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Lesson Notes Term 2
Science Primary Six
TOPIC 1:
The plant kingdom
Plants are divided into two main groups namely;
a)
Non flowering plants
b)
Flowering plants
Non flowering plants
 These are plants which don’t bear flowers
Groups of non flowering plants
 Spore bearing plants
 Coniferous plants
Spore bearing plants
 These are plants which bearing reproduce by means of spores.
Examples of spore bearing plants are:
 Ferns
 Mosses
 Liverworts
 Horsetails
Note
 A spore is a single cell which is able to develop into a new plant. Spores
usually have a protective cover around them called a spore case
Fern
These are green plants therefore they have chlorophyll.
 Ferms make their own food.
 Most fern are small but some tree fern grow to about 2 meters high.
 Ferns are the most advanced groups of spore bearing plants. They have
proper leaves, stems and roots.
 Ferns reproduce by means of spores. These spores are produced on the
lower side of the leaves in special brown spore cases.
 Ferns grow in shady moist places and dry when exposed to direct
sunlight.
Diagram
Mosses
 These are small green cushion like plants
 They commonly grow on house roofs verandah, tree trunks, logs , rocks,
and soils in damp and shady places.
 They grow many in the same place (areas)
 They reproduce by means of spores
 They contain chlorophyll therefore they make their own food
 Mosses consist of stalks, leaves and rhizoid
Diagram
Liverworts
 Some liverworts have loaf like structures and while others have plate like
bodies.
 They grow in wet moist places just like mosses
 They contain chlorophyll they make their own food
 They reproduce by means of spores
Conifers
 These are plants which don’t produce flowers but are able to bear seeds in
structures called cones
 Conifers have roots, stems and small needle shaped green leaves.
 They don’t have flowers but produce pollen and ovules in cones. Inside
the cones the ovules are exposed and not enclosed in the ovary
Examples of conifers include;
 Pine
 Cypress
 Cedor
 Cycades
 Fir
 Podo
 Ginkgo
Economic value of conifers
 They give us soft wood timber
 They are planted in home compounds as wind breakers
 They are a source of soft wood used to make paper, matchsticks and
ceiling boards
Flowering plants
 These are plants which bear flowers and reproduce by means of seeds
Groups of flowering plants
 Monocotyledonous plants
 Dicotyledonous plants
Monocotyledonous plants
 These are plants which bear seeds with one of monocotyledonous plants
Examples of cereal crops are;
 Millet
 Sorghum
 Rice
 Barley
 Wheat
 Oats
 Maize etc
Characteristics of monocotyledonous plants
 They produce seeds with one cotyledon
 They undergo hypogeal germination
 They have a fibrous root system
 They have leaves with parallel leaf venation
Dicotyledonous plants
 These are plants which bear seeds with two cotyledons
 All leguminous crops are examples of dicotyledonous plants eg; legumes
are beans, peas, groundnuts, beanbara nuts.
Characteristics of dicotyledonous plants
 They produce seeds with tow cotyledons
 They undergo epigeal germination
 They have a tap root system
 They have leaves with network leaf venation
A flowering plant
 A flowering plant consists of two systems namely;
Root system: it consist s of the main root (tap root) fibrous roots, root hairs, root
cap and lateral roots.
 Shoot system: this is a part of a plant above the ground level. The shoot
system consists of the following: stem leaves, axillary buds, terminal
buds, fruits, flowers, internodes, nodes.
Parts of flowering plants
Diagram
Terminal buds
 This is the growing tip of the plant
Axillary bud
 It grows into a branch, flower etc
Node
 This is a point on a stem where a leaf grows
Internodes
 This is a region between two nodes
Root cap
 It protects the growing tip of the main root.
Roots
 A root is a part of a plant which grows in the soil.
 A true root develops from a radicle.
 Roots which grow from a part of a plant rather than the radicle are called
adventitious roots.
Functions of roots to a plant
 They absorb water and mineral salts from the soil
 They hold a plant firmly in the soil
 Some roots store food for the plant
 Some roots help a plant to breathe
Functions of roots to the man
 Some roots are eaten by man
 Some roots are sold to get income
 Some roots are used as herbal medicines
 Some roots are used as wood fuel.
Root system
There are two main root systems namely:
 Tap roots system
 Fibrous root system
a) Taproot system
 This is a type of root formed directly from the radicle which forms a large
root with small lateral branches. Dicotyledonous plants have taproots
system
Diagram
Fibrous root system
 This is the type of root with no main root but with many roots of the same
size and length growing randomly.
Monocotyledonous plants have fibrous root system
Diagram
Types of roots
Examples are;
 Prop roots
 Clasping roots
 Stilt roots
 Buttress roots
 Breathing roots
 Storage roots
Prop roots
 They give extra support to the plant examples of plants which have prop
roots are: maize, sorghum, barley etc
Diagram
Buttress roots
They enlarge at the base of the plant and gives extra support. Examples are ; silk
cotton trees.
Diagram
Clasping roots
They enable the plant to climb by growing and clasping for support
Diagram
Breathing roots
They grow upwards and act as breathing organs for the plant eg rice, papyrus
seeds, cocoyam etc
Diagram
Stilt roots
They grow in muddy areas in swamps. They also give extra support to a plant,
e.g. mangrove
Diagram
Storage roots
These are roots which sore food mainly starch examples are; carrots, cassava,
sweat potatoes
Carrot
This is a swollen tap root with very short stem at the top. It is a swollen tap root
because it stores food
Diagram
Cassava root tuber
 This is a swollen root tuber. It has adventitious roots which branch off from
the stem
Sweet potatoes tuber
 This is a swollen adventitious root which develops from a node of a creeping
sweet potatoes stem
Osmosis
 This is a process by which water moves from an area of low salt
concentration to an area with a high salt concentration through a semipermeable membrane
Root hairs
 Help to absorb water and mineral salts through using a process of osmosis.
Osmosis enables the plant to absorb water and mineral salts.
Stems
Functions of stems to a plant
 They hold the leaves in the right position so as get enough sunlight
 They hold flowers for proper pollination and fruits for proper dispersal
 They carry out translocation
 Some stems make foot for the plants
Functions of stems to man
 Some stems are eaten as food
 Some stems are used as herbal medicine
 They are used as wood fuel
 They are used for building
 They are a raw material for timber
Types of stems
 Upright or erect stems
 Climbing or creeping stems
 Underground stems
Upright stems
 They grow straight in space. They are common stems found in dicots and
monocots examples are; woody plants, trees, legumes, pineapples, maize etc
Underground stems
 These are swollen underground stems which store food ( starch)
 There are four kinds of underground stems eg. Stem tubers., bulbs,
rhizomes, cons etc
Characteristics of underground stems
 They have scaly leaves at nodes
 They have buds or eyes or side shoots in the axil of scaly leaves
 They have terminal buds which grow into a shoot .
Stem tubers
 These are swollen underground stems which store food. They have buds or
eyes and scaly leaves. Examples are; Irish potatoes, and white yam
NB:
We eat the stem of the Irish potato and white yam
Diagram
Bulbs
 A bulb is an underground stem with a small stem and swollen fleshy leaves.
Examples of bulbs are; onions, garlic and spider lilly
Diagram
Functions of parts of an onion
Foliage Leaves
 They make food for the plant
Fleshy leaves
 They store food for the plant
Stem
 It is where the adventitious roots develop from
Salts from the soil and they also hold the plant firmly in the soil.
Note:
 Onions contain mineral salt called iodine
 Onions have leaves with parallel leaf venation so onions belong to
monocots.
Rhizomes
 A rhizome is a horizontal underground stem. Adventitious roots grow
from the nodes e.g.
 Ginger
 Canalily
 Zoysia grass
 Tumberic
Diagram
Leaves
 They make food for the plant
Stem
 Stores food for the plant
Adventitious roots
 They hold the plant firmly in the soil
 They absorb water and mineral salts from the soil
Corms
 A corm is a short vertical underground stem swollen with stored food. It has
scaly leaves, buds and adventitious roots. Eg cocoyam, gladiolus and crocus
Climbing stems
 These are weak stems which cannot support themselves upright
Reasons why climb others
 To get support
 To obtain enough sunlight for photosynthesis
Three ways how plants climb others
 Use of tendrils
 Use of hooks
 By twinning or clasping
Using tendril
 Plants which use tendril; to climb others are;
 Passion fruits
 Cucumber
 Pumpkins
 Melon
 Bourds
 Sponges
 Cow peas
Diagram
Using hoods
 Some plants climb by using hooks. Hooks are downward pointing
structures which prevent the climber from slipping off the other plant eg
rose flowers, bougainvillea.
Twinning or clasping stems
 These are stems which get support by clasping their weak stems on strong
stems. E.g. morning glory, some beans, and white yams
Plant stem propagation
 This is a way some plants can be grown (propagation using stems)
Bulbs
 Plants propagated by use of bulbs are; onions, garlic and spider lily
Rhizomes
 Plants propagated by use of rhizomes are; ginger, cannallily, zoysia, grass
and tumberic
Corms
 Plants propagated by use of corms are; cocoyams, gladiolus, and crocus
Stem tubers
 Plants propagated by use of stem tubers are; white yams, and irish
potatoes
Stem cutting
 Plants propagated by use of stem cutting are; cassava, sweat potatoes,
sugar cane, roses and hibiscus flowers
Suckers
 Plants planted (propagated) by suckers are; banana, sisal, and pineapple
Leaves
 A leaf is the food factory of the plant
Parts of a leaf
Apex
 It the tip of a leaf. its sharp and some have horns for protection against
predators
Margin
 It is an edge of a leaf. Some margins are wavy, smooth, incisedm servated
(saw edged)
Lanima (leaf blade)
 It’s the bread flat surface of a leaf. Most leaves are green
Leaf stalk /leaf veins
 The stalk attaches the leaf to the plant. It helps to transport materials to
and from the leaves.
Arrangement of veins in a leaf called leaf venation
The two types of are
Network venation
Stomata
 These are the very tiny holes found on a leaf. They help in gaseous
exchange in a leaf.
Types of leaves
 The lamina determines the type of leaves
 If the lamina is divided to the stalk into leaflets , it is called a compound
leaf
 An undivided leaf blade is called a simple leaf
Examples of compound leaves
There are four main kinds of compound leaves
 Trifolate
Diagram
 Palmate
Diagram
 Digitate
Diagram
 Cobed
Functions of leaves to plants
 Leaves help plants in making food during photosynthesis
 Leaves help plants in transpiration
 Some leaves are modified to store food eg cabbages, onions etc
 Some leaves helps in propagation e.g. bryophyllum
 The tips of some leaves develop tendrils for giving extra support eg
gloriossa
 Some leaves help plants to trap and eat some insects to get extra proteins
eg the pitcher plant
Photosynthesis
 Photosynthesis is the process by which plants make their own food from
simple substances.
Photo:
Means light
Synthesis: Means to make /build up.
The raw materials for photosynthesis are;
 Water
 Carbondioxide
The main products of photosynthesis is starch while the by-products are water
and oxygen
Conditions necessary for photosynthesis
i)
Chlorophyll
 The green colouring matter in leaves
 It helps to trap sunlight energy
ii)
Water
 Helps to combine with the carbondioxide to form starch
 It also helps to loop the plant
Iii)
Sunlight
 Provides light energy for photosynthesis to take place
iv) Carbondioxide
 Carbondioxide is a raw material that is needed to make starch
How leaves are adapted to photosynthesis
 They have a broad flat shape to increase surface are for light absorption
 They are thin to allow carbondioxide to reach the cells easily
 Stomata in the lower side of the leaf
 The leaves have a network of veins to transport food made in the leaves
 Leaves are arranged in away that each receiver maximum amount of light.
TRANSPIRATION
 This is the process by which plants lose water in form of water vapour
through the leaves to the atmosphere
An experiment to show transpiration
Results
 Droplets of water is collected inside the polythene bag
Conclusion
 Plants give off water in the form of water vapour
Factors affecting the rate of transpiration
 Temperature
Plants lose a lot of water on hot days than cool day.
 Light intensity
Light increases the rate of water loss, ie the stomata are open during day
and closed at night.
 Wind:
When it is windy the rate of transpiration is very high because more
vapour is brown away from the leaf surface.
 Large surface are of the leaf
This helps to increase the rate of water being lost through many stomata
in the leaf.
 Humidity
Is the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere. High humidity low
transpiration and low humidity high transpiration.
 Stomata
The greater the number of stomata the greater the rate of transpiration
Importance of transpiration
 It enables the water and mineral salts to be pulled from the roots to the
leaves where they are used
 It helps in cooling the plant
How plants reduce transpiration
 By shading off their leaves
 By forming a layer of wax on the leaf surface since it covers the stomata
 By reducing big leaves into thorny structures
Uses of leaves to animals
 Many leaves are eaten by animals and man
 Some leaves are used as herbal medicine
 Many leaves are eaten by wild animals
 Some leaves are used to thatch houses
Reproduction of flowering plants
There are two kinds of reproduction in flowering plants:
 A sexual
Does not involve gametes. It is sometimes called vegetative
propagation
 Sexual reproduction
Here the male and female gametes are involved.
Flowers
 They are structures involved in sexual reproduction.
The parts of a flower
Functions of parts of the flower
Sepals:
 Are the tiny leaves like structure at the base of the a flower. They
protect the flower and ovary when still a bud. They can also make
food. A group of sepals is called calyx.
Petals
 They are coloured leaves of a flower. Petal protect pistil and stamen in
some flowers. They attract pollinators. A group of petals is called
corolla
Stamen
 Is the male part of a flower. It is made of the filaments and anthems
The filaments hold the anthem while another manufactures and stores pollen.
Pistil /carpals
They are the female parts of a flower
They are made of;
 Ovary Which contains undeveloped seeds called ovules
 Stigma Is the top part of the pistil. It receives pollen grams
 Style
It is a thin tube joining the stigma and ovary.
 It allows pollen tube to pass through to take gametes to the ovules for
fertilization.
Flower stalk
 Hold /attaches the flower to the plant and it transports food, minerals
and water to the flower
Pollination
 Pollination is the transfer of pollen from another to the stigma.
Types of pollination
There are two types of pollination
 Self pollination
 Cross pollination
Self pollination
 This happens when the stigma receives pollen grains from the another of
the same flower.
Diagram
Cross pollination
 This takes place when the stigma receives pollen from another flower
from another plant of the same kind.
Diagram
Agents of pollination
These are things that bring about pollination
 Animals e.g. birds, bats and insects
 Wind
 Water
Characteristics of insect and wind pollinated flowers
Insect pollinated flowers
 Have nector
 Brightly coloured (smell)
 Produce few pollen grains
Wind pollinated flowers
 Have no nector
 Have dull petals
 Have little or no smell (scent)
 Produce a lot of light pollen
grains
Fertilization
 This is the union of male and female gametes to form a zygote
 After pollination, the pollen grows a pollen tube from the another
reaching down to the ovules, entering through or microphyle.
 The male gametes then fall through the tube to unite with an ovule in the
ovary
 After fertilization, many changes take place
 The ovary swells and becomes a fruit while the ovules becomes the seeds
Diagram showing fertilization in a flower
Seeds
A seed is a mature fertilized ovule, it develops into a new plant.
Seeds are classified into two groups.
 Monocotyledonous seeds
 Dicotyledonous seeds
Monocotyledonous seeds
These are seeds with one cotyledon
They are also called grains. Examples of monocotyledonous seeds are
 Rice
 Millet
 Sorghum
 Wheat
 Berlye
 Oats
 Maize
NB
A maize grain is not regarded as a seed but a fruit. This is because it has two
scars namely
 The style scar
 Stalk scar
External parts of a maize grain
Functions of each part of a maize grain
 Testa (seed coal)
Protects the inner delicate parts
 Endosperm
Stores food for the embryo
 Cotyledon
Absorbs food from the endosperm and supplies it to the growing
embryo during germination
 Style scar
Part where the style was attached
 Stalk scar
Part which attaches the grain to the stalk
 Embryo
Consists of two parts ie plumule and radicle. The embryo develops
into a new plant
 Radicle (embryo root)
Grows into the root system
Dicotyledonous seeds
These are seeds with two cotyledons. Examples of dicotyledonous seed are:
 Beans
 Soya beans
 Peas
 Tomatoes
 Mangoes
 Oranges
 Ovacadoes
 Paw paw etc
Part of a bean seed
Functions of each part
The functions of parts of a dicot seeds are the same except;
 Cotyledon
Provides food to the germinating seeds
 Micropyle
A small hole that allows air and water
 Hilum
A seal left behind where the seed was attached to pod/ ovary
Germination
 Germination is the development of an embryo of a young plant called
seedling.
Stages of germination
 The seed absorbs water through the micropyle and swells
 Water helps to soften the testa and dissolve the nutrients in the cotyledon
 The radicle grows fast, pushing through the testa into the soil
 It is protected by the root cap
 Root hair appear as soon as the radicle is attached to the soil
 Root hairs absorb water and mineral salts from the soil
 The plumule then pushes itself out of the soil protected by cotyledoion in
dicots and coleoptile in monocots
Types of germination
There are two types of germination:
 Epigeal germination
 Hypogeal germination
Epigeal germination
 Is the type of germination where cotyledon comes above the ground
 This type of germination is found in beans, peas, soya beans, oranges.,
and most woody trees
Diagram showing epigeal germination
Hypogeal germination
 This is the type of germination where the cotyledons remains below the
ground (soil).
 This is the type of germination is found in monocotyledonous plants such
as
 Maize
 Rice
 Barley
 Millet
 Wheat
 Most grasses
Diagram illustrating hypogeal germination
Conditions necessary for seed germination
The seed can only germinate if the following conditions are present: Oxygen necessary for respiration
 Water (moisture) for dissolving the stored food nutrients for easy
absorption by the embryo
 Warm (optimum/ light temperature) for source of heat energy and for
light conditions for growth
Differences between dicot and monocot plants
Monocot
Dicot
 Have one cotyledon
 Have two cotyledons
 Fibrous root system
 Tap root system
 Parallel veined leaves
 Net veined leaves
 Grows with one first leaf
 Grows with two leafs
 Hypogeal germination
 From true wood
 Epigeal germination
FRUITS
 A fruit is a developed ovary containing seeds.
 A fruit has two scars i.e. style scar and stalk scar
 Fruits protect the seeds and assists in scattering the seeds when ripes
Types of fruits
Fruits can be classified as follows:
 Succulent (fleshy ) fruits
 Dry fruits
Succulent fruits /juicy fruits
 These are fruits whose pericup and mesocap becomes juicy and fleshy and
can be eaten. They are divided into three main groups:
 Berries
 Drupes
 Pomes
Berries
These are fruits with many seeds
The soft pericup is divided into three layers namely;
 Epicap
 Mesocarp
 Mesocarp
Examples of berries
 Oranges
 Tomatoes
 Pawpaws
Diagram showing across section through an orange fruit
Drupes
A drupe is a fruit with one seed inside a hard endocarp
Drupes have three layers i.e.
 Epicarp
 Mesocarp
 Endocarp
Examples of drupes
 Mangoes
 Ovacadoes
 Coconuts
 Palm oil
 Cashew nuts
 Plums etc
Diagram showing a transverse section through drupes
Pomes
 These are fruits in which the receptacle becomes succulent and modified
as a fruit while the inner core is the pericarp
Examples of pomes
 Apples
 Figs
 Pears etc
Diagram showing the transverse section through an apple
Some fruits are formed one flower
 They are called simple fruits
 Sometimes all flowers on a stalk make one fruit, such fruits are called
multiple or composite fruits eg straw berries, pineapple
 Other fruits are formed from one inflorescence (group of small flowers)
(florets) such fruits are called aggregate fruits eg straw berries, grapes ,
sunflowers
 Fruit formed from other parts other than the ovary such as the receptacle
are called false fruits e.g. figs, apples etc
Dispersal of fruits and seeds
 Seed dispersal is the scattering of fruits and seeds away from parents plant
over a wider area.
 In some plants, only seeds are dispersed while in other plants, fruits are
dispersed with seeds.
Importance of seed dispersal
 Prevents over crow of plants (seeds)
 Reduce competition for light and nutrients
 Enables plants to colonize new areas
 Minimizes epidemic disease among the seedlings
 Increases chances of survival of the species
Agents of dispersal
 Water
 Animals
 Wind dispersal
 Explosive (self)
Characteristics of animal dispersal seeds
 Fruits and seeds are sometimes fleshy and juicy
 Some fruits have epicarps that are brightly coloured nicely scented to
attract animals
 Some fruits have hook, spikes, or sticky hair or as to attach on the skin of
animals
Examples of animal agents
 Man
 Monkeys
 Birds
 Bats
 Squirrels
 Baboons
Examples of fruits dispersed by animals
 Black jack (hooks)
 Mangoes (juicy)
 Boehavia (hairs)
Wind dispersed fruits and seeds
They have special adaptations e.g.;
 Are small and very light
 Some have taste of hair
 Others have parachutes like hair
 Others have censor mechanisms
Examples of wind dispersed seeds
 Tredax
 Jacaranda
 Dandelion
 Ash key
Water dispersal
 Seed dispersed by water are light
 They have air tight covering and main air spaces in their mesocarp to
enable them float
Examples
 Water lilly
 Coconuts
Diagram
Explosive mechanisms
 This method of dispersal is also called heat/mechanical dispersal
 When the fruit is ripe they dry and when the sun heats them up, they build
up tension and split open to throw the seeds away from the parents plant
to other distances.
Examples
 Soya beans
 Peas
 Beans
Diagram
Uses of fruits to man
 Some are eaten as food
 For sale
 For making medicine
 For decorations
Tropism
 Tropism is growth movement of plants in response to a stimulus
 A stimulus is any change in the environment which the plant is sensitive
to
Kinds of tropism
Phototropism
 This is the growth movement of plants towards light eg
 When a plant is placed in a dark box with a small opening towards the
light, the plant tends to grow towards the small hole to reach light.
Diagram
Plants grow towards light (phototropism )
Geotropism
 This is a growth movement of a plant towards the direction of force of
gravity
 Plant roots grow down-wards due to force of gravity.
Diagram for illustration
Hydrotropism
 This is a growth movement of a plant roots towards the source of water
and moisture
Thigmotropism
 This is a growth movement of some parts of certain plants in response to
touch one side. This stimulus helps twinning plants such as beans, passion
fruits and yams climb by use of tendrils, hooks.
Chemotropism
 This is the growth movement of plant parts towards the source of
chemicals eg pollen tubes grow the style to reach the ovules.
TOPIC 2:
Cattle Keeping
 Animal husbandry is the case and the management of farm animals or
livestock.
Examples of farm animals include
 Cattle
 Sheep
 Goats
 Pigs
 Rabbits
 Poultry
Cattle keeping
 Cattle keeping is the rearing of cows and bulls.
Importance of keeping cattle
 They provide us with meat and milk.
 They are a source of employment to the farmers
 Cow dung from cattle is a source of manure
 Bulls and oxen are used in ploughing and transportation.
 Bones, horn and hooves are used to make glue and some animal feeds.
 Hides from cattle are used to make leather.
 Cattle are used for payment of dowry.
Features of a cow
Types cattle
 Type of cattle means a class of cattle kept for a specific purpose.
The major types of cattle kept in Uganda are;
 Beef cattle
 Dairy cattle
 Dual purpose cattle
 Work type cattle.
Groups (types) breeds of cattle
 A breed is a family of cattle having specific characteristics.
Characteristics of a breed of cattle are determined by
1. Colour size
2. Milk yield
3. Body conformation
There are three types of cattle breeds namely: Local or indigenious breeds
 Exotic breeds
 Cross breeds
Local (indigenous) breeds
 Local breeds are breeds that have existed in East Africa for long.
 They are best called native breeds.
Examples of local breeds are:
 Ankole
 Boran
 Zebu
Advantages of the local breeds of cattle
 Local breeds are resistant to diseases
 They can survive on poor pasture
Disadvantages of rearing
 They are easily attacked by local diseases
 They need a lot of care and attention
 They need good pasture and water all the time.
Types of cattle
1. Beef cattle
Beef cattle are cattle kept for beef (meat) production.
Characteristics of beef cattle
 They have small heads
 They have short legs with long broad backs
 They mature quickly
 They have ability to survive drought
 They are block shaped.
Examples of beef cattle
 Abdean angus
 Hereford
 Charolais
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Galloway
Short horn
American Brahorn
Illustration of the body shape of beef cattle
Seen from aside
Seen from above
2. Dairy cattle
Dairy cattle are kept for milk production.
Characteristics of dairy cattle
 They have big well developed udder and four medium teats.
 They produce a lot of milk
 They have well set legs to support their weight
 They have plenty of space between the hind legs.
 Have small necks and wide well hind quarters.
 They are usually docile
Illustration of the body shape of dairy cattle
a)
b)
See from aside
Example of dairy cattle
 Brown swiss
 Jersey
See from above
 Guernsey
 Fresian
 Ayrshire
 Jamaica hope
3. Dual purpose cattle
 Dual purpose cattle are cattle kept for both beef (meat) and milk
production.
Examples of dual purpose cattle
1. Sahival
2. Milking short horn
3. Red poll
4. Work (drought) cattle
 Work cattle are cattle kept purposely to provide labour.
 They are used to plough soil, pull carts etc.
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Differences between exotic and local (Indigenous) breeds of cattle
Exotic breeds
Local breeds
They specific colours
 They have different colours
They mature quickly
 They mature slowly
They produce more meat and milk
 They produce less meat and
milk
They need a lot of care
 They need less care
They are not resistant to diseases
 They are resistant to diseases
They need good pasture and water
 They can survive on poor
all the time.
pasture and water.
Breeding of cattle
Breeding means maintaining (keeping) of inherited characteristics in cattle such
as;
 Colour
 Growth ability to live long
 Type milking ability
 Ability to resist diseases.
Types of breeding
1. In breeding
 In breeding is the continuous mating of very closely related animals such
as brothers and sisters.
Advantages of in-breeding
 It can strengthen good characteristics in the family of animals.
Disadvantages of in-breeding
 It can lead to poor quality production.
 It can lead to inheritance of bad traits etc.
b)
Line breeding
 Line breeding is the mating of closely related animals such as cousins.
 Line breeding can lead to inheritance of bad traits.
c)
Out breeding
 Out breeding is the mating of distantly related animals .
 Out breeding helps to restore good qualities that may be disappearing in a
breed.
d)
Cross breeding
Cross breeding is the mating of unrelated animals of different pure breeds
e.g. exotic breeds with local (indigenous) breeds.
Cross breeding results into off springs with very good qualities.
The off springs after cross breeding are called hybrids or cross breeds.
Hybrids (cross breeds) have better performance than their parents or
relatives.
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e)
Upgrading
 Up grading is the improving of quality of one breed by using a breed of
superior quality several times.
f)
Selective breeding
 Selective breeding is when good breeds in a herd are selected to mate.
 Bad or poor breeds in a herd are sold off for slaughter.
Reproduction in cattle
 Reproduction is the ability to produce off springs and increase in number.
There must be a male and female to mate and produce young ones.
Mating
 Mating may also be called serving (insemination). A heifer (cow) is ready
for mating at the age of 18 months. When a cow or heifer is ready for
serving (mating), it shows signs of heat (heat period).
Heat period
 Heat period is a period when a heifer or cow is ready to mate with a bull.
Signs of heat
 The cow mounts other cows
 The cow allows other cows to mount it.
 The cow loses appetite to graze.
 If it is a lactating cow, milk production drops.
 There is a slight rise in the body temperature of a cow.
 The is mucus discharge from the vulva.
 The vulva swells and changes colour i.e. From pink to red.
 The cow urinates frequently.
 The cow moos all the time and is restless.
Nb:
 Three weeks after period of service, if the cow shows no more signs of
heat, we say it has conceived (become pregnant).
Types of mating (service / insermination)
These are two types of insemination; National insemination
 Artificial inseminatin
Natural insemination
 This is where a bull is used to deposit semen (sperms) into the vagina of a
cow.
 There are two types of natural mating i.e. hand mating and pasture
mating.
 Hand mating is when a bull is broght to mate with a cow on heat.
 Pasture mating is when a bull is allowed to roam with cows such that it
mates easily with those on heat.
Advantages of natural mating (insemination)
 It is cheap for a farmer
 It is easy for a bull to notice signs of heat in cows.
 Both male and female enjoy the feeding of sex
 Farmer does not bother to look for an expert inseminator.
Disadvantages of natural insemination
 In breeding is easily practiced
 It is difficult to control venereal diseases
 It is difficult and expensive to transport a bull if non is around.
 Small cows can be injured by big bulls.
Artificial insemination
 Artificial insemination is where semen (sperms) are deposited into the
vigina of a cow using syringe instead of a bull.
Advantages of artificial insemination
 A farmer can control venereal diseases
 In breeding is controlled
 A farmer can use semen from different bulls to improve the breeds.
 It is cheaper to pay for insemination costs than to keep the bull.
 Semen from a dead good bull can still be used.
 A farmer can keep another cow than keeping a bull.
 It prevents injury to small cows
 Semen from a good bull can be imported.
Advantages of artificial insemination
 It may not give good results
 It must be used when the cow is on heat to avoid wastage of semen
 It is difficult to store semen
The reproductive system of a cow
Functions of each part
Vulva
 It receives and guides the penis inside
 It covers (protects) the vagina.
Vagina
 It is where sperms are deposited on their way to the uterus.
Cervix
 It protects the foetus during pregnancy by closing it.
Ovary
 It produces ova (eggs)
 It also produces hormones which control sexual cycle.
Ova
 These are female reproductive cells (garmates).
Uterus
 It provides suitable environment for implantation and development of the
foetus
 Implantation occurs in the uterus.
Oviduct (fallopian tube)
 It is where fertilization takes place
 It allows the fertilized egg to pass to the uterus.
The reproductive system of a bull
Functions of each part
Testes
 They produce sperms and hormones called testosterone responsible for
puberty and sexual desire.
Urethra
 It passes out urine and sperms to the penis
Sperm ducts
 The carry sperms to the urethra.
Penis
 It deposits semen containing sperms into the vagina.
Prostate glands and seminal vesicles
 They produce semen through which sperms swim.
Scrotum
 This is the outer covering carrying testes.
 It protects the testicles and regulates the temperature of testes.
Fertilization in a cow
 Fertilization is the joining (fusion) of the nucleus of the male and female
gametes to form a zygote.
A gamete is a reproductive cell.
 The female gamete is an ovum (egg) and the male gamete is a sperm.
 After fertilization the zygote develops into an embryo.
 The embryo develops into a foetus and then finally into a calf.
 The embryo is attached to the uterus walk through the placenta, this is
called implantation.
The gestation period
 This is a period of pregnancy from conception (fertilization) to birth. It is
about 270 – 280 days (8-9 months)
 A cow that is pregnant is called in-calf.
Signs of pregnancy
 A cow does not get on heat 21 days after service.
 The uterus enlarges in the second and third month after conception.
 The udder increases in fills with milk.
 The cervix closes during pregnancy.
 Foetal movements are seen after 7 months.
Dry period
 This is when a lactating cow is left without milking it six to seven weeks
before giving birth.
 During dry period, the cow is fed on protein rich food, this process if
called steaming up.
Advantages of steaming up
 It builds up the cow’s body in preparation for parturition (calving).
 It encourages the foetus to grow healthy.,
 It leads to increased milk yield and the mil is usually rich in colostrums.
 It prevents low birth rate and still birth.
 It increases persistence and peak of lactation (mil let down).
Importance colostrum
 It is rich in all classes of food.
 It contains high quantity of antibodies.
 It helps to open the digestive tract.
Cattle management on a farm
 There are various ways of cattle management on a farm.
Numbering
 All animals on a farm should be numbered to enable for their
identification.
Ways of numbering are;
a)
Branding
This is the using a hot iron plate with symbols for stamping on the animal.
b)
Ear notching
This is when the animal’s ears are cut at the edges with marks.
c)
Ear tagging
This is when tags having numbers are fixed on the ears of an animal.
d)
Number lacing
This is when a wooden or iron piece of plate is put around the neck of the
animal.
e)
Ear tattooing
This is the putting permanent marks on the ears using pliers carrying
numbers on them.
f)
Tail bobbing
This is when long hair on the animals tail (switch) is trimmed.
NB
Cows are not usually docked (i.e. the tail is not shortened).
g)
Grueling
This is the trimming the long hair around the anus and the genitals.
h)
Dehorning / disbudding
This is the act of removing horn buds from the animals head so that it
does not grow horns. It is done using chemicals such as caustic sticks,
dehorning iron (dehorning spoons).
Advantages of dehorning
 It makes animals easy to handle.
 It reduces the risk of animals injuring others.
 It increases space in the kraal i.e. many animals can be kept in a small
space.
i)
Hood Trimming
Hood trimming is the act of cutting off over grown hooves. This reduces
the risk of injuries and transmission of diseases.
j)
Castration
Castration is the removal of the testicles of a bull or male animal to make
it unable to make it unable to mate with a female.
Methods of castration
There are three methods of castration
i)
Open operation (surgery)
In this method, a sharp knife or blade is used to slit the scrotum and
remove the testicles. The sperm ducts are sealed by burning using a hot
metal.
ii)
Closed operation
In this method, an instrument called a burdizzo pliers with blunt pincers
is used with great pressure to crush the sperm ducts.
c)
Rubber ring ( a loop)
In this method, an elastic rubber band is used to squeeze the sperm ducts
of the testes. When the spermatic cords and blood vessles are broken, the
testes shrink and die.
Advantages of castration
 It prevents unwanted (poor) breeds from breeding.
 A bull becomes humble (docile and calm) and easy to handle.
 A bull fattens for more beef.
 It prevents random mating (inbreeding).
 Castrated animals graze together with females without disturbing them.
Disadvantages of castration
 Animals are denied their natural right of mating.
 The animals may lose a lot of blood and die.
 The wounds of a castrated animal may become septic and
and death.
cause pain
Deworming
 Deworming is the practice of giving drugs to domestics animals and birds
to remove endo-parasites (intestinal parasites) from their bodies.
There are two main methods used in deworming.
Drenching
Drenching is the giving of liquid medicine to cattle.
This can be done using a bottle or drenching gun.
Dosing
Dosing is giving of solid medicine to cattle to swallow in form of tablets or
capsules.
Spraying dipping and dusting
These are methods of
Spraying, dipping and dusting
 These are methods of getting rid of ecto parasites (external parasites) in
cattle.
 Spraying can be done using a knap sack sprayer or a spray race
 Dipping is when animals are made to swim through medicated water in a
dip tank (pool)
 Dusting is when animals are smeared with powdered medicine on their
skins to kill ecto parasites
Illustration of a dip tank
Removal of extra teats
 Extra tests that grow on the udder of a cow are removed to leave only four
teats
Milking
 Milking is the act of removing milk from udder of a cow through the teats
Milk let down
 Milk let down is the flow of milk from the udder of a cow
Types of milking
There are two types of milking namely;
 Hand milking
 Machine milking
Hand milking
 Hand milking is where milk is got from the udder by squeezing the teats
using hands. This is also called full hand milking
Machine milking
 Machine milking is where a machine is used to milk a cow
 The component parts of a milking machine must be washed to avoid
infection and contamination of milk.
Preparation for milking
 Assemble the milking equipment
 Clean all the milking equipment to make the m in good working order
 Put the cow in a milking place and tie leys with a rope
 Udder and teats must be washed with warm water to encourage milk let
down
 From each teat, draw one or two streams of milk through a strip cup to
detect the presence of mastitis in milk.
 Give the cow some feeds to keep it busy and relaxed during milking
 If a cow has mastitis bloods stains will be seen in milk draw\n through a
strip cup.
 A cow with mastitis should be milked last
 After milking wash the milking place and equipment using disinfectants
Lactometer
 A lactometer is an instrument used to measure (detect) the presence of
water and fats in milk
 It is a closed weighted tube graduated to make the level of normal milk
 If water is added to milk or fats have been removed it will not get enough
support to float and therefore it will sink deeper
Methods of preserving milk
 Milk can be a very good environment for bacteria to multiply
 Bacteria make milk go bad
 Some of the bacteria cause disease eg tuberculosis diarrhoea , typhoid ,
dysentery
Methods of preserving milk
Sterilization
 This is where germs or bacteria in milk are killed by maximum boiling
followed by cooling and covering
 The heating kills germs and the quick cooling prevents bacteria from
entering the milk and multiplying in it .
 This method was named after Levis Pasteur a French scientist who
discovered that milk go bad because of bacteria
Refrigeration
 This is the putting milk in a refrigerator where germs ca not easily and
quickly multiply because of very low temperature
Boiling
 Boiling (cooking) milk from time to time preserves it. Boiling milk kills
germs that enter when it is cold.
Homogenizing
 This is a way of treating milk so that the fats are broken and then the cream is
mixed with the rest.
Products from milk
 Butter
 Ghee
 Casein
 Cheese
 Yoghurt
 Cream
 Whey
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Casein is the part left after butter has been removed from the milk
Casein can be used as food or raw materials for good quality shinny paper.
Whey is the liquid part left after sour milk has formed curd.
Whey can be used as sauce to accompany food.
Housing on a farm
 Housing on a farm helps to keep farm produce
 It is used for keeping records on a farm
 It is used store animal feeds, utensils , equipments or farm tools
 It is used as milking shades for animals to ensure proper hygiene
 It is used when treating farm animals
Types of houses on a farm
These are two types if houses on a farm namely;
 Semi- permanent houses
These are kraals and byres
 Permanent houses (structure)
These are made of bricks and concrete
Roofing farm houses depends on the available materials.
The cheapest roofing is thatching using grass, palm fround, banana leaves
or bamboo or straws
Advantages of thatching
 Thatching is water if properly tight if properly tied.
 It helps to protect animals form bad weather
 It is cheap to use in construction
 It is Thatching can be a fire hazard i.e. it can easily catch fire and burn the
animals
 Thatch can easily rot
 Thatch can easily leak if not well done
Fencing
 Fencing is a barrier of live or dead materials used to demarcate (divided)
land into plots or paddocks.
Types of fences
There are types of fences;
a)
Natural fences (planted)
b)
Artificial (constructed )fences
Natural fences
 These are planted plants along margins (boarders) of land to be fenced
Examples of plants used are;
 Conifiers
 Sisals
 Cypress
 Tonny trees
 Bamboo
 Hedges
 Tatropa
 Elephant grass.
Artificial (constructed) fence
These are fences made using dead or artificial material.
Examples of materials used are;
 Treated poles
 Chain links
 Barbed wired
 Wire nets (mesh)
 Concrete /brick walls.
Importance of fencing
 Natural fences act as wind breakers
 Natural fences maintain soil fertility by adding humus
 Fencing controls the spread of diseases by controlling animals movements
 Fencing allows proper use of pastures
 Fencing keeps off intraders like thrives and wild animals
 Fencing prevents animals from running away
 Fencing makes culling easy
 It is easy to separate animals according to their age, sex, type , size and
health
Pasture
 Pasture is an open grass land where animals graze
Types of pasture
There are mainly too types of pasture namely;
Natural pastured
Natural pasture ie grass that grows by itself and is eaten by animals in its raw
form
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Example of natural pasture are;
Kikuyu grass (penmistern
candestinum)
Guinea grass (cloris Guyana)
Guinea grass ( panicum maximum)
Nadi grass ( setaria sphacelate)
 Elephant grass ( pennisetum
purpurem0
 Guatemala ( tripsanum laxum)
 Alfa alfa (Z lurcene)
Prepared pasture
 This is made out of fodder crops (grown for feeding animals)
For example
Maize silage
Millet crops are;
Napier grass
Clove
Desmodim
Oats
Hay
Importance of pasture
 Pasture is used for feeding animals
 It adds humus into the soil
 Ti provides bedding materials for animals
 It provides materials for thatching animals houses
 Some pastures that are leguminous help to fix nitrogen into the soil
The digestive system of a cow
Functions of the parts of the digestive system of a ruminant
Mouth
 It is where food is chewed by teeth and mixed with saliva and moisture so
that it can easily pass through the gullet
Gullet
 This is where food passes from the mouth to the rumen. The process by
which food moves through the gullet is called peristalsis.
Rumen (Pouch)
 It is the largest of the four stomachs. Its main function is to store food
temporary before it is returned to the mouth for rumination (chewing).
Here bacteria help to ferment the food.
Reticulum ( honey combs)
 It is the stomach where bacteria action continues. Foreign bodies like
stones, hardwood etc are retained here.
Omasum
 This is a third stomach. It churns (grinds) food into five particles. Waters
is absorbed from here on its way to the abomasum.
Abomasums (true stomach)
 This is the fourth stomach. It is the part where digestion by enzymes takes
place. From the abomasums to the rectum, digestion is the same as in non
ruminants.
Types of feed stuffs
Forages
 These include lay (dried grass), silage (preserved green pasture), green
grass, pastures, legumes, straws , maize , stalks etc
Concentrates
 These include cereals, oils seeds, and legumes
Supplements
 These include proteins and vitamins added to feeds
Additives
 These can be drugs , glavours, hormones etc added to feeds
NB:
 Maintenance rations: these are feeds given to animals to sustain their
usual foods
 Production rations: these are extra feeds given to cattle for production
of either beef or milk.
 Salt supply: animals should be given slat to lick in order to;
 Stimulate milk production
 Control some diseases such as milk fever. The amount of food eaten
by an animal is called intake.
Cattle products
The following are the products got from cattle: Meat
 Hides
 Fats
 Bones
 Blood
 Cattle dung
 Urine
 Horns
 Hooves
Grazing
 Grazing is the proper use of grass lands by animals. Most animals graze
on various grasses
Methods /systems of grazing
The main methods of grazing are;
 Rotational grazing
 Zero grazing
 Herd / free frange/ open grazing.
Rotational grazing
This is the type of grazing in which animals graze one portion (section) of the
pasture at a time. These are three examples of rotational grazing, namely;
 Paddocking /paddock grazing
 Strip grazing
 Tethering
Paddocking
 This is the method where a farmer with a big pasture land divides it up
into small plots using fences. These small plots are called paddocks. The
animals are allowed to graze in a paddock for a few weeks before they are
moved to another paddock.
 Drinking water for animals is found in the paddocks.
 When the animals have grazed in all the paddocks where they started
from. By this time, the grass will have grown.
Advantages of paddock grazing
 Paddock grazing allows proper use of pasture
 It gives a farmer time to do other activities
 It enables manure to be distributed evenly on the farm
 It helps to break the life cycle of pests such as ticks
 It gives time for the grass to grow back.
 Avoids overgrazing which leads to soil erosion
Disadvantages of paddock grazing
 It is expensive to fence the paddocks
 It is not possible to have paddocks on a small plot
Strip grazing
 This is where pasture land is divided into small plots called strips by a
temporary fence (wire) to control the movement of cattle in a selected
pasture area. Animals graze in one strip at a time until they have gone
through the pasture and back to the first strip.
Advantages of strip grazing
 Pasture is evenly used ie not wasted
 Pests and diseases are controlled
 Labour is reduced on the farm
Disadvantages of strip grazing
 It is expensive to maintain
 Few animals are kept using this method
Tethering
 This refers to typing an animal to a peg or tree using a rope or chain. The
animals can be moved to a new place when necessary.
Advantages of tethering
 It is a cheap method to maintain
 It does not need a fence
Disadvantages of tethering
 Animals lack enough exercises
 Animals may be restricted to one type of grass
 Animals may easily entangle and strangle themselves
 Not many animals can be kept through this method
Zero grazing
 Zero grazing is a system of cattle keeping where animals are kept in a
special built structure called a byre. In a byre, food and water are
provided.
Requirements for zero grazing
 A well constructed shade
 A store
 A feed trough
 A water trough
 Workers to provide labour on the zero grazing unit
 A garden where folders is grown
 Chaff cutter for cutting folder crops
Advantages of zero grazing
 Animals grow fat and produce more meat and milk
 Animals have less chances of getting diseases
 Feeds are not wasted
 It is easy to collect manure
 It is easy to identify and cull sick animals
 Many animals are kept in a small area
Disadvantages of zero grazing
 It is expensive to start
 Feeds must be grown or brought
 More labour is needed to feed animals , cleaning the stalls daily
 Diseases will spread faster in case of an outbreak
Herding
 This is a method where animals are looked after by a herdsman as they
graze. The herdsman guides the cattle to goof pasture and water.
Advantages of herding
 Animals are closely watched by a herdsman
Disadvantages of herding
 Animals can easily get disease and parasites
 Animals may stray and destroy farms
 Animals are likely to overgraze the pasture
 Animals are likely to starve if the grazing land is small
Cattle diseases and parasites
Cattle diseases are classified according to their causative agents (germ) and
method of spread. There are three main causative agents (gems) namely;
 Bacteria
 Viruses
 Protozoa
Signs of sickness in animals (cattle)
 The animals is dull and has rough hair on the body
 The animals coughs and sneezes
 There is diarrhoea
 The animal has difficult in passing urine and dung (feaces)
 There is rise in body temperature and pulse rate
 The animals loses appetite for food (pasture)
Causes of the spread of diseases in animals (cattle)
 Diseases in animals can be caused by deficiency of some nutrients in the
animals diet
 Dirty environment and dirty food
 Physical injuries like cuts and wounds
 Infections by germs
Signs of good health in animals (cattle)
 The animals feed well ie have good appetite
 The eyes are clean and bright
 The animal walks steadily
 The nose is cold and wet
 The skin ( hair) is smooth and shinny
 The animals ears are warm and alert
 Urine and dung (faeces) is passed out without difficulty
Ways (routes) of diseases infection in animals
 Direct contact with sick animals
 Indirect contact through food and water
Types of cattle diseases
Bacterial diseases:
 These are diseases caused by bacteria in cattle. Eg;
Anthrax:
 This is caused by bacillus anthracis bacterium. It is an acute infectious
disease which attacks cattle, sheep, goat, pig and humans.
Prevention and control
 Treat early cases with antibiotics
 Carcass of the animals should be completely burnt or buried
 Do not open the carcass of animals that are suspected to have died of
anthrax
 Never eat meat of animals suspected to have died of anthrax
 Vaccinate animals every year
 Report suspected cases of anthrax
Mastitis
 It is an infectious bacteria disease that affects the mammary glands ( teats
and udder) of cattle, sheep, goats, bitches and humans.
Signs and symptoms
 Milk turns waterly or in trick clots with blood and pus in it
 The udder and teats swell
 The cow rejects milking and suckling by the calf
 The affected udder gets dead and gives no milk
 Death of the animal may result.
Prevention and control
 Treat early cases with antibiotics
 Milk out teats and massage with warm water
 Ensure good hygiene when milking
 Use disinfectants when milking
 Use the right milking techniques
Calf scours
 It is an infectious disease caused by bacteria. Ti attacks piglets , calves ,
kids, and humans
Signs and symptoms
 Profuse sharp smelling diarrhoea
 Dullness an loss of appetite
 Slight rise in temperature
 Sudden death in calves and piglets with blown up and herd stomachs
Prevention and controls
 Strict cleanliness must be observed in calf pens, kraals , pigs stys etc
 Avoid damp wet conditions
 Treat cases with antibiotics
Black quarter
 It is an acute infectious disease caused by bacteria. It attacks ruminant
such as cattle, goats and sheep
Signs and symptoms
 High fever
 Shivering
 Loss of appetite
 Lameness
 Muscles are swollen and painful
Prevention and control
 Vaccinate animals early
 Never open carcass of an animal that shows signs of black quarters
 Burn or bury dead animals
Pneumonia
 It is an infectious respiratory disease of the lungs. It is caused by various
types of bacteria and viruses.
Signs and symptoms
 Difficult breathing and coughing due to congestion of bronchioles
 Nasal discharge




Loss of body weight
The animal is reluctant to move dull and sleepy
Loss of appetite for food (pasture)
The animals temperature may be high or low
Prevention and control
 Treat early cases of pneumonia with antibiotics
 Keep building well ventilated, warm, and clean
 Provide soft feeds and water
Foot rot
 It is caused by bacteria of fusiformis group. It attacks the hooves of all
hoofed animals. This disease is usually common during wet weather
Signs and symptoms
 Hooves of animal swell making them lame
 Parts of hooves may contain pus with rotten smell
Prevention and control
 Treat early cases of foot rot with antibiotics
 Trim affected hooves properly and isolate the animal
 Provide animals with foot bath every week
 Routine trimming and examination of the feet
Brucellosis (contagious abortion / bangs)
 It is an infectious disease caused by brucella abortus bacteria. It affects
cattle, goats, sheep and man. It is spread through food contaminated with
discharge from infected animals.
Signs and symptoms
 Abortion in animals followed by brownish discharge from the vagina
 The placenta remains in the uterus (womb)
 The testicles in arms swell
 There is still births in sows
Prevention and control
 Cull and slaughter the infected animals
 Vaccinate all young females especially cattle
 Don’t touch aborted fetuses with bare hands
 Milk from infected animals should be boiled first
Contagious bovine pleuro-pneumonia
 It is caused by bacteria discharged from the noses of infected animals
Signs and symptoms
 Cull and slaughter all infected animals
 Impose quarantine in case of an outbreak
 Early vaccine of the herd
 The disease has no treatment yet
Tuberculosis
 It is a chronic infectious disease caused by micro-bacterium tuberculosis.
It is spread through inhalation of the bacteria
Signs and symptoms of tuberculosis
 Loss of appetite at advanced stages
 Coughing and decrease in milk production
Prevention and control
 Practicing good hygiene
 Cull and slaughter infected animals
Viral diseases
 These are diseases caused by viruses. Most viral disease are;
Rinder pest
 It is a highly infectious diseases caused by virus. It attacks the membranes
of the alimentary canal
 It can kill large number of animals
Signs and symptoms
 High fever
 Severe dullness and loss of appetite
 Serious diarrhoea with blood stained cow dung
 The mouth , nose and muscle become hot with fast breathing
 Rapid dehydrations resulting in emaciation with sunken eyes
Foot and mouth disease
 This is an acute contagious disease of ruminants such as cattle, sheep,
goats etc. it attacks the membranes of mouth and cornet
Signs and symptoms
 Fever, dullness and loss of appetite for pasture
 Serious salivation in the mouth
 Lameness due to wounds on the cornet
 Painful blisters around the mouth , udder, and between the hooves
 Difficulty in eating and loss of appetite
 Emaciation
 Reduced milk yield
Prevention and control
 Vaccinate animals
 Affected animals should be slaughter
 Application of quarantine
Nairobi sheep disease
 This is an acute viral disease of sheep and goat. It is transmitted by the
brown ear and bont ticks.
Signs and symptoms
 High temperature
 Diarrhoea
 Nasal discharge
 Rapid breathing
 Abortion in ewes
Prevention and control
 No treatment
 Control ticks to prevent the disease
Protozoa disease
 These are diseases that take long to show symptoms of illness
 They are mostly associated with blood sucking insects and ticks.
Examples are;
Nagana (trypanosomiasis)
 It is an infectious protozoa disease of domestic animals such as cattle,
goats, dogs and horse.
 In man, the disease is called sleeping sickness. It is transmitted (spread)
by a tsetse fly and caused by a germ called trypanosome ( eg t.vivax, t.
Congolese, t. brucei).
Signs and symptoms
 Fever, dullness and loss of appetite
 Anaemia and emaciation
 Licking of soil by animals
 Swollen lymph nodes
 Running eyes which leads to blindness
 Death may occur after several weeks
Prevention and control
 Clear bushes to control tsetse flies
 Spray with insecticides to kill tsetse flies
 Using tsetse fly traps to kill adult tsetse flies
 Treat using drugs such as ethidium
NB:
 Tsetse flies breed in swampy and forested areas. They do not lay eggs but
hatch the young ones in the body and lay them.
HEART WATER
 It is a protozoan disease spread by ticks ( ie it is a tick borne disease) it
affects cattle, sheep and goats
Signs and symptoms
 High fever and loss of appetite
 Animal moves in circles
 Animals becomes restless and places the head against hard objects
 When it falls, the legs keep peddling in the air
Red water
 This is a protozoan disease transmitted by the brown ticks and red legged
ticks (i.e. borne diseases) it attacks cattle, goats and sheep.
Signs and symptoms
 High temperature
 Constipation and dullness
 Animal becomes anemic
 Animal licks soil
 Presence of red blood pigments in the urine
 Swollen lymph nodes
Prevention and control
 Tick control by spraying and dipping
 Inject animals with anit-babesia drugs
 Some respond with tetracycline antibiotics
East coast fever
 It is a very serious protozoan disease spread by both the red-legged and
brown ear ticks.
 It attacks cattle only especially the claves are vulnerable
Signs and symptoms
 There is rapid rise in temperature
 Swollen lymph nodes especially along the delap
 There is general weakness
 Difficulty in breathing
Prevention and control
 Burning areas infected with ticks
 Fencing farms to prevent stray by animals
 Spraying and dipping animals regularly
 Controlled grazing
 Smearing animals with accaricides
 De-ticking by hand
 Antibiotics and sulphur drugs are used to control secondary infections
Anaplasmosis (gall sickness)
 It is caused by a protozoan
 It is transmitted by the blue ticks
Signs and symptoms
 The animal; gets constipation
 Blood in urine and dung (faeces)
 The animal becomes anemic
 The temperature may fall
Prevention and control
 Isolate sick animals
 Cull and slaughter the infected animals
 Use coccidostants in feeds and water
Cattle pests
 Cattle pests are also called cattle parasites.
 A parasite is living organisms that lives on another living organisms and
obtains its food from it.
Or
 A parasite is a living organism that depends on another living organisms
for food.
 The organisms on which a parasite depends for food is called a host.
 A parasite eats food made for the growth and development of the host.
Types of parasites
Parasites are grouped into two namely;
 External parasites
 Internal parasites
External parasites (pests)
 External parasites are parasites that live on the outside body of the host.
Examples are
 Ticks
 Tsetse flies
 Flees
 Mites
 Lice
 Jiggers
Internal parasites
 Internal parasites are parasites that live inside the body of the host. They
live muscles, intestines, liver
Examples of internal parasites are
 Tapeworms
 Roundworms
 Liver flukes
Effects of parasites (pests) on cattle
 Pests like ticks, tsetse flies, mites and fleas suck blood from the host
leading to emaciation
 Some pests spread diseases to animals e.g nagana, east coast fever, red
water etc
 Some pests cause damage to the skin of the host making it of low quality
 Some pests cause discomfort and irritation to the host
 Some parasites suck food and blood from the host making it malnourished
and unhealthy
Prevention and control of cattle parasites (pests)
 Dipping and spraying cattle with a acaricides
 Clear bushes and use tsetse fly traps to control tsetse flies
 Drain grazing areas to control liver flukes
 de-worm animals with de-worming drugs
 Keep animals away from pastures which are frequently covered by floods
 Use double fencing of grazing areas and kraals to control ticks
Requirements for starting a liver stock farm
To start a farm, a farmer requires the following:
a)
Land
 This is the place where the farm is located. It is used for growing
pasture, building houses etc. the land may be bought, inherited from
parents, rented or hired
b)
Capital
 This refers to the money and all the buildings, equipments and
materials used to start a farm. Capital may be a donation, borrowed
from a bank, inherited, from sales of property or monthly earnings.
c)
Labour
 Refers to all the people who perform the different tasks on the a
farm. The farmer does not have all the skills and time for
everything on the farm. He may employ workers, hire labourers, or
use family members.
d)
Management
 This refers to organizing , planning and guiding the rest of the
workers to carry out their duties in a more organizing way and
make the farm profitable. The farmer may manage the farm
him/herself or employ others.
e)
Market
 Before starting a farm, one should ensure that there is market for
the farm products such as meat, milk, eggs, hides, etc. It should
bender the market and served with good transport network.
Farm records
 These are written accounts /documents of all the activities of the
farm.
Importance of keeping farm records
 To help the to know whether it is making profits or losses
 For fair assessment of taxes (income tax)
 To enable the farmer to share bonuses
 In case a farmer dies without writing a will, it helps family members to
share property equally.
 Helps the farmer to know the history of the farmer
 To enable the farmer to borrow loans from banks
 Helps the farmer to plan and budget for the farm
Types of records
Breeding record
 These include reproduction, birth or death records
Production records
 These shows yields of various farm produce eg eggs, milk meat etc.
Heath records
 Include when and which animals were sick , what treatment they got or
which ones to dull.
Labour records
 Includes the number of farm labourers, type of work they do and their wages
Field operations
 Has record of all different activities carried out on the farm ploughing,
harrowing, planting etc
Marketing records
 These include where, when and what prices various products were sold.
Inventory records
 This is a record of all the things a farmer owns and the cash values of each
item
Income and expenditure
 These are records of all the sales and purchases of the farm business.
Feeding records
 Shows amount of feeds bought, consumed and methods of feeds
TOPIC 3:
Resource in the environment
What is a resource?
 A resource is something or object which is used for a certain purpose.
 Some resources are got from non living things while others are got from
living things.
Types of resources: Renewable resources
 Non renewable resources
Resources from non living things
 A non living thing is one without life.
Examples
 Soil
 Water
 Air and wing
 Sun
 Rocks and mineral
Soil
 Soil is a natural layer which covers the earth’s surface.
 Soil is a non – renewable resource.
How is soil used as a resource?
 It is used for growing crops.
 Soil is used for building houses.
 It is used for building towns and cities
Water
 Water is a renewable resource when used carefully.
How water is used as a resource
 Water helps plants to grow.
 Water is used to turn turbines for hydro – electric power generation.
 Water helps to dissolve food for easy absorption in the body of animals.
Air and wind
 Both are renewable resources.
 Air is a mixture of gases.
 Wind is moving air.
How wind is useful
 Wind turns wind mills to produce electricity.
 Wind drives wind mills to draw water from underground.
 Wind helps in winnowing.
Sun
 It is a renewable resource.
How the sun is used as a resource.
 The sun provides sunlight energy to green plants to make starch.
 The sun provides solar energy that gives out heat and light energy to man.
 The sun helps our bodies to make vitamin D.
Rocks and minerals
 A mineral is anything that occurs naturally like a rock in the earth.
Examples of minerals
 Oil
 Copper
 Clay
 Tin
 Chalk
 Gold
 Minerals are non-renewable resources.
NB
 Minerals from which metals are got are called ores.
Rocks
 A rock is a substance made up of minerals tightly packed together to form
a solid.
Types of rocks
 Igneous rocks
 Metamorphic rocks.
 Sedimentary rocks.
Igneous rocks
 These are rocks formed when magma pours outside the earth as lava and
solidifies.
They are generally hard and impervious.
Examples
 Salt
 Granite
 Quartz
Sedimentary rocks
 These are rocks formed from broken particles of sand, clay and mud settling
in different layers. (strata) at the beds of water bodies like seas, lakes, rivers,
etc.
 Sedimentary rocks are soft and porous.
Examples
 Sandy rocks
 Limestone etc.
Fossils
 Fossils are remains of plants and animals living many thousands of years
ago.
 They are found deep inside the earth in sedimentary rocks.
 These remains are usually of bones or teeth of animals and roots, leaves or
stems of plants.
 Sometimes the remains are of mould of a whole body e.g. of a fish
Uses of fossils
 Fossils help geologists to determine the age of a place or rock.
 Fossils help geologists to know the animals or plants that lived in a given
place.
 Fossils help geologists to know how different plants and animals have
existed and changed.
 Fossils help to tell how the land looked before.
 Fossils show us how and where the different sedimentary rocks were
formed.
 Fossils help to tell what the animal or plant looked like, what it ate, where
it lived etc.
Importance of rocks
 Rocks form soil, which is important to our survival.
 Rocks make good materials for buildings and roads.
 They tell us about the earth’s history.
 They contain many valuable minerals.
ALLOYS.
Define alloy
 An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals
Alloy
Brass
Combination
Cooper and Zinc
Bronze
Cooper Zinc and
Tin
Mercury and
copper
Gold and copper
Gold, copper and
mercury.
Lead and Tin
Dentist
Amalgam
Gold
Solder
Uses
- Decorating ornaments.
- Making wires, tubing cases for bullets.
- Decorating metals
- Making coins and medals
- Dental filling of teeth
-
Making coins.
-
Joining metals
Steel
 Steel consists of carbon dissolved in iron.
 Different alloys are made from steel.
Examples of alloys made from steel.
(i)
Manganese steel
 It is a mixture of steel and manganese.
 This is a very tough alloy. It is used where friction may cause wear e.g. in
railway points.
(ii)
Nickel steel
 It is a mixture of nickel and steel.
 This alloy is called Inver. It expands little when heated.
(iii) Stainless steel
 It is a mixture of chromium and steel.
 This alloy does not rust. It is used for making cooking and kitchen
utensils and cattery.
iv
Cobalt steel
 It is a mixture of cobalt and steel.
 This alloy is used to make permanent magnets because they retain their
magnetism over a long period.
Why are alloys made?
 To make the metal harder
 To lower the melting point of the metal.
 To make the metal more resistant to corrosion i.e. wear and tear.
 To increase the electrical resistivity of metals.
FUELS
What is a fuel?
 A fuel is anything that burns to produce heat and light.
Examples of fuels.
 Fire wood
 Charcoal
 Oil (Petroleum)
 Coal
 Fire wood and charcoal are renewable resources while oil and coal are nonrenewable resources.
 Coal was formed from marshy vegetables and plants which lived long ago
and were buried underground but due to heat and pressure they changed to
coal.
 Coal is burnt to get thermal electricity.
 Oil (petroleum) is refined through the process of fractional distillation.
 The products after refining crude oil (petroleum) are petrol, diesel and
kerosene.
 These products are burnt to produce heat and light.
 Petrol and diesel are used to run engines.
 Oil was formed from animals which lived long ago and were buried but due
to heat and pressure they changed to oil.
Resources from living things
 A living thing is one which has life.
 Living things include plants and animals
 Most of the resources from living things are renewable resources once
they are looked after property.
How are plants used as resources?
 Some plants give us natural plant fibres like cotton, sisal, jute and linen.
 Cotton and linen are used to make cloths while sisal and jute are used to
make ropes.
 Some plants are used as herbal medicine to cure certain diseases.
 Some plants are eaten as food by man and other animals.
How are animals used as resources?
 Some animals like merino sheep provide wool used to make cloth, suits,
blankets, carpets, curtains, bed sheets etc.
 Silk worms provide silk used to make different types of cloths.
 Some domestic animals provide us with milk and meat.
 Some animals provide skins and hides used to make bags, shoes, belts etc.
 Cattle provide horns and hooves used to make glue.
 Bees help to pollinate farmers’ crops, provide honey and bee wax.
 Some animals like oxen and donkeys provide labour.
CONSERVATION OF RESOURCES
What is conservation?
 Conservation is the protection and preservation of resources in our
environment.
 Both renewable and non-renewable resources need to be conserved.
 Resources like forests, wild life, water, soil, rocks, and minerals need to
be conserved.
 Conservation of resources is done to keep them for future use.
Conserving renewable resources
Wild life
 Wild life refers to animals and plants in our environment.
 Many kinds of animals have disappointed from earth and they are extinct.
 Other animals are about to disappear and we say they are endangered.
 Animals may become endangered or extinct because they are killed for
their skins, horns or tusks.
 Some plants have also become endangered or extinct due to the increasing
demand for wood and local medicine.
Advantages (importance) of conserving wild life
 Some mammals, plants and birds are a source of food for man.
 Some animals and birds are valued as cultural heritage by some countries and
clans.
 Some plants provide wood for fuel and timber.
 Plants are a home of many animals, birds and insects.
 Trees or forests help in the formation of rainfall.
 Mammals, birds and trees species earn foreign exchange for the government
through tourists.
 Plants improve the atmosphere by balancing the amount of carbondioxide
and nitrogen.
 Plants provide shade to man and other animals.
How to conserve and protect wild life
 Animals are protected by law in their habitant through the Uganda Wildlife
Authority (U.W.A).
 A habitat is a natural environment or home of a plant or animal.
 Uganda Wild life Authority is a department which is responsible for wild life
in Uganda.
 The animals are being taken care of in national game parks and game
reserves.
 Banning of hunting helps the endangered animals to survive.
 Banning the selling and buying of wild life trophies helps to reduce their
being killed.
 Fishes can be conserved by controlled fishing.
 Some rare animals should be caught and let to breed in wild life educational
centre.
Conserving the natural vegetation
 Over grazing should be discouraged because it causes soil erosion.
 Bush burning should be restricted to certain areas.
 Overstocking is dangerous because it leads to overgrazing.
 The government should limit population growth because more people mean
more land to be destroyed for housing and agriculture.
 Cattle farmers should practice rotational grazing.
 Afforestation should be practiced.
 Swamps and wetlands should be declared restricted areas.
Conserving non renewable resource
 Soil erosion should be controlled.
 Soil should be kept fertile by using manure and fertilizers.
 Plastic wastes like broken jerrycans, polythene papers, should be recycled.
 Vehicles in dangerous mechanical conditions should be repaired to
conserve fuel.
 Petroleum products should be used wisely to prevent further exploitation of
oil.
TOPIC 4:
Respiratory system
Diagram of respiratory system
Terms used in respiration
Types of respiration
 Aerobic
This is the respiratory that takes place by the use of oxygen
 Anaerobic
This is the respiratory that takes place by the use of oxygen
Raw materials of respiration
Oxygen
Food
Products energy end product
 Energy
 Water vapour
 Carbondioxide
 Heat
Function of the parts of the respiratory system
Nose
 This helps in the taking in of oxygyen
Trachea

Lungs
 Helps
Diaphragm
Diseases and disorders of the respiratory system
Disorders
 Chocking
 Yawning
 Hiccups
Diseases
 Lung cancer
 Pneumonia
 Haemophilius influenza
 Laryngitis
 Pleurisy
 Viral bacterial
 Influenza Tuberculosis






Whooping cough
Diphtheria
Non infectious lung cancer
Emphysema
Asthma
Bronchitis
Ways of maintenance of the respiratory system
 Physical body exercises
 Desisting or avoiding bad habits like smoking
 Immunization