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LECTURE IV
THE CLASSIFICATION OF ENGLISH CONSONANT PHONEMES
The English consonant phonemes are classified according to the following
principles:
1. The active organ of speech
2. The place of obstruction
3. The work of the vocal cords
4. The position of the soft palate
5. The type of obstruction
6. The manner of the production of noise
According to the active organ of speech the English consonants are
divided into labial, lingual and pharyngal.
Labial consonants are those in the articulation of which the lips are active.
Lingual consonants are those in the articulation of which the tongue is
active.
Glottal consonants (pharyngal V.A. Vassiliev) are those in the articulation
of which the root of the tongue moves to the back part of the wall of the
pharynx which is slightly contracted, as in [h] sound.
According to the part of the tongue the lingual consonants are subdivided
into fore-lingual, medio-lingual and back-lingual.
Fore-lingual consonants are those in the articulation of which the tip of
the tongue is active, as in [t], [d], [n], [s], [z], [l].
Medio-lingual consonants are those in the articulation of which the
middle part of the tongue is active, as in [j].
Back-lingual consonants are those in the articulation of which the back
part of the tongue is active, as in [k], [g], [ŋ].
According to the position of the tip of the tongue the fore-lingual
consonants are subdivided into apical and, cacuminal.
Apical consonants are those in the articulation of which the tip of the
tongue is against the upper teeth or the alveoli, as in [t], [d], [n], [l], [s], [z],
[θ], [∂].
Cacuminal consonants are those in the articulation of which the tip of the
tongue is against the back part of the alveoli, as in [r].
According to the place of obstruction (the point of articulation) the
English consonants are divided into bi-labial, labio-dental, dental, alveolar,
palato-alveolar, post-alveolar, palatal and velar.
Bi-labial consonants are those in the articulation of which the lips are
brought together, as in [p], [b], [m], [w].
Labio-dental consonants are those in the articulation of which the lower
lip is against the upper teeth, as in [f], [v].
Dental consonants, or interdental, are those in the articulation of which
the tip of the tongue is at the upper teeth, as in [θ], [∂].
Alveolar consonants are those in the articulation of which the tip of the
tongue is against the alveoli, as in [t], [d], [n], [l], [s], [z].
Palato-alveolar consonants are those in the articulation of which the tip
and the blade of the tongue are against the alveoli, while the front of the
tongue is raised in the direction of the hard palate, as in [∫], [ ], [t∫], [d ].
Post-alveolar consonants are those in the articulation of which the tip of
the tongue is against the back part of the alveoli, as in [r].
Palatal consonants are those in the articulation of which the front part of
the tongue is against the hard palate, as in [j].
Velar consonants are those in the production of which the back of the
tongue is raised in the direction of the soft palate, as in [k], [g], [ŋ].
According to the work of the vocal cords and the force of articulation the
English consonants are divided into voiced and voiceless, and according to
the force – into fortis and lenis.
Voiced consonants are those in the articulation of which the vocal cords
are brought together and vibrate, as in [b], [d], [g], [l], [m], [n]. They are
weak, or lenis.
Voiceless consonants are those in the articulation of which the vocal cords
are kept apart and do not vibrate, as in [p], [t], [k], [s], [h]. They are strong,
or fortis.
According to the position of the soft palate the consonants may be oral
and nasal.
Oral consonants are those in the articulation of which the soft palate with
the uvula is raised and the stream of air goes out through the mouth cavity,
as in [b], [l], [t], [z].
Nasal consonants are those in the articulation of which the soft palate with
the uvula is lowered and the stream of air goes out through the nasal cavity,
as in [m], [n], [ŋ].
According to the type of obstruction the English consonants are divided
into occlusive, constrictive.
Occlusive consonants are those in the articulation of which a complete
obstruction is formed by the organs of speech. The air-passage is completely
blocked, as in [p], [b], [t], [d], etc.
Constrictive consonants are those in the articulation of which an
incomplete obstruction is formed by the organs of speech. The air-passage is
only narrowed, as in [f], [v], [s], [z], etc.
According to the focus of obstruction, or to their coarticulation, the
English consonants may be unicentral and bicentral.
Unicentral consonants are those in the articulation of which the narrowing
has only one focus of obstruction, as in [f], [v], [s], [z], etc.
Bicentral consonants have two foci of obstruction as in [w], [l], [t ], [d ].
Bicentral consonants may have a front secondary focus and a back
secondary focus.
The front secondary focus, or the tongue front coarticulation is formed
by the front of the tongue against the hard palate, as in [t ], [d ] and clear
[l]. It gives the sound a clear (“soft”) colouring.
The back secondary focus, or the tongue back coarticulation is formed
by the back part of the tongue against the soft palate, as in [w] and dark [l].
It gives the sound the dark (“hard”) colouring.
According to the form of the narrowing the English unicentral consonants
may be produced with a flat narrowing, as [f], [v], [h], [θ], [∂] and with a
round narrowing, as in [s], [z].
According to the manner of the production of noise occlusive consonants
are subdivided into plosive consonants (or stops) and affricatives.
Constrictive consonants are fricative.
Plosive consonants are those in the articulation of which the stream of air
breaks the obstruction quickly and produces a sound of plosion, as in [p],
[b], [t], [d], [k].
Affricative consonants are those in the articulation of which the stream of
air is first stopped and then slowly released with friction, as in [t ], [d ].
Fricative consonants are those in the articulation of which the stream of air
produces a sound of friction, as in [f], [v], [s], [z], [h], θ], [∂].
Into what groups are the English sonorants subdivided? Occlusive
sonorants are nasal; constrictive sonorants are subdivided into median and
lateral.
Nasal sonorants are those in the articulation of which the soft palate with
the uvula is lowered and the stream of air goes out through the nasal cavity,
as in [m], [n], [ŋ]. The musical tone is stronger than the noise.
Median constrictive sonorants are those in the articulation of which the
stream of air passes by the central part of the tongue, as in [w], [r], [j]. The
narrowing is wide and the musical tone is stronger than the noise.
Lateral constrictive sonorants are those in the articulation of which the
stream of air goes out by the sides of the tongue, as in [l]. The musical tone
is also very strong.