top of this essay, used by permission of www.hatisoft.com 5
It is composed of four items, all traditional Sikh weapons:
A vertical double edged sword with a broad blade, also called a Khanda.
Two curved swords, called kirpans. They are called miri and piri, after the names given to his personal
kirpans by Guru Hargobind.
A ring called a chakker (aka chakram). It is a very effective weapon, with a range of up to 50 meters (165
feet). This has been popularized in North America by the television series Xena the Warrior Princess.
The Khanda has been interpreted symbolically in many ways. one is:
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SIKHISM
"The Sikh emblem, Khanda, contains a ring of steel representing the Unity of God, a two edged
sword symbolizing God's concern for truth and justice, and two crossed swords curved around the
outside to signify God's spiritual power."
6
This essay continues below.
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Sikh Dispute Concerning Furniture:
A serious dispute has broken out among Sikhs in Canada. This has been described in the media as a conflict
between fundamentalists and moderates - terms that the media appears to have adapted from Christian
terminology. Sikhs do not use these terms. For example, conservative Sikhs recognize:
Sikhs: those who accept and follow all Sikh beliefs and practices, and
Non-practicing Sikhs: those who follow only some Sikh beliefs and practices. For example, "third and
fourth generation Sikhs in England and Canada are more likely to be into drinking beer, smoking, cutting
their hair, and living a non-Sikh way of life than being a practicing Sikh." 3
Many persons considered by observant Sikhs as "non-practicing" believe that they have full status as Sikhs even
though they have deviated from some of their faith's traditional practices. We will use the terms "conservative"
and "liberal" in this essay to describe the two divisions within the Sikh faith group.
For 500 years, Sikhs had always sat on the floor, while eating after religious services. This practice emphasizes
the teachings of the Guru that every person is of equal value. The Sikh religion strongly rejects elitism. A few
decades ago, some Sikh Temples in Canada deviated from this practice, and introduced tables and chairs. The
tables and chairs are made identical in order to preserve the concept of equality. Still, the practice of eating at
tables is considered elitism in India, and by many conservative Sikhs.
In 1996, some Sikhs began calling for the removal of the tables and chairs, and a return to floor sitting during
meals. Some claim that the dispute over the furniture is largely symbolic, and that the real reason for the dispute
is that many Sikhs are weakening their faith by accommodating to modern practices. A riot broke out at the
temple on 1997-JAN-11. Several Sikhs have been charged with various crimes, from mischief to attempted
murder. Many were injured, but none died.
The Jathedar of the Akal Takhat Sahib is the individual who was elected to guide the modern affairs of the
collective world-wide Sikh community. He is the final authority in any religious disputes within the faith. In 1998APR, he issued a hukamnama (edict) against the use of furniture in Sikh Temples. They ruled that the furniture
must be removed by 1998-MAY-29. This ruling was appealed. Those opposing the ruling cited a number of reasons
why they prefer to not sit on the floor: the colder temperature in North America makes this uncomfortable,
elderly people find the arrangement difficult, and younger members may refuse to be married in the temple if
they had to sit on the floor. Some Sikh societies in the United States and England agreed to write to the Jathedar
in support of the appeal. The Ontario Gurudawaras Committee, which represents all 25 of the province's temples,
sent a letter to Bahai Ranjit Singh, Sikh's highest priest, calling his original ruling "praiseworthy."
Sikh leaders asked members to remain calm until the matter is resolved.
The Akal Takhat reaffirmed the original edict. Thousands of Sikhs in the Greater Vancouver area risked
excommunication from their religion if they sat at tables to have the ceremonial meal after prayers on 1998-MAYhttp://www.religioustolerance.org/sikhism.htm (5 of 8)2/20/2006 8:22:29 PM
SIKHISM
30. Leaders of 21 Sikh societies in British Columbia and Alberta vowed to keep the furniture.
By 1998-JUN-8, three reform priests had been suspended for defying the ban on tables and chairs. They have
complained to the British Columbia Human Rights Commission, stating that they have been discriminated against
on religious grounds. Meanwhile, most Sikh priests in the Vancouver area started a strike as of JUN-2 in order to
persuade temple executives to remove temple furniture.
In mid 1998-JUL, five or six prominent liberal Sikhs were summoned to Amristar, India by JUL-25 to explain why
they oppose a ban on tables and chairs. The group included a newspaper editor, a priest and three temple
executives. They did not appear and were excommunicated. On JUL-26, a disturbance broke out at North
America's oldest Sikh temple: the Ross Street Temple, established by the Khalsa Diwan Society in 1905.
Conservative Sikhs tried to prevent a liberal, excommunicated executive member from addressing the
congregation. On AUG-2, the police shut down the temple. It remained closed until the police chief, Bruce
Chambers, was able to broker an agreement between conservative and liberal Sikhs.
On 1998-NOV-18, Tara Hayer was killed by an unknown assassin. He was an outspoken supporter of the liberal
side, the publisher of a Sikh newspaper, and one of the 6 who had been excommunicated.
During 1998-NOV and DEC, members voted in favor of liberal slates of candidates for management positions
within a number of Sikh temples in British Columbia. Jarnail Singh Bhandal now heads the Ross Street temple in
Vancouver. He has called for a peacemaking conference of all Sikh factions - the first community-wide meeting in
several years.
The current Sikh Jathedar (senior elected official) is Ranjit Singh. He had planned a visit to the United States in
1999-JAN. Liberal Sikhs appear concerned that his visit might inflame religious tensions in North America. They
intervened with the U.S. authorities, pointing out that the Jathedar had served a lengthy jail term in 1980 for
murdering the leader of a rival religious sect, and that he has never renounced the use of violence against
religious opponents. His visa was canceled at the last moment. A large ad in the Washington Post called on the U.
S. president to overrule the immigration authorities, comparing Mr. Singh's status among Sikhs as comparable to
the pope among Roman Catholics. Actually, he cannot really be compared to the pope. He was elected to
represent the Sikh community, but was granted no higher spiritual authority than any other Sihk.
The present Jathedar is Joginder Singh Vedanti.
A hoax related to a Sikh holy day:
Dozens of Internet listings of seasonal days of celebration and observance include Khamapana as a Sikh holy day.
On 2001-AUG-22, Sikhs are said to celebrate a day of forgiveness. This is apparently a hoax, initiated by someone
and replicated through the Internet. Sikhs continually seek forgiveness; they don't save it up until an annual holy
day. On 2001-JUL-25, we found over three dozen references to Khamapana on www.google.com
Amazon.com's online bookstore lists the following books on Sikhism:
If you see a generic Amazon ad here, please click on your browser's refresh key
Sponsored links:
http://www.religioustolerance.org/sikhism.htm (6 of 8)2/20/2006 8:22:29 PM
TAOISM
TAOISM (a.k.a. Daoism)
Western traditions
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Quotations:
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"Be still like a mountain and flow like a great river." Lao Tse
"Different Chinese philosophers, writing probably in 5-4 centuries B.C., presented some major ideas and a
way of life that are nowadays known under the name of Taoism, the way of correspondence between man
and the tendency or the course of natural world." Alan Watts, from his book: "Tao: The Watercourse Way."
"We believe in the formless and eternal Tao, and we recognize all personified deities as being mere human
constructs. We reject hatred, intolerance, and unnecessary violence, and embrace harmony, love and
learning, as we are taught by Nature. We place our trust and our lives in the Tao, that we may live in
peace and balance with the Universe, both in this mortal life and beyond." Creed of the Western Reform
Taoist Congregation 1
History of Taoism:
Tao (pronounced "Dow") can be roughly translated into English as path, or the way. It is basically indefinable. It
has to be experienced. It "refers to a power which envelops, surrounds and flows through all things, living and
non-living. The Tao regulates natural processes and nourishes balance in the Universe. It embodies the harmony
of opposites (i.e. there would be no love without hate, no light without dark, no male without female.)" 2
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TAOISM
The founder of Taoism is believed by many to be Lao-Tse (604-531 BCE), a contemporary of Confucius. (Alternate
spellings: Lao Tze, Lao Tsu, Lao Tzu, Laozi, Laotze, etc.). He was searching for a way that would avoid the
constant feudal warfare and other conflicts that disrupted society during his lifetime. The result was his book:
Tao-te-Ching (a.k.a. Daodejing). Others believe that he is a mythical character.
Taoism started as a combination of psychology and philosophy but evolved into a religious faith in 440 CE when it
was adopted as a state religion. At that time Lao-Tse became popularly venerated as a deity. Taoism, along with
Buddhism and Confucianism, became one of the three great religions of China. With the end of the Ch'ing Dynasty
in 1911, state support for Taoism ended. Much of the Taoist heritage was destroyed during the next period of
warlordism. After the Communist victory in 1949, religious freedom was severely restricted. "The new
government put monks to manual labor, confiscated temples, and plundered treasures. Several million monks
were reduced to fewer than 50,000" by 1960. 3 During the cultural revolution in China from 1966 to 1976, much
of the remaining Taoist heritage was destroyed. Some religious tolerance has been restored under Deng Xiao-ping
from 1982 to the present time.
Taoism currently has about 20 million followers, and is primarily centered in Taiwan. About 30,000 Taoists live in
North America; 1,720 in Canada (1991 census). Taoism has had a significant impact on North American culture in
areas of "acupuncture, herbalism, holistic medicine, meditation and martial arts..." 3
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TAOISM
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Taoist concepts, beliefs and practices:
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Tao is the first-cause of the universe. It is a force that flows through all life.
"The Tao surrounds everyone and therefore everyone must listen to find enlightenment."
4
Each believer's goal is to become one with the Tao.
Taoism has provided an alternative to the Confucian tradition in China. The two traditions have coexisted
in the country, region, and generally within the same individual.
The priesthood views the many gods as manifestations of the one Dao, "which could not be represented as
an image or a particular thing." The concept of a personified deity is foreign to them, as is the concept of
the creation of the universe. Thus, they do not pray as Christians do; there is no God to hear the prayers or
to act upon them. They seek answers to life's problems through inner meditation and outer observation.
In contrast with the beliefs and practices of the priesthood, most of the laity have "believed that spirits
pervaded nature...The gods in heaven acted like and were treated like the officials in the world of men;
worshipping the gods was a kind of rehearsal of attitudes toward secular authorities. On the other hand,
the demons and ghosts of hell acted like and were treated like the bullies, outlaws, and threatening
strangers in the real world; they were bribed by the people and were ritually arrested by the martial
forces of the spirit officials." 3
Time is cyclical, not linear as in Western thinking.
Taoists strongly promote health and vitality.
Five main organs and orifices of the body correspond to the five parts of the sky: water, fire, wood, metal
and earth.
Each person must nurture the Ch'i (air, breath) that has been given to them.
Development of virtue is one's chief task. The Three Jewels to be sought are compassion, moderation and
humility.
Taoists follow the art of "wu wei," which is to let nature take its course. For example, one should allow a
river to flow towards the sea unimpeded; do not erect a dam which would interfere with its natural flow.
One should plan in advance and consider carefully each action before making it.
A Taoists is kind to other individuals, in part because such an action tends to be reciprocated.
Taoists believe that "people are compassionate by nature...left to their own devices [they] will show this
compassion without expecting a reward." 5
The Yin Yang symbol:
This is a well known Taoist symbol. "It represents the balance of opposites in the universe. When they are
equally present, all is calm. When one is outweighed by the other, there is confusion and disarray." 4 One source
explains that it was derived from astronomical observations which recorded the shadow of the sun throughout a
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TAOISM
full year.
5
The two swirling shapes inside the symbol give the impression of change -- the only constant factor in
the universe. One tradition states that Yin (or Ying; the dark side) represents the breath that formed the earth.
Yang (the light side) symbolizes the breath that formed the heavens.
One source states: "The most traditional view is that 'yin' represents aspects of the feminine: being soft, cool,
calm, introspective, and healing... and "yang" the masculine: being hard, hot, energetic, moving, and sometimes
aggressive. Another view has the 'yin' representing night and 'yang' day.
5
Another source offers a different definition: A common misconception in the west is that "...yin is soft and
passive and yang is hard and energetic. Really it is yang that is soft and yin that is hard, this is because yang is
energetic and yin is passive. Yin is like a rock and yang is like water or air, rock is heavy and hard and air is soft
and energetic."
8
Allan Watts, describes the yin and yang as negative and positive energy poles: "The ideograms indicate the sunny
and shady sides of a hill....They are associated with the masculine and the feminine, the firm and the yielding,
the strong and the weak, the light and the dark, the rising and the falling, heaven and earth, and they are even
recognized in such everyday matters as cooking as the spicy and the bland."
9,10
However, since nothing in nature is purely black or purely white, the symbol includes a small black spot in the
white swirl, and a corresponding white spot in the black swirl.
Ultimately, the 'yin' and 'yang' can symbolize any two polarized forces in nature. Taosts believe that humans
often intervene in nature and upset the balance of Yin and Yang.
Tai Chi:
There is a long history of involvement by Taoists in various exercise and movement techniques. 6 Tai chi in
particular works on all parts of the body. It "stimulates the central nervous system, lowers blood pressure,
relieves stress and gently tones muscles without strain. It also enhances digestion, elimination of wastes and the
circulation of blood. Moreover, tai chi's rhythmic movements massage the internal organs and improve their
functionality." Traditional Chinese medicine teaches that illness is caused by blockages or lack of balance in the
body's "chi" (intrinsic energy). Tai Chi is believed to balance this energy flow.
Taoist Texts:
These include:
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Tao-te-Ching ("The Way of Power," or "The Book of the Way") is believed to have been written by Lao-Tse.
It describes the nature of life, the way to peace and how a ruler should lead his life.
Chuang-tzu (named after its author) contains additional teachings.
http://www.religioustolerance.org/taoism.htm (4 of 7)2/20/2006 8:23:32 PM
Mr. Dowling's Judaism Page
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Time and Space
Prehistory
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and North Africa
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Himalayas
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Communism
Canada
The Caribbean
Mexico and Central
America
Judaism
Judaism is the oldest religion of the
western world and has influenced
Christianity and Islam. There are
approximately fifteen million Jews
throughout the world.
The Hebrews were the ancestors of
the Jewish people and trace their
ancestry to Abraham, who left his
home in the Mesopotamian city of
Ur about 2200BC. The Hebrews
were different from others of their
time because they were
monotheistic; they believed in only
one God. The Hebrews believed
they had a special relationship with their God and that they were his
chosen people.
The Hebrews established a nation they called Israel on the eastern shore
of the Mediterranean Sea. About 1300BCE, many Hebrews moved to
Egypt to escape a famine. A famine is a great hunger. At first, the
Hebrews were treated well in Egypt, but in time they were enslaved by
the Egyptians. According to Hebrew tradition, God sent ten deadly
plagues to Egypt when the Egyptians would not release the Hebrew
slaves. When the Hebrews did escape, tradition states that Moses, the
leader of the Hebrews, parted the Red Sea for just enough time to allow
the Hebrews to pass. Once the Hebrews reached the other side, tradition
states that the waters returned and the Egyptian army drowned. After
their escape across the Red Sea 1250BCE, God revealed Ten
Commandments to Moses. The Ten Commandments formed the basis of
Mosaic Law and are the model for both Jewish and Christian moral
thought.
The Hebrews returned to Israel, but they were conquered by several other
cultures. In time, most of the Hebrews were forced to leave Israel,
beginning a period known as the Diaspora. The Hebrews were forced to
live as minorities in many different lands until the creation of the Jewish
nation of Israel in 1948.
Jewish people have often faced severe mistreatment. European Jews were
ordered to leave Spain by Ferdinand and Isabella, and faced organized
massacres called pogroms in many nations, particularly in Eastern
Europe. In this century, as many as six million Jews were murdered in
what we now call the Holocaust, where the Nazi party in Germany
attempted genocide, or the planned killing of a whole group of people
because of their religion or nationality.
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Mr. Dowling's Judaism Page
South America
Jews worship in synagogues led by a rabbi. Rabbi is a Hebrew word that
means "master." Their holiest period is the weekly Shabbat, which lasts
from sunset Friday to sunset Saturday. Other important Jewish holidays
include Rosh Hashanah (the Jewish New Year), Yom Kippur (a Day of
Atonement or confession), Simchat Torah (celebrating receiving the
Torah on Mount Sinai), Chanukah (a celebration of a military victory),
and Passover (a remembrance of the time the Hebrews lived in Egypt).
The Torah is the most holy book of Judaism. The Torah is also holy to
Christians, who include it as the Old Testament of their Bible. The
Talmud is another holy book in Judaism. The Talmud is a collection of
the laws and customs of the Jewish people. Most Jews live in the United
States (5.8 million) and Israel (4.8 million). Europe was once home to
millions of Jewish people, but most of the survivors of the Holocaust
immigrated to other nations. Today only 2.3 million Jews remain in
Europe.
The Star of David
The most recognized symbol of Judaism is the
six pointed Star of David. Jewish legend says
that a Hebrew king named David went into battle
with the hexagram on his shield. Later, when
Jews were minorities in Christian and Muslim nations,
they were forced to wear the star on their clothing to
identify themselves.
Today you will see the hexagram used to identify
synagogues and Jewish organizations. The symbol that
was once used to separate Jews from the rest of society
is now flown on the flag of Judaism’s homeland, Israel.
NEXT: Christianity
To cite this page:
Dowling, Mike, "Mr. Dowling's Judiasm Page," available from http://www.mrdowling.com/605-judiasm.
html; Internet; updated Wednesday, January 5, 2005 . ©2005, Mike Dowling. All rights reserved.
http://www.mrdowling.com/605-judaism.html (2 of 2)2/20/2006 9:39:06 PM
Buddhism
Written by Sara
Wenner, 2001
Buddhism
History of Buddhism
Basic Beliefs
Buddhism Terms
Geographic Concentration
Links to More Buddhism Sites
BOROBUDUR - BEYOND
THE REACH OF TIME:
restoring Indonesia's great
Buddhist shrine. Video
from the Roland Collection.
To play this video you will need Real Audio. Get it free here.
Thai Buddha statue
http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/cultural/religion/buddhism/buddhism.html3/1/2006 8:03:14 PM
Basic Beliefs of Buddhism
Basic Beliefs of Buddhism
The basic beliefs of Buddhism can be demonstrated in the
following concepts and doctrines:
The Four Noble Truths
The First Noble Truthis the existence of suffering. Birth is painful and death is painful;
disease and old age are painful. Not having what we desire is painful and having what we
do not desire is also painful.
The Second Noble Truth is the cause of suffering. It is the craving desire for the
pleasures of the senses, which seeks satisfaction now here, now there; the craving for
happiness and prosperity in this life and in future lives.
The Third Noble Truth is the ending of suffering. To be free of suffering one must give
up, get rid of, extinguish this very craving, so that no passion and no desire remain.
The Fourth Noble Truth leads to the ending of all pain by way of the Eightfold Path.
The Eightfold Path
The first step on that path is Right Views: You must accept the Four Noble Truths and
the Eightfold Path.
The second is Right Resolve: You must renounce the pleasures of the senses; you must
harbor no ill will toward anyone and harm no living creature.
The third is Right Speech: Do not lie; do not slander or abuse anyone. Do not indulge in
idle talk.
The fourth is Right Behavior: Do not destroy any living creature; take only what is given
to you; do not commit any unlawful sexual act.
The fifth is Right Occupation: You must earn your livelihood in a way that will harm no
one.
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Basic Beliefs of Buddhism
The sixth is Right Effort: You must resolve and strive heroically to prevent any evil
qualities from arising in you and to abandon any evil qualities that you may possess. Strive
to acquire good qualities and encourage those you do possess to grow, increase, and be
perfected.
The seventh is Right Contemplation: Be observant, strenuous, alert, contemplative, and
free of desire and of sorrow.
The eighth is Right Meditation: When you have abandoned all sensuous pleasures, all evil
qualities, both joy and sorrow, you must then enter the four degrees of meditation, which
are produced by concentration.
Buddhist Precepts
There are five precepts taught by Buddhism that all Buddhists should follow:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Kill no living thing.
Do not steal.
Do not commit adultery.
Tell no lies.
Do not drink intoxicants or take drugs.
Other precepts apply only to monks and nuns:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Eat moderately and only at the appointed time.
Avoid that which excites the senses.
Do not wear adornments.
Do not sleep in luxurious beds.
Accept no silver or gold.
Sacred Scriptures
In Theravada (Southeast Asian) Buddhism, there are three groups of writings considered
to be holy scripture, known as the "Three Baskets" (Tripitaka). The Vinaya Pitaka
(discipline basket) contains rules for the higher class of Buddhists; the Sutta Pitaka
(teaching basket) contains the discourses of Buddha; and the Abidhamma Pitaka
(metaphysical basket) contains Buddhist theology.
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Basic Beliefs of Buddhism
Mahayana (Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese, etc.) Buddhism
contains an incredibly large amount of holy writings, over five
thousand volumes. The oldest scriptures are based on Sanskrit,
while others have been written in Nepalese, Tibetan, and
Chinese. There are no clear limits as to what should be admitted
as scripture, so thousands of writings on the topic have been
admitted.
References
McDowell, Josh and Don Stewart, Handbook of Today's Religions. Nashville: Thomas
Nelson Publishers, 1983. Twelfth printing, June 1992.
Shelley, Fred M. and Audrey E. Clarke, eds. Human and Cultural Geography.
Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Publishers, 1994.
Images
'Wheel of Samsara' courtesy of World Religions in Images
Written by Sara Wenner, 2001
http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/cultural/religion/buddhism/beliefs.html (3 of 3)3/1/2006 8:03:27 PM
History of Buddhism
History of Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion which is based on the teachings of Siddhartha
Gautama, the son of a wealthy landowner born in northern India around
560 B.C. In order to achieve spiritual peace, Gautma renounced his worldly advantages
and became known as Buddha, or "the enlightened one". He preached his religious views
his entire life throughout South Asia.
The story of Gautma's path to enlightenment has mythological
quality. The son of a ruler, a prophecy at the time of his birth said
that he would be a great king if he stayed at home, but would
become a savior for mankind if he were to leave home. Therefore,
his father kept him at home and surrounded him with all the worldly
pleasures a boy could want, and kept all painful and ugly things out
of his sight.
Gautma eventually married and fathered a son, but still had not left
his father's palace. One day, he told his father that he wished to see the world. This
excursion would change his life, for during this journey, he saw the "four passing sights".
Even though his father had ordered the streets to be cleaned and decorated and all elderly
or infirmed people hidden, some people did not listen. Gautma saw a decrepit old man,
and learned for the first time that everyone someday becomes old. Next, he met a sick
man, who taught him that people are liable to sickness and suffering. He saw a funeral
procession which taught him that people die. Lastly, he saw a monk begging for food. He
longed for the tranquility which he saw on the monk's face and decided this was the
lifestyle for him. He left his father, wife, and son to live on the streets and meditate.
While in meditation, he reached the highest degree of God-consciousness, nirvana. He
stayed under a fig tree which was later called the bodhi or bo tree (the tree of wisdom) for
seven days. During this time, he learned truths which he, Buddha, would impart to the
world until his death at age 80.
Buddhism became a strong force in India before Buddha's death. The diffusion of
Buddhism, however, was limited until the Indian emperor Asoka became a convert and
supported missionary activities. Soon, Buddhism became established in China, Japan,
Korea, and Southeast Asia, where it is most practiced today. Hinduism is now the
predominant Indian religion.
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History of Buddhism
References
McDowell, Josh and Don Stewart, Handbook of Today's Religions. Nashville: Thomas
Nelson Publishers, 1983. Twelfth printing, June 1992.
Shelley, Fred M. and Audrey E. Clarke, eds. Human and Cultural Geography. Dubuque,
Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Publishers, 1994.
Images
'Buddha' courtesy of World Religions In Images
Written by Sara Wenner, 2001
http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/cultural/religion/buddhism/history.html (2 of 2)3/1/2006 8:03:38 PM
Buddhism Terms
Buddhism Terms
Bhikkhu A Buddhist monk who wanders about depending upon others for his basic
necessities .
Bodhi A Buddhist term for the wisdom by which one attains enlightenment.
Bodhisattva In Mahayana Buddhism, one who postpones attaining nirvana in order to
help others achieve this goal. In Theravada Buddhism, it is one who is on the way to
becoming a Buddha. Gautama was called a Bodhisattva before he attained enlightenment.
Buddha"enlightened one"- This title was given to Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of
Buddhism, upon his enlightenment. Likewise, a person can gain this position through
following the fourfold path to enlightenment.
BuddhismThe religion based upon the teachings of the Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama).
The Buddha's main teaching revolved around the causes for human suffering and the way
to salvation from this suffering could be achieved. The two main branches of Buddhism
are called Mahayana and Theravada or Hinayana.
Dhamma The teachings of the Buddha.
Dukkha Suffering, which is rooted in desire and attachment.
Mahayana The form of Buddhism prevalent in China, Japan, Korea and Vietnam.
Literally translated, means "the great vehicle."
Nirvana In Buddhism, it is basically a blissful spiritual condition where the heart
extinguishes passion, hatred and delusion. It is the highest spiritual plane one person can
attain.
Pitaka Literally, "basket." Refers to the "three baskets" (Tripitaka) of sacred Buddhist
writings.
Samsara The cycle of birth, suffering, death and rebirth.
Sangha The Buddhist monastic order literally translated as "group" or "community."
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Concentration Map
Original Geographical Locations of World Religions
Animism Judaism Christianity Islam Buddhism Hinduism
Written by Sara Wenner, 2001
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Christianity
Christianity
History of
Christianity
Christian Terms
Basic Beliefs
Geographic Concentration
Links to More Christianity Sites
Nativity
Written by Sara Wenner, 2001
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Basic Beliefs of Christianity
Basic Beliefs of Christianity
The central figure in Christianity is Jesus (or Christ), a Jew who came into this world by
immaculate conception to a virgin named Mary. His birth is
celebrated at Christmas with hymns and gift giving. This man
was not only man, but also the son of God and lived his life
without sin.
During his lifetime, Jesus performed many
miracles and spoke to many people about his
father in heaven. He was arrested for
claiming to be God's son and was hung on
the cross by the Romans at age 33.
Christians believe that the suffering and
death upon the cross which this sinless man
endured paid for the sins of all mankind, and because of Jesus'
actions, salvation can be achieved by anyone who believes in him.
This act of sacrifice is remembered during Lent.
Following his death, Christians believe that he rose from the
grave (celebrated at Easter) and returned to the earth, appearing
to his followers and telling them of the kingdom of God to which
he was going. He also promised his disciples that he would return
one day to bring all believers with him to that kingdom, to enjoy
eternal life in the presence of God.
Christians can read of the life of Jesus, as well
as his ancestors in the only Christian holy
text, the Bible. It consists of the Old
Testament (which is also considered sacred to 'Christ taken off cross' ©
Judaism and Islam) and the New Testament. MIT Orthodox Christian
Fellowship
The Old Testament chronicles the lives of
Jews and others who lived before Jesus, who had been promised a
savior by God, and were waiting for him. This text contains many
stories about people demonstrating faith in God and also provides
historical information about the era. The New Testament is unique to
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Basic Beliefs of Christianity
Christianity, for it centers around the figure of Jesus and his effect on
the world. Christians believe that Jesus is the one that the Old
Testament foretold, so instead of looking for a savior, they await the
return of Jesus so that he can take them to his kingdom, or heaven.
The beliefs of Christianity can be seen in the words of the Apostles' Creed, a document
which was written to distinguish Christianity from other religions and show basic
Christian doctrine in a concise manner.
The Apostle's Creed
I believe in God the Father Almighty,
Maker of heaven and earth.
And in Jesus Christ,
His only Son, our Lord;
Who was conceived by the Holy Spirit,
Born of the Virgin Mary,
Suffered under Pontius Pilate,
Was crucified, died and was buried.
He descended into hell;
The third day He rose again from the dead;
He ascended into heaven
and is seated at the right hand of God the Father Almighty;
From there He shall come to judge the living and the dead.
I believe in the Holy Spirit,
The holy Christian Church,
The Communion of Saints,
the Forgiveness of sins,
The Resurrection of the body,
And the Life everlasting.
Amen.
References
The Holy Bible.
Evangelical Lutheran Synod, Evangelical Lutheran Hymnary, St. Louis, Mo:
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History of Christianity
History of Christianity
Christianity is based upon the teachings of Jesus, a Jew who
lived his life in the Roman province of Palestine. Roman
communications networks enabled Christianity to spread quickly
throughout the Roman empire and eventually to the rest of
Europe, and finally the entire globe.
As time progressed, Christianity divided into three major
branches. The Roman Catholic branch of Christianity is the
successor of the church established in Rome soon after Christ's
death. It traces its spiritual history to the early disciples of Jesus.
The Pope, or spiritual leader, traces his office's lineage back to St. Peter, the first Pope,
one of Jesus' disciples. Roman Catholicism was originally predominately practiced in
Ireland, Poland, France and Spain.
During the fourth century, the Roman Catholic church split and the Eastern Orthodox
branch was formed.
The split was primarily a political one due to the division of the
Roman Empire into western and eastern components. The two
churches became officially separate in 1054. Orthodox churches are
largely national, each associated with a particular country. Orthodoxy
is common in Russia, Greece, Romania, Bulgaria, the Ukraine, and
Armenia.
The Protestant branch split from Roman Catholicism during the
Reformation, a sixteenth and seventeenth century series of church
'Romanian Church' ©
reforms in doctrine and practice. This movement challenged the
MIT Orthodox
authority of the Pope, and became popular in Scandinavia, England,
Christian Fellowship
and the Netherlands. Protestantism eventually divided into many
denominations which arose in response to disputes over doctrine, theology, or religious
practice. Some of the large denominations today are Lutherans, Methodists and Baptists.
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Christianity Terms
Christianity Terms
Bible The sacred text which records the lives of major figures in Christianity, including Jesus. Contains
Old and New Testaments.
Christianity The belief in Jesus Christ as Savior of the world.
Christmas The celebration of the birth of Jesus held on December 25th.
Cross Roman method of execution which took the life of Jesus. Now a symbol of Jesus' suffering and
resurrection.
Easter The celebration of Jesus' triumphant return to life after dying on the cross.
Eastern Orthodoxy A branch of Christianity with national ties.
Jesus The central figure of Christianity, believed to be true God, who saved mankind from the torture of
hell by dying on the cross to grant them salvation.
Lent The remembrance of the period of time leading up to and including Christ's death on the cross.
Mary Jesus' mother, who conceived him by the intervention of the Holy Spirit.
Pope The spiritual leader of the Roman Catholic church.
Protestantism The branch of Christianity which broke off from the Roman Catholic church at the time
of the Reformation.
Reformation A movement which resulted in the formation of the Protestant branch of Christianity. A
reforming of Christianity which eliminated certain doctrines and practices of Catholicism which were
deemed incorrect.
Roman Catholicism The original Christian religion which descended from the original Christians in
Rome at the time of Christ.
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Hinduism
Hinduism
History of Hinduism
Hindu Terms
Basic Beliefs
Geographic Concentration
Links to More Hinduism Sites
Hindu deities
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Basic Beliefs of Hinduism
Basic Beliefs of Hinduism
Hinduism is based on the concept that human and animal spirits reincarnate, or come back
to earth to live many times in different forms. The belief that souls
move up and down an infinite hierarchy depending on the
behaviors they practiced in their life is visible in many of the Hindu
societal policies. The caste system survives and charity towards
others is unheard of because each individual deserves to be in the
social class they were born in. A person is born into the highest
class because they behaved well in a past life, and a person is born
into poverty and shame because of misbehaviors in a past life.
Today, a Hindu can be polytheistic (more
than one god), monotheistic (one god),
pantheistic (god and the universe are one),
agnostic (unsure if god exists), or atheistic (no god) and still claim
to be Hindu. This open theology makes it difficult to discuss basic
beliefs since there are many ideas about what Hinduism means.
However, these universal ideas must be mentioned.
Central to Hinduism are the concepts of reincarnation, the caste
system, merging with brahman (or the ultimate reality), finding
morality, and reaching Nirvana (the peaceful escape from the cycle
of reincarnation).
Religious documents include Sruti, (what is heard) and Smriti, (what is remembered). The
Sruti include deeply religious things communicated to a seer and
recorded. The Vedas, the religious writings, include mantras
(hymns of praise), brahmanas (sacrificial rituals) and upanishads
(108 sacred teachings). The Smriti include the law (books of laws),
puranas (myths, stories, legends) and epics (sets of holy myths
including Ramayana and Mahabharata).
The Hindu paths
to salvation
include the way
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Basic Beliefs of Hinduism
of works (rituals), the way of knowledge
(realization of reality and selfreflection), and the way of devotion
(devotion to the god that you choose to
follow). If the practitioner follows the
paths of these ways, salvation can be
achieved.
References
McDowell, Josh and Don Stewart,
Handbook of Today's Religions.
Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers,
1983. Twelfth printing, June 1992.
Shelley, Fred M. and Audrey E. Clarke,
eds. Human and Cultural Geography.
Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown
Publishers, 1994.
Images
'Krishna' courtesy of About Rajasthan- http://www.rajasthanweb.com/about/religion/index.
htm
'Ganesh' and 'Shiva' courtesy of World Religions in Images
'Gsarawt' courtesy of Presja http://members.nbci.com/_XMCM/ekprem/hinduism.htm
Written by Sara Wenner, 2001
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The History of Hinduism
The History of Hinduism
Hinduism is the oldest and most complex of all
religious systems. Providing an adequate history for
the development of Hinduism is difficult, since it has
no specific founder or theology and originated in the
religious practices of Aryan tribes who moved to
India from central Asia more than three thousand
years ago. The Aryans attacked the Harappan people
who lived in modern day India around 1500 BC.
Eventually, through adaptation to the religious beliefs
of the other, both groups developed similar religious
belief systems, founded on the polytheism of the
Aryans and the sanctity of fertility of the Harappans.
Soon, the predominantly Aryan society developed the
caste system, which ranked society according to
occupational class. The caste system is as follows:
Brahmins priests
Kshatriyas soldiers, king-warrior class
Vaishyas merchants, farmers, Sutras laborers, craftspeople
Harijahns "untouchables"- those thought to be descended from the Harappan aboriginal
people-extremely poor and discriminated against
The higher a person's caste, the more that person is blessed with the benefits and luxuries
life has to offer. Although the caste system was outlawed in 1948, it is still important to
the Hindu people of India and is still recognized as the proper way to stratify society.
Since the early days of Hinduism, it has branched and now encompasses a wide variety of
religious beliefs and religious organizations. Not only is it the primary religion of the
region around India, but portions of Hindu beliefs have found their way across oceans to
other countries and have been influential in the foundations of other religions, such as
Transcendental Meditation and Buddhism.
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Hindu Terms
Hindu Terms
Atman The real self, the eternal life principle.
Brama The creator god
Brahman Ultimate Reality
Brahmin A member of the priestly caste, the highest class.
Dharma The teachings of virtue and principle
Karma The culminating value of all of one's life actions, good and bad, which together
determine one's next rebirth and death.
Mahabharta One of the national epics of India.
Maya The power that produces the phenomena of physical existence.
Moksha The term for liberation from the bondage of finite existence.
Puranas Part of the Hindu scriptures consisting of myths and legends mixed with
historical events.
Samsara The rebirth of souls passing on from one existence to another until release can
be achieved, reincarnation.
Upanishads Part of the Hindu sacred texts containing treatises on the nature of ultimate
reality and the way to achieve union with the absolute.
Veda The oldest of the Hindu scriptures, consisting of four collections of sacred writings.
Yoga The Hindu path of union with the divine. Any sort of exercise (physical, mental or
spiritual) which promotes one's journey to union with Brahma.
References
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Islam
Islam
History of Islam
Islamic Terms
Basic Beliefs
Geographic Concentration
Links to More Islam Sites
Traditional Islamic mosque
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Basic Beliefs of Islam
Basic Beliefs of Islam
The teachings of Islam are comprised of both faith and duty (din). One branch of Muslim
learning, "Tawhid", defines all that a man should believe, while the other branch,
"Shari'a," prescribes everything that he should do. There is no priesthood and no
sacraments. Except among the Sufis, Muslims receive instruction only from those who
consider themselves adequately learned in theology or law.
The basis for Islamic doctrine is found in the Qur'an (Koran). It
is the scripture of Islam, written by Muhammad and his
disciples as dictated by the Angel Gabriel. It alone is infallible
and without error. The Qur'an is comprised of 114 surahs, or
chapters, arranged from longest to shortest. For Muslims, the
Qur'an is the word of God, and he carrier of the revelation of
Muhammad, the last and most perfect of God's messengers to
mankind.
In addition to the Qur'an, other documents are also referred to by
followers of Islam. A number of additional sayings of
Muhammad were complied in the Hadith ("tradition"). The Torat
(of Moses), Suhuf (books of the prophets), Zabur (psalms of
David), and the Injil (gospel of Jesus) are also studied and considered to be revelations,
although they are believed to have been corrupted through time.
Five Articles of Faith
The five articles of faith are the main doctrines of
Islam. All Muslims are expected to believe the
following:
1. God. There is one true God and his name is
Allah.
2. Angels. Angels exist and interact with human
lives. They are comprised of light, and each
have different purposes or messages to bring
to earth. Each man or woman has two angels
who record his actions; one records good deeds, the other bad deeds.
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Basic Beliefs of Islam
3. Scripture. There are four inspired books, the Torah of Moses, the Psalms (Zabin) of
David, the Gospel of Jesus Christ (Injil) and the Qur'an. All but the Qur'an have
been corrupted by Jews and Christians.
4. Prophets. God has spoken through numerous prophets throughout time. The six
greatest are: Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad. Muhammad is
the last and greatest of Allah's messengers.
5. Last Days. On the last day there will be a time of resurrection and judgment. Those
who follow Allah and Muhammad will go to Islamic heaven, or Paradise. Those
who do not will go to hell.
The Five Pillars of Faith
The five pillars of faith are observances in Islam which are duties each Muslim must
perform.
1. Creed (Kalima)- One must state, "There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is
2.
3.
4.
5.
the Prophet of Allah." publicly to become a Muslim.
Prayer (Salat)- Prayer must be done five times a day (upon rising, at noon, in midafternoon, after sunset, and before going to sleep) towards the direction of Mecca.
The call to prayer is sounded by the muezzin (Muslim crier) from a tower (minaret)
within the mosque.
Almsgiving (Zakat)- Muslims are legally required to give one-fortieth of their
income to the needy. Since those whom alms are given are helping the giver achieve
salvation, there is no sense of shame in receiving charity.
Fasting (Ramadan)- During the holy month of Ramadan, faithful Muslims fast
from sunup to sundown each day. This develops self-control, devotion to God, and
identity with the needy.
Pilgrimage (Hajj)- Each Muslim is expected to make the pilgrimage to Mecca at
least once in their lifetime if they have the means to do it and are physically capable
of the trip. It is an essential part of gaining salvation, so the old or infirm may send
someone in their place. It involves a set of rituals and ceremonies.
A sixth religious duty associated with the five pillars is Jihad, or Holy War. This duty
requires that if the situation warrants, men are required to go to war to defend or spread
Islam. If they are killed, they are guaranteed eternal life in Paradise.
References
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History of Islam
History of Islam
The history of Islam centers around one person, Muhammad (also spelled Muhammed or
Mohammed). He was born around 570 A.D. and was raised by his extended family after
the death of his parents. As he grew, he became dissatisfied with polytheism and came to
believe in one God, Allah. He began to have religious visions around age 40. During these
visions, Muhammad would receive "messages" or "revelations" from Allah. He would
memorize them and teach them to his followers. These visions are now recorded in the
Qur'an (or Koran). Muhammad continued to receive these visions and messages until his
death in 632 A.D.
The Expansion of Islam
Muhammad's new faith was not widely accepted in his hometown of Mecca. Therefore, he and his followers moved
to Medina which means "City of the Prophet". This movement is known as the Hijirat or "the flight". It marks the
turning point in Islam and serves as the beginning date on Islamic calendars.
At first, Muhammad was sympathetic to both Christians and Jews, but after their rejection of his teaching, he turned
from Jerusalem as the center of worship for Islam to Mecca. He realized he must return to Mecca, and he did,
conquering the city. Islam quickly spread throughout the area.
When Muhammad died, he left no document appointing a successor. Some people thought that one of the original
converts who had taught with Muhammad, some wanted a member of a powerful political family in the area, and
others felt that 'Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad had been divinely designated as successor. An early
believer, Abu Bakr was appointed, but died within two years.
Eventually, a power struggle developed as different groups of Muslims believed their method of establishing a
successor were the best. The largest argument was over whether the successor should be elected or chosen through
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History of Islam
heredity. This controversy produced the main body of Islam known as the Sunnis (followers of the prophet's way)
and other numerous sects including the Shi'a and the Sufis. The Sunnis are the majority in Islam today.
The Shi'a are the group of Muslims who believe that the successorship should remain within Muhammad's family,
and that leaders are spiritually chosen, not politically chosen. They carry with them the pain of Muhammad's son-inlaw, 'Ali, who was murdered by Mu'awiya in order to obtain power. Today, the Shi'a dominate Iran.
The Sufis are a group who believes that orthodox Islam is too mechanical and impersonal. This group of Islamic
mystics seek for direct personal experience of the Divine.
Nationalism in the Arab world since the rise of Israel as a political power has kept Islam strong. It is a rapidly
spreading religion because of its cultural and political appeal and its universal message of peace, temperance and the
brotherhood of man.
References
McDowell, Josh and Don Stewart, Handbook of Today's Religions. Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1983.
Twelfth printing, June 1992.
Shelley, Fred M. and Audrey E. Clarke, eds. Human and Cultural Geography. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown
Publishers, 1994.
Images
'The Expansion of Islam' courtesy of The Expansion of Islam
'Muhammad' courtesy of World Religions in Images
Written by Sara Wenner, 2001
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Islam Terms
Islamic Terms
Allah The Supreme Being. The name of God.
Hadith The sacred sayings of Muhammad, handed down by oral tradition and finally
written down.
Hajj Pilgrimage to Mecca. One of the five pillars of the Islamic faith.
Hegira Muhammad's flight from Mecca to Medina in 622 A.D.
Islam "submission to the will of Allah"
Koran (Qur'an) The inspired word of God given to Muhammad by the angel Gabriel.
Mecca The birthplace of Muhammad, and the holy city of Islam.
Medina Holy city named for Muhammad after he fled there in 622 A.D.
Muhammad Prophet and founder of Islam. Born around 570 A.D., died 632 A.D.
Moslem (Muslim) Follower of Muhammad. "one who submits"
Mosque Islamic place of worship.
Muezzlin Moslem crier who announces the hour of prayer.
Ramadan The ninth month of the Moslem year, when Muhammad received the Qur'an
from heaven, now a month of fasting.
Salat Moslem daily prayer ritual. One of the five pillars of Islam.
Shi'ites Moslem sect which insists that Muhammad's son-in-law 'Ali was Muhammad's
rightful successor.
Sufis Iranian philosophical mystics who have interpreted Islam for themselves.
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Islam Terms
Sunnites Largest Moslem sect which acknowledges all of Muhammad's successors.
Surahs What the chapters of the Qur'an are called.
The Dargah- one of the most important pilgrimage sites for Muslims
References
McDowell, Josh and Don Stewart, Handbook of Today's Religions. Nashville: Thomas
Nelson Publishers, 1983. Twelfth printing, June 1992.
Shelley, Fred M. and Audrey E. Clarke, eds. Human and Cultural Geography.
Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Publishers, 1994.
Images
'The Dargah' courtesy of About Rajasthanhttp://www.rajasthanweb.com/about/religion/
index.htm
Written by Sara Wenner, 2001
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Judaism
Judaism
History of Judaism
Jewish Terms
Basic Beliefs
Geographic Concentration
Links to More Judaism Sites
Jewish man praying at the Wailing Wall in Jerusalem.
Written by Sara Wenner, 2001
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Basic Beliefs of Judaism
Basic Beliefs of Judaism
Judaism is a monotheistic religion which believes that the
world was created by a single, all-knowing divinity, and that
all things within that world were designed to have meaning
and purpose as part of a divine order. According to the
teachings of Judaism, God's will for human behavior was
revealed to Moses and the Israelites at Mount Saini. The
Torah, or commandments, which regulate how humans are to
live their lives, were a gift from God so that they might live in
according to His will.
Statement of Faith
Moses Maimonides, a Spanish Jew who lived in the 12th century, tried to condense the
basic beliefs of Judaism into the form of a creed. It is still followed by the traditional
forms of Judaism.
1. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, blessed be His Name, is the Creator and
Guide of everything that has been created; He alone has made, does make, and will make
all things.
2. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, blessed be His Name, is One, and that there
is no unity in any manner like unto His, and that He alone is our God, who was, and is,
and will be.
3. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, blessed be His Name, is not a body, and that
He is free from all the properties of matter, and that He has not any form whatever.
4. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, blessed be His Name, is the first and the
last.
5. I believe with perfect faith that to the Creator, blessed be His Name, and to Him alone,
it is right to pray, and that it is not right to pray to any being besides Him.
6. I believe with perfect faith that all the works of the prophets are true.
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Basic Beliefs of Judaism
7. I believe with perfect faith that the prophecy of Moses, our teacher, peace be unto him,
was true, and that he was the chief of the prophets, both of those who preceded and of
those who followed him.
8. I believe with perfect faith that the whole Torah, now in our possession, is the same that
was given to Moses, our teacher, peace be unto him.
9. I believe with perfect faith that this Torah will not be changed, and that there will never
be any other Law from the Creator, blessed be His name.
10. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, blessed be His name, knows very deed of
the children of men, and all their thoughts, as it is said. It is He that fashioned the hearts of
them all, that gives heed to all their works.
11. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, blessed be His Name, rewards those that
keep His commandments and punishes those that transgress them.
12. I believe with perfect faith in the coming of the Messiah; and, though he tarry, I will
wait daily for his coming.
13. I believe with perfect faith that there will be a revival of the dead at the time when it
shall please the Creator, blessed be His name, and exalted be His Fame for ever and ever.
For Thy salvation I hope, O Lord.
Three Branches of Judaism
These are the three branches of Judaism which form the framework for the type of
lifestyle and beliefs of Jewish individuals:
OrthodoxTraditionalists who observe most of the traditional dietary and ceremonial laws of
Judaism
ConservativeDo not hold to the importance of a Jewish political state, but put more emphasis on
the historic and religious aspects of Judaism, doctrinally somewhere between
Orthodox and Reform
Reformhttp://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/cultural/religion/judaism/beliefs.html (2 of 3)3/1/2006 8:28:19 PM
Basic Beliefs of Judaism
The liberal wing of Judaism, culture and race oriented with little consensus on
doctrinal or religious belief
References
McDowell, Josh and Don Stewart, Handbook of Today's Religions. Nashville: Thomas
Nelson Publishers, 1983. Twelfth printing, June 1992.
Shelley, Fred M. and Audrey E. Clarke, eds. Human and Cultural Geography. Dubuque,
Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Publishers, 1994.
Images
COLOR="#330099" FACE="Times New Roman" SIZE="4">'Moses' and 'Menorah'
courtesy of World Religions in Images <
Written by Sara Wenner, 2001
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History of Judaism
History of Judaism
The Old Testament books of the Bible
describe numerous struggles of the Jewish
people. After their triumphant Exodus from
Egyptian captivity following Moses, they
wandered around in the desert for forty
years before entering the Promised Land.
They had many conflicts with neighboring
societies, yet for several centuries were
able to maintain a unified state centered in
Jerusalem.
This occupation of the Promised Land was
not to last, however. In 722 BC, the
northern part of the Hebrew state fell to
Assyrian raiders. By 586 BC, Jerusalem was conquered by Babylonians. The land of Israel
was successively ruled by Persians, Macedonians, Greeks, Syrians, and Romans in the
time that followed. As a result of the Syrian King Antiochus IV Epiphanes' attempt to
suppress the Jewish religion, a rebellion led by Judas Maccabaeus in 167 BC resulted in
the independence of the Jewish nation. This is celebrated today by the festival Hanukkah.
In 70 AD, the Roman army destroyed Jerusalem, and the Jews were forced out of the area
and settled in Mediterranean countries and in other areas in southwest Asia. This
migration of the Jewish population is known as Diaspora. Many of these Jews settled in
Europe and became victims of persecution and poverty. Ghettoes and slums became their
homes and massacres were common. Because of these living conditions, many fled to the
United States in the late 19th century. Migration to the States especially climbed during
the aftermath of the Holocaust, the organized murder of Jews during and after World War
II. Today the United States has the largest population of Jewish people with high
concentration areas in New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Boston, Miami, and Washington
D.C.
In 1917, an attempt to reestablish Palestine as the Jewish homeland began. By 1948, the
State of Israel became an independent country. They have regained their Hebrew
language, which involved inventing words for modern inventions and concepts unheard of
centuries ago and writing a Hebrew dictionary to unify the language.
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Jewish Terms
Jewish Terms
Diaspora The dispersion of the Jews.
Hanukkah The feast of dedication celebrating the Maccabean victory in 167 B.C.
Passover Annual feast commemorating the deliverance of the firstborn in Egypt when the angel of death
took all those who did not have blood on the doorpost.
Pentateuch The first five books in the Old Testament. Also called Torah.
Rosh Hashanah The Jewish New Year.
Sabbath The holy day of rest which commemorates God's completed work of creation and His
liberation of the Israelites from their bondage in Egypt.
Seder The festival held in Jewish homes on the first night of Passover.
Shabuot The feast of weeks, seven weeks after Passover, which commemorates the giving of the Ten
Commandments. Also called Pentecost.
Sukkoth The feast of tabernacles celebrating the harvest.
Talmud The Jewish library of oral law and tradition.
Torah The Pentateuch, or the entire body of Jewish religious literature, law and teaching as contained
chiefly in the Old Testament and Talmud.
Yom Kippur The day of atonement, devoted to confession of sins and reconciliation with God, ten days
after Rosh Hashanah.
http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/cultural/religion/judaism/terms.html (1 of 2)3/1/2006 8:29:01 PM
Jewish Terms
Wailing Wall
References
McDowell, Josh and Don Stewart, Handbook of Today's Religions. Nashville: Thomas Nelson
Publishers, 1983. Twelfth printing, June 1992.
Shelley, Fred M. and Audrey E. Clarke, eds. Human and Cultural Geography. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C.
Brown Publishers, 1994.
Written by Sara Wenner, 2001
http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/cultural/religion/judaism/terms.html (2 of 2)3/1/2006 8:29:01 PM