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LECTURE IV THE CLASSIFICATION OF ENGLISH CONSONANT PHONEMES The English consonant phonemes are classified according to the following principles: 1. The active organ of speech 2. The place of obstruction 3. The work of the vocal cords 4. The position of the soft palate 5. The type of obstruction 6. The manner of the production of noise According to the active organ of speech the English consonants are divided into labial, lingual and pharyngal. Labial consonants are those in the articulation of which the lips are active. Lingual consonants are those in the articulation of which the tongue is active. Glottal consonants (pharyngal V.A. Vassiliev) are those in the articulation of which the root of the tongue moves to the back part of the wall of the pharynx which is slightly contracted, as in [h] sound. According to the part of the tongue the lingual consonants are subdivided into fore-lingual, medio-lingual and back-lingual. Fore-lingual consonants are those in the articulation of which the tip of the tongue is active, as in [t], [d], [n], [s], [z], [l]. Medio-lingual consonants are those in the articulation of which the middle part of the tongue is active, as in [j]. Back-lingual consonants are those in the articulation of which the back part of the tongue is active, as in [k], [g], [ŋ]. According to the position of the tip of the tongue the fore-lingual consonants are subdivided into apical and, cacuminal. Apical consonants are those in the articulation of which the tip of the tongue is against the upper teeth or the alveoli, as in [t], [d], [n], [l], [s], [z], [θ], [∂]. Cacuminal consonants are those in the articulation of which the tip of the tongue is against the back part of the alveoli, as in [r]. According to the place of obstruction (the point of articulation) the English consonants are divided into bi-labial, labio-dental, dental, alveolar, palato-alveolar, post-alveolar, palatal and velar. Bi-labial consonants are those in the articulation of which the lips are brought together, as in [p], [b], [m], [w]. Labio-dental consonants are those in the articulation of which the lower lip is against the upper teeth, as in [f], [v]. Dental consonants, or interdental, are those in the articulation of which the tip of the tongue is at the upper teeth, as in [θ], [∂]. Alveolar consonants are those in the articulation of which the tip of the tongue is against the alveoli, as in [t], [d], [n], [l], [s], [z]. Palato-alveolar consonants are those in the articulation of which the tip and the blade of the tongue are against the alveoli, while the front of the tongue is raised in the direction of the hard palate, as in [∫], [ ], [t∫], [d ]. Post-alveolar consonants are those in the articulation of which the tip of the tongue is against the back part of the alveoli, as in [r]. Palatal consonants are those in the articulation of which the front part of the tongue is against the hard palate, as in [j]. Velar consonants are those in the production of which the back of the tongue is raised in the direction of the soft palate, as in [k], [g], [ŋ]. According to the work of the vocal cords and the force of articulation the English consonants are divided into voiced and voiceless, and according to the force – into fortis and lenis. Voiced consonants are those in the articulation of which the vocal cords are brought together and vibrate, as in [b], [d], [g], [l], [m], [n]. They are weak, or lenis. Voiceless consonants are those in the articulation of which the vocal cords are kept apart and do not vibrate, as in [p], [t], [k], [s], [h]. They are strong, or fortis. According to the position of the soft palate the consonants may be oral and nasal. Oral consonants are those in the articulation of which the soft palate with the uvula is raised and the stream of air goes out through the mouth cavity, as in [b], [l], [t], [z]. Nasal consonants are those in the articulation of which the soft palate with the uvula is lowered and the stream of air goes out through the nasal cavity, as in [m], [n], [ŋ]. According to the type of obstruction the English consonants are divided into occlusive, constrictive. Occlusive consonants are those in the articulation of which a complete obstruction is formed by the organs of speech. The air-passage is completely blocked, as in [p], [b], [t], [d], etc. Constrictive consonants are those in the articulation of which an incomplete obstruction is formed by the organs of speech. The air-passage is only narrowed, as in [f], [v], [s], [z], etc. According to the focus of obstruction, or to their coarticulation, the English consonants may be unicentral and bicentral. Unicentral consonants are those in the articulation of which the narrowing has only one focus of obstruction, as in [f], [v], [s], [z], etc. Bicentral consonants have two foci of obstruction as in [w], [l], [t ], [d ]. Bicentral consonants may have a front secondary focus and a back secondary focus. The front secondary focus, or the tongue front coarticulation is formed by the front of the tongue against the hard palate, as in [t ], [d ] and clear [l]. It gives the sound a clear (“soft”) colouring. The back secondary focus, or the tongue back coarticulation is formed by the back part of the tongue against the soft palate, as in [w] and dark [l]. It gives the sound the dark (“hard”) colouring. According to the form of the narrowing the English unicentral consonants may be produced with a flat narrowing, as [f], [v], [h], [θ], [∂] and with a round narrowing, as in [s], [z]. According to the manner of the production of noise occlusive consonants are subdivided into plosive consonants (or stops) and affricatives. Constrictive consonants are fricative. Plosive consonants are those in the articulation of which the stream of air breaks the obstruction quickly and produces a sound of plosion, as in [p], [b], [t], [d], [k]. Affricative consonants are those in the articulation of which the stream of air is first stopped and then slowly released with friction, as in [t ], [d ]. Fricative consonants are those in the articulation of which the stream of air produces a sound of friction, as in [f], [v], [s], [z], [h], θ], [∂]. Into what groups are the English sonorants subdivided? Occlusive sonorants are nasal; constrictive sonorants are subdivided into median and lateral. Nasal sonorants are those in the articulation of which the soft palate with the uvula is lowered and the stream of air goes out through the nasal cavity, as in [m], [n], [ŋ]. The musical tone is stronger than the noise. Median constrictive sonorants are those in the articulation of which the stream of air passes by the central part of the tongue, as in [w], [r], [j]. The narrowing is wide and the musical tone is stronger than the noise. Lateral constrictive sonorants are those in the articulation of which the stream of air goes out by the sides of the tongue, as in [l]. The musical tone is also very strong.