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The basis of culture I. Culture & society A. To sociologists, culture is all the shared products of human groups – things that people create = includes both physical objects and the beliefs, values & behaviors shared by a group. 1. Physical objects (material culture) things like skyscrapers, cars, clothing, restaurants, books, cell phones etc 2. Nonmaterial culture of the U.S. – includes beliefs, rules, customs, family systems, language, work practices, capitalist economy, etc. • B. Culture helps to explain human social behavior – what people do & don’t do, what they like & dislike, what they believe or don’t believe, etc. • C. Culture provides the blueprint that people in a society use to guide their relationships with others • D. Culture & society are tightly interwoven – one can’t exist without the other, but they aren’t identical – 1. Society – a group of people who live in a defined territory & participate in a common culture – 2. Culture – is that society’s total way of life – 3. Human behavior is based on culture and since people aren’t born knowing their culture, human cultural behavior must be learned II. Culture & heredity A. Instincts – genetically inherited patterns of behavior 1. Nonhuman animals are highly dependent on instincts for survival, but instincts aren’t enough to solve the problems that humans face B. Why is culture more important than instincts in determining human behavior? 1. If humans were controlled by instincts alone, they would all behave the same way with respect to those instincts 2. Without instincts to dictate the type of shelter to build, the kind of food to eat, the time of year to have children or when to mate, humans are forced to create and learn their own ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving. (Humans rely on the culture they have created) C. How does heredity affect behavior? 1. Nature vs. Nurture – studies of identical twins – researchers determined that about ½ of your personality traits are determined by your genetic makeup and about ½ by biological factors. 2. Humans have reflexes – simple, biologically inherited, automatic reactions to physical stimuli 3. Humans also have drives – biologically inherited impulses to reduce discomfort. ( we want to eat, drink, sleep and associate with others) 4. Genetically inherited personality, reflexes, and drives don’t control human social behavior – humans rely on their culture III. Sociobiology A. Sociobiology – the study of the biological basis of human behavior. It combines Darwin’s theory of natural selection with modern genetics. (Darwin said organisms evolve through natural selection – plants and animals best suited to an environment survive & reproduce, while the rest perish B. How do sociologists view human behavior? 1. Sociobiologists don’t draw a sharp line between human and nonhuman animals 2. Sociobiologists believe that most human behavior is determined by biological factors C. What are some criticisms of sociobiology? 1. The importance placed on genetics could be used as a justification to label specific races as inferior or superior 2. There is too much variation in societies around the world for human behavior to be explained on strictly biological grounds D. Is there a middle ground? 1. Most sociologists today believe that human behavior results from a blending of heredity and environmental influences, with environmental factors having the most influence Language & culture I. Symbols, language & culture A. What are symbols? 1. Symbols – things that stand for or represent something else and has a shared meaning attached to it. 2. Any word, gesture, image, sound, physical object, event or element of the natural world would be a symbol as long as people recognize that it carries a particular meaning 3. A symbol may have different meanings attached. Ex = Confederate flag – for many African Americans it represents oppression/slavery, for many white Southerners it represents cultural heritage B. How are language & culture related 1. Language is probably the most obvious aspect of any culture – it allows us to create culture 2. It’s the organization of written or spoken symbols into a standardized system. Words, when organized according to accepted rules of grammar, can be used to express any idea 3. The use of language is very important in our daily life. With language, humans can pass their experiences, ideas and knowledge to others. II. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis A. Sapir Whorf Hypothesis – hypothesis of linguistic relativity – theory states that our idea/perception of reality depends largely upon the particular language we have learned. (Since languages differ, perceptions differ as well) B. What can vocabulary tell you about culture? 1. When something is important to a society, its language will have many words to describe it. (Time in the U.S. = minute, hour, evening, afternoon, day, decade century etc) 2. When something is unimportant to people, they may not have even one word for it. Ex = English language has only a few words to describe snow, the Inuit (Eskimo) language has over 20 C. Does the hypothesis of linguistic relativity mean we are prisoners of our language? 1. We aren’t trapped by our language. Exposure to another language or to new words can change a person’s perception of the world. 2. You can expand or limit your outlook, depending on how you use language D. What other factors help to shape our perception of reality? 1. Cultures may differ in many ways, and these differences influence how their members experience the world Norms and Values I. Norms: The rules we live by A. Norms – rules defining appropriate & inappropriate behavior B. Norms are expectations for behavior not actual behavior – we expect people to pay their bills but some don’t C. There are many norms in society ranging from the unimportant (cover your mouth when you yawn) to the very important (don’t kill other humans) D. Some norms apply to everyone in society, others are applied selectively. Marriage – in American society, no one is allowed to marry more than one person at a time. But, some people (clergy, children) can’t get married at all. E. Even important norms are applied selectively – killing another person is applied differently to the military and the police acting in the line of duty, than it is most members of society F. Anything can be considered appropriate when norms approve of it. Once norms are learned, members of a society use them to guide their social behavior II. Folkways, Mores, and Laws A. There are 3 basic types of norms: folkways, mores and laws. These three vary in their importance within a society and their violation is tolerated to different degrees. B. Folkways – norms that don’t have a great moral importance attached to them 1. They are the common customs of everyday life – shake hands when introduced to someone; if male, you remove your hat in church; get to class on time, do your homework, etc. 2. Because folkways aren’t considered vital to group welfare, disapproval of those who break them isn’t very great C. Mores – norms that have great moral importance and should be followed by members of a society. They are vital to the well being of society. 1. Conformity to mores draws strong social approval; violation brings strong disapproval 2. The more serious mores are taboos. Taboo – rule of behavior, the violation of which calls for strong punishment. (Although definitions of incest vary from society to society, the incest taboo (forbidding sexual contact with close relatives) is generally regarded as the only taboo present in all societies) D. How do laws differ from mores? 1. Law – norms that are formally defined and enforced by officials 2. Folkways and mores emerge slowly and are often unconsciously created, while laws are consciously created and enforced. 3. Laws often remain on the books for a long time after the mores of a society have changed III. Enforcing the rules A. Sanctions – rewards and punishments used to encourage people to follow norms. B. What are formal sanctions? 1. Sanctions that may be applied only by officially designated persons, such as judges or teachers. 2. Formal sanctions can be positive or negative. Ex = teacher rewards outstanding students with A’s. Commit a crime and you may go to jail 3. Formal punishments range widely in their severity – goes from “getting a slap on the wrist” to “having the book thrown at you” C. What are informal sanctions? 1. Rewards or punishments that can be applied by most members of society 2. Informal sanctions can be positive also ex = Positive informal sanctions – standing ovation, compliments, smiles, a pat on the back, etc. ex = Negative informal sanction – frowns, gossip, scolding, insults, being ignored, etc. 3. After we reach a certain age, most of us conform without the threat of sanctions. We may conform because we think the behavior expected is appropriate, because we wish to avoid guilt feelings, or because we fear social disapproval IV. Values – The basis of norms A. What are values? 1. Values – broad ideas about what is good or desirable shared by people in a society 2. Values are so general that they don’t dictate precise ways of thinking, feeling and behaving 3. Different societies or groups within the same society can have different norms based on the same values 4. Ex = Freedom – former Soviet Union – meant the right to have a job, medical care and education. Freedom – America – right to free speech and assembly, the right to engage in private enterprise, and the right to a representative gov’t B. Why are values important? 1. Values influence human social behavior because they form the basis for norms 2. Values, because they are so general, are involved in most aspects of daily life. (Freedom in America affects how people get along, how businesses and organizations are run, how the legal system works, how people worship, etc.) V. Basic values in the USA In the 1970’s, sociologist Robin Williams outlined a set of values that are central to the American way of life A. Personal achievement and success 1. We are a nation built on individualism & competition 2. A belief in PAS is most evident in our employment where achievement is measured in terms of power and wealth B. Activity and success 1. Discipline, dedication, and hard work are seen as signs of virtue – being on time, finishing a job, a job well done, etc. 2. People who choose not to work are usually seen as lazy or even immoral. Those who are poor are there because of their own cause C. Efficiency and Practicality 1. Americans tend to be practical and inventive people – every problem has a solution. We love to rely on science and technology 2. Americans tend to judge items on their usefulness and people on their ability to get things done D. Equality 1. America was founded on the principle of human equality 2. Americans today believe human equality means equality of opportunity – every individual in the U.S. should have an equal chance at success E. Democracy 1. Americans believe in democracy – all citizens are entitled to equal rights and equal opportunity under the law. 2. In a democracy, the people elect their gov’t officials – male or female. Power isn’t in the hands of an elite few (in theory) F. Group superiority – despite the concern for equality and opportunity, people in the U.S. tend to place a greater value on people of their own race, ethnic group, social class or religious group Do these values still persist in the U.S. today? Although William’s analysis of American values remains basically sound, some sociologists believe the list is incomplete. They would add optimism, honesty and friendliness. Beliefs and material culture I. Beliefs and Physical objects A. Nonmaterial culture – ideas, knowledge, and beliefs that influence people’s behavior B. Why do beliefs matter? 1. Beliefs – ideas about the nature of reality. 2. Beliefs can be true or false and beliefs are important because people base their behavior on what they believe, regardless of how true or false they may be C. What is material culture? 1. Material culture – concrete, tangible objects within a culture – cars basketballs, highways, etc. and have no meaning or use apart from the meanings that people give them D. How is material culture related to nonmaterial culture? 1. The use & meanings of physical objects can vary among societies. Ex = in the U.S. out of service buses, trains and trolley cars have been converted to restaurants or other businesses • 2. The cultural meaning of physical objects isn’t determined by the physical characteristics of the objects. It’s based on the beliefs, norms and values people hold with regard to them. Ex = churches – in the past only pianos and organs were used in church services. Today guitars, drums etc. are being used. The instruments (in the past they weren’t “holy” enough) haven’t changed, but the cultural meanings placed on them has II. Ideal and real culture A. Ideal culture – refers to cultural guidelines publicly embraced by members of a society B. Real culture – refers to actual behavior patterns, which often conflict with the guidelines. Ex = one value of America’s ideal culture is honesty, but in real culture honesty isn’t always practiced (cheat on a test, unethical business practice, cheat on taxes, etc.) C. Does the fact that we sometimes ignore cultural guidelines make ideal culture worthless? No because in an imperfect world, ideal culture provides high standards. These are ideals that most people attempt to reach most of the time. People who deviate too far from the ideal pattern are sanctioned and this helps to preserve the ideal culture. Cultural diversity & similarity I. Cultural change A. All cultures experience change. Norms, values, and beliefs are fairly stable, but they change over time. B. Why does culture change? 1. Culture changes for 3 reasons: a. Discovery – the process of finding something that already exists. Ex = the generally unrecognized athletic abilities of females. This is changing the perception of women and the relationship between males and females Reasons for cultural change cont. b. Invention – the creation of something new. Ex = computers and cell phones have greatly altered our way of life c. Diffusion – a process of spreading culture traits from one society to another ex = people borrow ideas, acts, beliefs, etc. from other societies. The more contact a society has with other societies, the more ideas will be borrowed – tacos, pizza and hamburgers can be found on menus all over the world II. Cultural diversity A. What are subcultures and countercultures? 1. Subculture – a culture that lives within a culture a. most subcultures don’t reject all of the values and practices of the larger society b. most subcultures don’t present a threat to society 2. Counterculture – a subculture that rejects the values and norms of the larger society and replaces them with a new set of cultural patterns. a. these countercultural practices are intended to challenge the values of the larger society. Ex = “goth” and “punk” scene, Hare Krishnas, youth movement of the 1960’s etc. III. Ethnocentrism – viewing your won culture as superior to all others – tendency to believe that your own ideas and ways of doing things are best A. Examples of ethnocentrism 1. The Olympics – a country’s final ranking in this athletic competition is frequently seen as a reflection of the country’s worth and status on the world stage. 2. Regional rivalries in the U.S. – Texas says it has the biggest and best of everything; New Yorkers say Los Angeles has no culture B. Does ethnocentrism help or hurt society? 1. It may help if not taken to the extreme. a. Stability is promoted because traditions and behaviors are highly valued b. If society is too rigid, it becomes inflexible & can prevent change for the better. Ex = Chinese built a wall to keep both invaders and new ideas out IV. Cultural Universals A. Cultural Universals – traits that exist in all cultures 1. In the 1940’s, anthropologist George Murdock studied 100’s of different cultures and made a list of over 60 cultural universals – cooking, sports, religion, body adornment, dancing, music. Etc. B. How are cultural universals expressed? 1. Cultural universals aren’t always carried out in the same way – different cultures have developed quite different ways to express universals. 2. Cultural particulars – the ways in which a culture expresses universal traits. Ex = child rearing is a cultural universal. In the U.S. women have traditionally been responsible for this but in other countries it is the man’s responsibility C. Why do cultural universals exist? 1. They exist because of the biological similarity shared by all human beings. Ex = if a society is to survive, children must be born and cared for, and some type of family structure must exist. 2. They exist because of the physical environment. Ex = Humans can’t survive without protection from the environment, so some kind of shelter must be created. 3. They exist because societies face many of the same social problems. Ex = if a society is to survive, new members must be taught the culture, goods and services must be produced and exchanged, jobs must be assigned and work must be accomplished