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Supply
and Demand
Chapter 3
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2011 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Market Participants
• More than 300 million individual
consumers, 30 million business firms,
and many thousands of government
agencies participate directly in the U.S.
economy.
• Millions of foreigners also participate
by buying and selling goods in
American markets while Americans
participate in foreign markets.
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Goals of
Market Participants
• Consumers — maximize happiness or
satisfaction from goods and services.
• Businesses — maximize profits.
• Government — maximize general
welfare of society.
• Foreigners—pursue same goals as
consumers, producers, and
government agencies.
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Constraints
• Limited resources:
– Consumers need to make choices from
available products.
– Producers must choose how to best use
their limited resources.
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Market and Interactions
• A market is any place where goods are
bought and sold and includes the
interaction of all buyers and sellers.
• Four groups of Market Participants:
– Consumers
– Business firms
– Governments
– Foreigners
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The Two Markets
• Factor Market:
– Any place where factors of production
(land, labor, capital, and
entrepreneurship) are bought and sold.
• Product Market:
– Any place where finished goods and
services (products) are bought and sold.
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Figure 3.1
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Product Market
• Consumers buy and producers sell in
the product market.
• Imports and exports are also a part of
the product market.
• Governments supply goods and
services in product markets.
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Locating Markets
• A market is anywhere an economic
exchange occurs.
• A market exists wherever and
whenever an exchange takes place.
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Dollars and Exchange
• Some market transactions involve
barter.
– Barter is the direct exchange of one good
for another, without the use of money.
• Bartering has limits as it requires a
seller who wants whatever good is up
for exchange.
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Dollars and Exchange
• Nearly every market transaction
involves an exchange of dollars for
goods (in product markets) or
resources (in factor markets).
• Money plays a critical role in facilitating
market exchanges and the
specialization these exchanges permit.
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Supply and Demand
• Market transactions require two sides:
-Supply
-Demand
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Supply and Demand
• Supply – The ability and willingness to
sell (produce) specific quantities of a
good at alternative prices in a given
time period, ceteris paribus (other
things being equal).
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Supply and Demand
• Demand – The ability and willingness
to buy specific quantities of a good at
alternative prices in a given time
period, ceteris paribus (other things
being equal).
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Supply and Demand
• Every market transaction involves an
exchange and thus some element of
both supply and demand.
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Individual Demand
• A demand exists only if someone is
both willing and able to pay for a good.
• How much someone is willing to pay
for something is determined by his/her
income and the opportunity cost.
– Opportunity cost – the most desired
goods or services foregone in order to
obtain something else.
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Demand Schedule
• A table showing the quantities of a
good a consumer is willing and able to
buy at alternative prices in a given time
period, ceteris paribus.
• Demand is an expression of buyer
intentions—of a willingness to buy—not
a statement of actual purchases.
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Demand Curve
• A curve describing the quantities of a
good a consumer is willing and able to
buy at alternative prices in a given time
period, ceteris paribus.
• The demand curve does not state
actual purchases, rather only what
consumers are willing and able to
purchase.
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Figure 3.2
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Law of Demand
• The quantity of a good demanded in a
given time period increases as its price
falls, ceteris paribus.
• There is an inverse or negative
relationship between price and quantity
demanded, ceteris paribus.
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Determinants of
Demand
• Tastes (desire for this and other goods)
• Income (of the consumer)
• Other goods (their availability and
price)
• Expectations (for income, prices,
tastes)
• Number of buyers
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Ceteris Paribus
• The assumption that nothing else
changes.
– Focus on one or two forces at a time.
• Allows us to focus on the relationship
between quantity demanded and price.
• Tells us what independent influence
price has on consumption decisions.
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Shift in Demand
• The demand schedule and curve
remain unchanged only so long as the
underlying determinants of demand
remain constant.
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Shift in Demand
• Changes in any of the determinants of
demand will cause the demand curve
to shift.
• The quantity demanded at any (every)
given price changes.
• The demand curve always shifts only
to the right or to the left.
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Figure 3.3
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Movement versus Shifts
• Movements along a demand curve are
a response to price changes for that
good.
• Shifts of the demand curve occur only
when the determinants of demand
change.
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Movement versus Shifts
• Changes in quantity demanded:
– Movements along a given demand curve
in response to changes in price.
• Changes in demand:
– Shifts of the demand curve due to
changes in tastes, income, other goods,
or expectations.
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Market Demand
• The total quantities of a good or
service people are willing and able to
buy at alternative prices in a given time
period.
• The sum of individual demands.
• Market demand is determined by the
number of potential buyers and their
respective tastes, incomes, other
goods, and expectations.
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The Market
Demand Curve
• A picture of the total quantities
demanded by all consumers within a
market at different prices.
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The Use of
Demand Curves
• Show how much consumers will spend
at different prices.
• Predict the amount to produce at a
given price.
• Determine the price that will result in
desired output levels.
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Market Supply
• Supply interacts with demand to
determine the price that will be
charged.
• The total quantities of a good or
service that sellers are willing and able
to sell at alternative prices in a given
time period, ceteris paribus.
• The sum of individual supplies.
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Market Supply
• Market supply is an expression of
sellers’ intentions—of the ability and
willingness to sell—not a statement of
actual sales.
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Figure 3.5
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Determinants of Supply
•
•
•
•
•
•
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Technology
Factor (or resource) costs
Other goods
Taxes and subsidies
Expectations
Number of sellers
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Law of Supply
• The quantity of a good supplied in a
given time period increases as its price
increases, ceteris paribus.
• There is a direct or positive relationship
between price and quantity supplied,
ceteris paribus.
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Shifts in Supply
• Changes in a quantity supplied:
– Movement along a given supply curve.
• Changes in supply:
– Shifts in the supply curve due to a change
in one of the determinants of supply.
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Equilibrium
• Only one price and quantity are
compatible with the existing intentions
of both buyers and sellers.
• The price at which the quantity of a
good demanded in a given time period
equals the quantity supplied.
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Figure 3.6
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Equilibrium Price
• The equilibrium price occurs at the
intersection of the supply and demand
curves.
• There is only one equilibrium price.
• The market will naturally move toward
this price.
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Market Clearing
• Collective actions of sellers and buyers
create an equilibrium price.
• The equilibrium price and quantity
reflect a compromise between buyers
and sellers.
• No other compromise yields a quantity
demanded that is exactly equal to the
quantity supplied.
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Invisible Hand
• The market behaves as if it is directed
by some unseen force. Adam Smith
(1776) called this the invisible hand.
– It means that the equilibrium price is
determined by the collective behavior of
many buyers and sellers.
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Surplus and Shortage
• A market surplus or a market shortage
emerges whenever the market price is
set above or below the equilibrium.
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Market Shortage
• The amount by which the quantity
demanded exceeds the quantity
supplied at a given price.
• Occurs when the selling price is lower
than the equilibrium price.
• Sellers supply less than buyers
demand at the current price.
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Market Surplus
• The amount by which the quantity
supplied exceeds the quantity
demanded at a given price.
• Occurs when the selling price is higher
than the equilibrium price.
• Sellers supply more than buyers
demand at the current price.
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Changes in Equilibrium
• Equilibrium price and quantity change
whenever the supply or demand curves
shift.
• This happens when the determinants
of supply or demand change.
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Figure 3.7
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Disequilibrium Pricing
• Price Ceiling:
– Upper limit (maximum price) imposed on
the price of a good or service.
• Price Floor:
– Lower limit (minimum price) imposed on
the price of a good or service.
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Price Ceilings
• Price ceilings have three predictable
effects:
– They increase quantity demanded.
– They decrease quantity supplied.
– They create a market shortage.
• Rent controls on housing are an
example.
• There will be less housing for everyone
when rent controls are imposed.
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Figure 3.8
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Price Floors
• Price floors have three predictable
effects:
– They increase quantity supplied.
– They decrease quantity demanded.
– They create a market surplus.
• Minimum wages and price supports for
agriculture are examples.
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Figure 3.9
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Price Floors
• A government imposed price floor may
create:
– A wrong mix of output.
– An increased tax burden.
– An altered distribution of income.
• Government failure – a government
intervention that fails to improve
economic outcomes.
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Laissez Faire
• The doctrine of "leave it alone”, or of
nonintervention by government in the
market mechanism.
• Adam Smith, the founder of modern
economic theory, advocated laissez
faire in 1776.
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Optimal, Not Perfect
• Market outcomes are optimal, not
perfect.
• Optimal outcomes are the best
possible, given the level and
distribution of incomes and scarce
resources.
• We expect the choices made in the
marketplace to be the best possible
choices for each participant.
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End of
Chapter 3