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Agropastoralism as Strategy for Sustainable
Conservation and Livelihood in Wadi Allaqi
Biosphere Reserve, South Eastern Desert,
Egypt.
Final Report Submitted to
The Rufford Small Grants Foundation
2012
Agropastoralism as Strategy for Sustainable
Conservation and Livelihood in Wadi Allaqi Biosphere
Reserve, South Eastern Desert, Egypt.
Prepared by
Hoda A. Yacoub
Researcher in Wadi Allaqi Biosphere Reserve
Nature Conservation Sector
EEAA, Egypt
The project was funded by the Rufford Small Grants Foundation [RSGF] and implemented in
cooperation with South Protected Areas Administration and members of Conservation of Natural
and Cultural Heritages in Upper Egypt NGO.
Project team:
Moneir M. Mahgoub
Hoda A. Yacoub
Hatem A. Mekki
Mohammed M. Mounzaly
Edris Saleh
Nafeisa Hussein
Director of Wadi Allaqi Biosphere Reserve
Researcher in Wadi Allaqi Biosphere Reserve
Researcher in Wadi Allaqi Biosphere Reserve
Researcher in Wadi Allaqi Biosphere Reserve
Bedouin man from Sedinab tribe
Bedouin woman from Sedinab tribe
Acknowledgment
We wish to express our sincere gratitude to "The Rufford Small Grants Foundation"
for their support and fund which helped to implement the project. Our
appreciation extended to involve Mr M. Hesseib, the Director of South Protected
Areas Administration, Nature Conservation Sector, EEAA, that this work will never
come to light without the facilities of the place and his encouragement. Last but
not least, deepest thanks to our colleague and the workers in Wadi Allaqi
Biosphere Reserve for their kind support.
Project team
Executive Summary
Pastoralists sustainably manage their environment including defining and protecting
grazing reserves, they understand that security of resources access and owing the
diverse resources are important factors for their sustainability. Drought conditions
forced Bedouin tribes to migrate and settle at the shores of Lake Nasser to
compensate the lack of resources. The mobility of Bedouins in narrow scale and their
sedentarization create a load on natural plant species and severely declined plants
which are already threatened. The settlement of Bedouins in Allaqi Village which is far
16 km from their resources due to Governmental decision makes the situation more
critical. The present of alternative livelihood adapted with the new circumstances was
essential. Agropastoralism can provide the opportunity to Bedouins to improve their
livelihood, it is a farming pattern for employing the agriculture and livestock, where
the households can obtain more than 50% of its gross income from livestock and
communal grazing land and more than 25% from cropping activities. The outstanding
feature of Bedouin farms is that trees of target species will be cultivated with annual
fodder crops to maintain a stable agricultural production without placing a load on
natural vegetation and provide conservation to following target trees species:
Medemia argun (IUCN Classification 2010: Critically endangered) Balanites aegyptiaca
and Ziziphus spina-christi. The project will also conserve the habitat of Wadi Allaqi
which supports the flora and fauna found in the area. The project also objects to:
1. Give an opportunity for intensive land management using of the advantages of
the biological interaction.
2. Help to regulate the use of wildlife populations and ecosystems.
3. Help the Bedouin communities to become aware of problems related to their
habitat.
4. Improve the productivity of land. In brief, the agropastoralism could be able to
solve the equilibrium of development and conservation under condition of
careful implementation related to locations, techniques and types of trees and
crops.
Chapter 1: Wadi Allaqi and the need for the Agropastoralism
Wadi Allaqi Location and Description
Wadi Allaqi is the largest wadi in South-Eastern Desert in Egypt, extends for more than 270 km along a
north-west/south-east axis, from its highest tributaries in the Red Sea Hills to its downstream confluence
with the Nile Valley east of Lake Nasser. It considered as one of the most extensive drainage in Nubian
Desert and lies at an important geological boundary. The upstream tributaries may receive occasional
rainfall and the drainage can accumulate into the main channel of Wadi Allaqi forming torrents that
discharges into the Nile. In its upper reaches in the hills, the annual rainfall averages are less than 50 mm,
while in the downstream parts of wadi, rainfall events are extremely rare and the area is genuinely
hyper-arid. The ecology of the upper and middle parts of the Wadi Allaqi is closely linked to topography,
as vegetation is almost wholly confined to runoff channels. Water is received from across extensive
catchment areas and channels into the alluvial sediments of the lower lying wadis (Ali et al. 1997, Belal
2009). The ecology of downstream of Wadi Allaqi (project target area) is dominated by Lake Nasser, the
reservoir behind the Aswan High Dam. The fluctuation of lake level provides opportunity for vegetation
variety. Wadi Allaqi was declared a conservation area in 1989 and has protected status since then within
the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA). Because of its arid environment and combination of
two ecosystems (extreme arid desert and the shores of Lake Nasser) inhibited by nomadic tribes, this
area was designated a biosphere reserve in 1993 within UNESCO Man and Biosphere Programme (MAP).
1
People in Wadi Allaqi
People in Wadi Allaqi are nomadic and semi-nomadic,
locally called Bedouins. Bedu, the Arabic word from
which the name Bedouin is derived, means "inhabitant
of the desert" and refers generally to the desertdwelling nomads of many regions in Middle East.
Nomadic Bedouin tribes in Egypt have long inhabited
the Eastern and Western desert areas, forming unstable
and mobile communities, move on to rain-fed pastures.
Bedouins in Allaqi composes from two main tribes, the
Ababda and the Bishari, both of which are assigned to
the Beja cultural group (Paul 2000). The Beja are a
people of Hamitic origin distributed along the Red Sea
coast between southern Egypt and the Horn of Africa.
Herding of camels, sheep and goats is the primary
economic activity and means of survival for tribal
families. Bedouins used to move with their herds from
one spot to another, seeking sustenance and shelter for
a time. This continuous migration allowed grazing
grounds to be naturally replenished. The construction
of the Lake Nasser attracts many Bedouin tribes to
migrate and settled at the shores of the lake to secure
water and grazing resources which was previously
scarce. Furthermore, opportunity for cultivation was
created in post-inundation times, when the lake can be
used to irrigate small farms, even at distance away from
the lake shores, relatively shallow wells can be dug to
depths of two to four metres (called Gamama), which
draw on subsurface water flows associated with the
lake (Belal et al. 200).
Bedouins and the scarce water resources
One of Bedouin
settlement in
Wadi Allaqi
2
Allaqi Village and Lack of Resources
The project targets the Bedouins who are settled in governmental houses (16 km far from the
Lake Nasser shores) according to Aswan Governor Decision No 23 in 2002. The object of
settlement plan is to take step toward modernization and facilitate the implementation of
development project to improve as they think the Bedouins status. The concept of the "develop"
impact by many ways the Bedouins; that it has reshaped the relationship between them and
their environment which traditionally sustain them. In decades past, the success of the Bedouin
pastoral enterprise depended upon their adaptation to harsh conditions and upon an indigenous
knowledge of both the climate and the fragile desert landscape. All this factors should be taken in
consideration before taking any vital decisions related to Bedouin communities; the location of
the village for example is too far from Bedouins essential livelihood resources which create a
great challenge to their sustainability in the village. Food insecurity, poverty, irregular water
supplies and lack of fodders are the main constrains. Furthermore, those communities experience
harsh seasonal shortage of food due to drought conditions that extends more than fifteen years.
The problems of poverty are further exacerbated among Bedouins of Allaqi by the inadequacy of
basic services, which rely on health and education facilities that are remote, poorly staffed and
lack basic equipment and supplies. The civil society organizations (CSOs) who could offer some
support are almost nonexistent due to the isolation of most of these communities. The number
of Bedouin families living in village is forty two, dependent on the government to have water and
in sometimes food. The water derived from the lake to village by a simple system composed of
pumps and pipes. The water is captured in cement reservoir which capacity equal to 500 meter
square, moved for 14 km toward the village by pumping machines and pipes, stored in metallic
reservoir found in the village and finally distributed to houses. The unstable water level of Lake
Nasser creates some problems related to water security particularly in summer (minimum water
level) which force the Bedouins to store the water to be used for days. The agropastoralism
systems based agriculture and pasture can be a solution to provide the Bedouins with alternative
livelihood resources, particularly when the appropriate plant species (tolerant to drought and
heat) were selected.
Map of Wadi Allaqi
showing the location
of Allaqi Village
3
Background, aim and objectives
Conservation of habitat and natural resources is the work strategy of Allaqi as one of protected areas in
country, but this is not adequate to face the natural constrains and for sustainable conservation of habitat
and threatened species particularly in present of reverse conditions as drought, overgrazing, overuse and
low environmental awareness. Agropastoralism is able to cover this gab by: 1) Acting as sustainable
production unit for seeds and seedlings of target species, 2) identifying the most promising production and
cropping strategies through utilization wealth of indigenous knowledge that exists on how to deal with
climate variability and risks, combined with scientific research applied in the area and deal with related
issues. Simply, for the sustainable species and habitat conservation, two actions are required, first,
sustainable production mechanisms for species achieved through the agropastoralism techniques which
provide the opportunity for restoration and re-habitation of threatened target species, second, adaption
with reverse conditions which also can be achieved through the agropastoralism by making the Bedouins
"self sufficient" of their food and fodder and improving their capacity to mitigate the effect of regular
droughts, 3) the project will require local consultation in designing and testing of new practices to create a
feeling of ownership among land managers and to tap into practical traditional experience, and 4) One of
project outcomes is to feed the Information Centre in NCS with documents including practical experience
and applicable benefit information related to Agropastoralism technique, for example, identify: a)
appropriate crops and trees, b) the best areas for application the agropastoralism, c) the best methods for
agropastoralism, d) ways of seeds reservation, collection and storage and e) indigenous knowledge of
Bedouins related to conservation ways of habitat and wild plants, ways of cultivation, the uses of plants as
food, fodder and medicine. The application of the agropastoralism as a strategy for species conservation and
alternative livelihood resources may:
 Reduce the load on natural plants to improve the efficiency for the in-situ conservation of semiarid
habitat in Wadi Allaqi and its biodiversity particularly for threatened species.
 Insure the effective implementation of management plans for habitat, species action plans and
species recovery plans.
 Give an opportunity for intensive land management using of the advantages of the biological
interaction occurs when there is combined cultivation of trees with crops and/or domestic animals.
 Emphasize bio-intensive elements and the positive interactions.
 Increase the effectiveness of many cultural practices including fertilization, irrigation, plant
protection and bee pollination.
 Achieve one of IUCN aims which related to contribution to solutions that conserve the biodiversity,
while at the same time ensuring that people’s livelihoods are improved in a sustainable way.
 Help to regulate the use of wildlife populations and ecosystems by local stakeholders (communities'
management) and enhance the resource productivity to secure adequate stocks and flows of food
and cash to meet basic needs of Bedouins (Livelihood alternatives).
 Promote mechanisms which support the Bedouins against struggles in the face of low grazing
resources and increase their capacity to adapt with climate stress.
 Help Bedouin communities to become aware to problems related to their habitat as degradation of
natural grasslands due to their traditional nomadic system (loads on grazing resources), assess risks
and opportunities.
 Improve the productivity of land.
4
Agroforestry, Pastoralism and Agropastoralism?!!
Agroforestry is the growing of both trees and agricultural/ horticultural crops on the same piece of
land. They are designed to provide tree and other crop products and at the same time protect,
conserve, diversify and sustain vital economic, environmental, human and natural resources.
Agroforesty differs from traditional forestry and agriculture by its focus on the interactions among
components rather than just on the individual components themselves providing multiple benefits,
including diversified income sources, increased biological production, better water quality, and
improved habitat for both humans and wildlife. Research over the past 20 years has confirmed that
agroforestry can be more biologically productive, more profitable, and more sustainable than forestry
or agricultural monocultures.
Pastoralism is the dependence primarily on herds of domesticated animals as economic resource,
characterized by mobility (nomadism or transhumance) as a survival strategy that the pastoralists
travel with their herds to pasture areas, rather than bringing food to them. The size of the herd/flock
determines the share of feed resources obtained from pastures grazed communally under an open
access or common property tenure system
Agropastoralism differ from the pastoralism that it depends on the agriculture and herds of animals as
a mixed economic resource, so it usually carried out by pastoral families or their descendants who
have, to varying degrees, settled and taken up cropping, while some group members take the animals
for pasture.
Cropping in Allaqi plus to livestock
husbandry represents the
agropastoralism
Agroforestry is a mixed agriculture
between trees and crops
5
Agropastoralism and New Opportunities for Livelihood
Wadi Allaqi as in many arid areas exposed to human and natural processes that cause reduction in the
natural resources base and the capacity of terrestrial ecosystem. The natural processes as lake floods,
soil erosion and long drought periods. On the other hand, pasture land has become degraded in many
parts due to centralization of grazing at the shores of Lake Nasser causing over-grazing due to density of
livestock in excess of the carrying capacity of the land. Livestock affect both the soil structure and the
vegetation cover of herbaceous plants. Removal of vegetation exposes soil to the elements (wind and
water), which when combined with soil disturbances, can speed erosive processes. Frequent drought
years and climatic changes contributed to the advance of desertification encouraged the overuse of
natural resources and inappropriate ways of dealing with the land. The destruction of the natural grass
and woody vegetation cover in many areas affected the topsoil temperature and the air humidity and
consequently influences the movements of atmospheric masses and rainfall. Small scale agriculture
combined with ancestral pastoral practices can be suitable solution and alternative livelihood resource.
Previous studies indicated that arid areas can provide high yielding cultivation on condition that water is
available. The sustainability of arid zone agriculture is questionable and faced with combined challenges
of development and protection of water resources, managing salinity and creating long-term
economically and environmentally sounds operations (Ayars et al. 1985, Gold 1999, Aslam et al. 2006). In
this review agriculture in Allaqi should address strategies to ensure the sustainability of arid agriculture
via the right management of water and the use of appropriate plant and crop. The irrigation water was
secured from the lake and the cultivated trees and crops were carefully selected based on certain criteria
(explained in details in Chapter 2). In brief, the agropastoralism in Allaqi will provide more diverse
economy, leads to more stable community and reduce the economic risk that the system will stand on
multiple products.
6
Agropastoralism as Strategy for Conservation
The farms in Allaqi village are based on agroforestry
system which integrates crops with trees and shrubs. The
resulting biological interactions provide multiple
environmental benefits. It has the potential to sequester
carbon, maintain long term soil productivity, biodiversity
conservation and improving air and water qualities.
Carbon sequestration involves the removal and storage of
carbon from the atmosphere in carbon sinks (such as
vegetation or soils) through physical or biological
processes. The incorporation of trees or shrubs in
agroforestry systems can increase the amount of carbon
sequestered compared to a monoculture field of crop
plants or pasture (Sharrow and Ismail 2004; Kirby and
Potvin 2007). The incorporation of trees and crops are able
to biologically fix nitrogen , enhance soil physical, chemical
and biological properties by adding significant amount of
above and belowground organic matter and releasing and
recycling nutrients ( Nair and Latt 1997; Young 1997; Buck
et al. 1998; Schroth and Sinclair 2003). The mechanisms by
which agroforestry systems contribute to biodiversity
have been examined by various authors (e.g. Schroth et al.
2004; McNeely 2004; Harvey et al. 2007). In general,
agroforestry plays five major roles in conserving
biodiversity: (1) agroforestry provides habitat for species
that can tolerate a certain level of disturbance; (2)
agroforestry helps preserve germplasm of sensitive
species; (3) agroforestry helps the rates of conversion of
natural habitat by providing a more productive,
sustainable alternative to traditional agricultural systems
that may involve clearing natural habitats; (4) agroforestry
provides connectivity by creating corridors between
habitat remnants and the conservation of area-sensitive
floral and faunal species; and (5) agroforestry helps
conserve biological diversity by providing other ecosystem
Up: Application of agroforestry system in farms has several
environmental advantages. Dawn: Savadora persica one of
services such as erosion control and water recharge,
perennial shrubs that could be cultivated in the farms
thereby preventing the degradation and loss of
surrounding habitat.
The perennial woody trees in the farms act as windbreaks and shelterbelts. They are reducing wind chills,
protecting crops, providing wildlife habitat, removing atmospheric carbon dioxide and producing oxygen, reducing
wind velocity and thereby limiting wind erosion and particulate matter in the air, reducing noise pollution, and
mitigating odour from concentrated livestock operations. Vegetative buffers can filter airstreams of particulates by
removing dust, gas, and microbial constituents. Agroforestry practices are also a proven strategy to provide clean
water. In conventional agricultural systems, less than half of the applied nitrogen and phosphorous fertilizer is
taken up by crops. Consequently, excess fertilizer is washed away from agricultural fields via surface runoff or
leached into the subsurface water supply, thereby contaminating water sources and decreasing water quality
(Cassman 1999). They also reduce nutrient movement into ground water by taking up the excess nutrients (e.g.
Udawatta et al. 2002; Lee et al. 2003). Trees with deep rooting systems in agroforestry can also improve ground
water quality by serving as a ‘‘safety net’’ whereby excess nutrients that have been leached below the rooting zone
of agronomic crops are taken up by tree roots. These nutrients are then recycled back into the system through root
turnover and litter fall, increasing the nutrient use efficiency of the system (van Noordwijk et al. 1996; Allen et al.
2004).
7
Chapter 2: Plant Species for the Agropastoralism
Trees and Crops Selection, Bases and Criteria
To develop appropriate techniques for agriculture in Wadi Allaqi and to achieve knowledge related to dry
land farming, it was necessary to consult experts from Desert Researches Centre in Cairo to cover the
following topics: in which category (due to dryness degree) does the Allaqi belong? Does the water
adequate for agriculture? What are the factors need to be controlled and how? What are the species of
trees and crops that could be cultivated in Allaqi? According to experts opinion; the soil temperature is
the master key to have successful agriculture in present of adequate water supplies. High temperatures
in the surface soil or in the atmosphere close to the ground of 45°C or above, especially when associated
with low humidity, can cause serious stresses that are detrimental to plant and animal life. High
temperatures are injurious to seedlings and may have adverse effects on rhizobia and nitrogen fixation.
High temperatures also may cause rapid decomposition of soil organic matter with adverse effects on soil
texture, nutrient retention properties and the colloidal complex of the soil. Other physio-chemical
conditions are related to soils which are highly weathered, acid and of low inherent fertility. These soils
are not only fragile but are subject to multiple nutrient deficiencies and toxicities under continuous
cultivation. Arid regions have their fair share of disease and pest problems. However, these may often be
quite different from those of wetter regions. Nematodes are often a severe problem in sandy soils. Trees
and crop plants for Allaqi region are those that could survive and produce in spite of aridity. However, in
almost all of these trees, crops, seeds must be germinated or cuttings must be rooted under conditions of
almost normal water availability. Therefore, when one speaks of tolerance of dry conditions one is
talking mostly about the drought tolerance of the growing or mature plant. Choosing the right crops for
arid regions might involve considerable experimentation in Allaqi. Plant species that selected for
agriculture include:
Endemic plant species.
Multi-benefits plant species.
Plant species selected by Bedouins for their economic value.
Plant species selected by Bedouins to cover the reduction of fodder resources.
Plant species selected by conservationists for their rarity.
8
Selected Trees Species:
1. Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del.
Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. belongs to the family Balanitaceae
is widely distributed in Africa (It is believed indigenous to all dry
lands south of the Sahara), Arabian peninsula, and SudanoSahielian region of Africa, the Middle East and South Asia. It is
known by various names, e.g. Arabic names: Heglig (tree), lalob
(fruit); trade name: zaccone, zachun, desert date (dried fruit), in
India: Hindi name is Hingot and English name is thorn tree/desert
date. It is an indigenous species in Sudan and Eastern Desert in
Egypt with a wide range of natural occurrence over diverse
climatic and edaphic conditions (Suliman and Jackso 1959). Its
traditional roles and values were well known for thousands of
years as fruits were found in tombs of the 12th Egyptian dynasty
(Von Maydell, 1986). The tree is used for food and fodder (Elseed
et al. 2002; Billore 1988), as agroforestry tree (ICRAF 1998) and
has a wide range of medicinal uses. The seed kernel contains high
amount of oil and protein that varies among different sources
(Elfeel 2010). The oil is very similar to sesame and groundnuts oils
in quality and quantity (Abu Al-Futuh 1983) and has no any
serious safety concern (Obidah et al. 2009).
Balanites is multi branched, spiny shrub or tree up to l0 m tall.
Crown spherical, in one or several distinct masses. Trunk short
and often branching from near the base. Bark dark brown to grey,
deeply fissured. Branches armed with stout yellow or green
thorns up to 8 cm long. Leaves with two separate leaflets; leaflets
obovate, asymmetric, 2.5-6 cm long, bright green, leathery, with
fine hairs when young. Flowers in fascicles in the leaf axils,
fragrant, yellowish-green.
1
2
3
4
1: Balanites aegyptiaca tree growing in Wadi Allaqi, 2: Lalob the Balanites fruits, (3 and 4) Balanites
seedlings in the nursery.
Two hundred and seventy four seeds were cultivated in nursery and one hundred and ninety three of them succeed
to germinate recording 70.4% germination percent. The ripe fruits of Balanites were collected by the team from
midstream part of Allaqi, from area called Wadi Murra, 80km far from Lake Nasser shores. Fruits were soaked in
water to remove the hard coat that it may inhibit the water movement into the seed or it may physically restrict
embryo expansion. To stimulate the germination seeds were prepared in two steps:
1) Mechanical scarification using electric grinder: Seeds were scarified to scratch the outer hard coat 2) Moist
scarification: Seeds were allowed to soak in the water for at least three days. The prepared seeds were distributed
uniformly in polythene bags containing moist soil (mixture of 1(clay):3(sand), two seeds per-bag were planted at 2 cm
depth and finally placed in wooden nursery. To protect the seedlings from rodents and locusts they were covered by
plastic net.
9
2. Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf.
Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf. [Family: Rhamnaceae] is an evergreen tree, naturally growing in arid and
semi-arid areas and native to northern and tropical Africa, Middle East and Southern and Western Asia.
The Arabic name of Ziziphus in "Nabaq", Chinese name for the herb is suanzaoren [suan = sour; zao =
date; ren = seed; hence, seed of the sour date], or just zaoren and the common name is jujube, which
comes from the fruit of Zizyphus jujube. The species is ecologically and economically important for its
tolerance to drought and salinity, besides the high value of non wood products, particularly fruit
nutrition, leaves and shoots saponin, and tannin substrates (Weinges and Schick, 1994, Sudhersan and
Hussain 2003). As seed of Ziziphus spina-christi requires scarification treatments to germinate (Moustafa
et al. 1998), vegetative propagation plays a significant role in its improvement programs. The species was
recommended by Bedouins to be among the selected species for cultivation in the farms because of it
nutritive and economic values. The fruits are edible and used to treat poor appetite and digestion. They
are a nurturing energy tonic that prevents and treats nervous exhaustion, low energy, and weakness and
that stabilizes the emotions. They increase weight gain and help malnourished individuals grow stronger.
Three hundred and twenty five seedlings were cultivated and for technical difficulties the seedlings were
developed by and under the supervision of researchers in Agricultural Research Centre, Komombo,
Aswan.
3. Lawsonia inermis
Lawsonia inermis [Family: Lythraceae] is a perennial plant
commonly called as "Henna" derived from the Arabic name, having
other vernacular names as Mehndi in India and Mignonette tree in
English. It is native to North Africa and South East Asia, and often
cultivated as an ornamental plant throughout India, Persia, along
the African coast of the Mediterranean Sea and northern Australia.
Henna grows better in tropical savannah and tropical arid zones and
produces highest dye content in temperature between 35-45°C.
Henna is a tall shrub or small tree, 2.6 m high. It is multi-branched
with spine tipped branches. Leaves are opposite, entire, glabrous
and broadly lanceolate, having depressed veins on the dorsal
surface. Henna flowers have four sepals and a 2 mm calyx tube with
3 mm spread lobes. Petals are ovate, white or red stamens inserted
in pairs on the rim of the calyx tube. Fruits are small, brownish
capsules, with 32–49 seeds per fruit, and open irregularly into four
splits. Henna has been used since the Bronze Age to dye skin, hair,
fingernails, leather, silk and wool. In several parts of the world it is
traditionally used in various festivals and celebrations. It was listed
in the medical texts of the Ebers Papyrus Ebers (16thc BCE Egypt)
(Brayan and Smith 1974) and by Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya 14th c CE
(Syria and Egypt) as a medicinal herb. In Morocco, wool is dyed and
ornamented with henna, as are drumheads and other leather
goods. It also acts as an anti-fungal (Bosoglu et al. 1998) and a
preservative for leather and cloth and the flowers have been used
to create perfume since ancient times. Henna is one of species that
recommended by Bedouins to be cultivated for its various uses in
their community. It is used to stain women hair, their hands, fingers
and feet. It is also used as cure for fungus infections between feet
fingers. As Ziziphus, Henna seedlings were also derived from
Agricultural Research Centre, Komombo, Aswan.
A
B
A and B: Fresh and dried fruits and leaves of
Lawsonia inermis (Henna).
10
4. Medemia argun Wurttenb. ex H.Wendl Medemia argun
Wurttenb. ex H.Wendl [Family: Arecaceae, Palmae] is one of fan
palm species, well known to the ancient Egyptians but recently
feared to be extinct. It had not been reported since two isolated
trees had been discovered in oases in southern Egypt by L. Boulos in
the 1960s (Boulos 1968). Medemia is native only to the Sudan,
where it grows in small populations, in the barren floodplains of
seasonal rivers (wadis) in Nubian Desert southern Egypt and
northern Sudan. Medemia is a fan palm to about 15m tall with a
straight, ringed, brown trunk that supports a large, spherical crown
of very stiff, strongly cost palmate leaves. The fruits are a shiny
purplish black in colour and in the size of plums. When dry, they
emit a pleasant malty smell and are edible. Leaves are used as a
row material for weaving work. In ancient Egypt, the fruits of
Medemia argun were imported from the Sudan, and have been
found in Egyptian tombs, indicating their importance. Medemia was
selected to be cultivated in the farms because: 1) it is endemic
species in Nubian Desert and Allaqi area, 2) It has economic value,
3) It is extremely drought tolerant and will thrive under hot and dry
conditions and 4) the most important reason that the plant is
critically endangered according to IUCN and exposed to threats in
its natural habitats. The seeds used for germination were derived
from Dungul Oases, Nubian Desert West of the Nile. Seeds of
Medemia were soaked in water for two or three weeks as preplantation stage to break the seeds dormancy, to weaken the seed
coat and to stimulate the germination process. Twenty eight
seedlings were cultivated with 61% germination percent.
Medemia argun cultivated stages: A. Outer dark coats of
Medema seeds were removed, B. Water soaked seeds, C.
seeds ready for cultivation and D. Germinated seeds.
11
5. Hyphaene thebaica L. (Palmae)
Hyphaene thebaica L. (Palmae), Doum Palm, is one of
several Hyphaene species. But this is by far the most
commonly grown in cultivation and most readily
available. It is a native to very dry, desert areas with
almost no appreciable rainfall most of the year. It is
growing wild throughout the dry regions of tropical
Africa, the Middle East and Western India. It is listed as
one of the useful plants of the world (Fletcher 1997,
Lokuruka 2008, Nwosu et al. 2008). The trunk of Doum
Palm tree commonly branches into 2 like a ‘Y’ and often
each branch divides again in a ‘Y’ form, giving the tree a
very distinctive appearance. The fruit is ovoid or slightly
3 lobed. Roots of doum were used in treatment of
Bilharziasis, while the resin of the tree has
demonstrated, diuretic, diaphoretic properties and also
recommended for tap worm as well as against animal
bites. Doum palm fruit is edible popularly known as
gingerbread and goriba. This fruit is widespread all over
semi-arid zone of Africa and appears in March and
persists until the following season’s flowers. The husk
from the fruit can be pounded to form powder or cut off
in slices; the powder is often dried then used as hot or
cold drink. Young shoots produce tasty palm cabbage;
the husk is edible, and so are the immature seeds if well
prepared (Orwa et al., 2009). Doum Palm known to be
tolerant to heat and drought conditions and have
economic and medical value which encourage the
project team to select it for cultivation in Allaqi. The
procedures of plant cultivation are the same of Medemia
argun recording 58% germination percent.
Up: Fruits and seeds of Hyphaen thebica, Down:
The cultivated Hyphaen seeds in nursery in Allaqi
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The selected crops species for Agropastoralism
Three crops species were selected to be cultivated in
Bedouins farms based on Agroforesty system; Sorghum
[Sorghum bicolor], Corn maze [Zea mays] and Peanuts
[Arachis hypogaea]. Sorghum is perhaps the world's
most common crop; it is quantitatively the world’s fifth
largest most important cereal grain, after wheat, maize,
rice and barley. It is natively cultivated in North Africa,
possibly in the Nile or Ethiopian regions as recently as
1000 BC1. It is grown in Upper Egypt but is minor along
the North African coast. Sorghum cultivation appropriate
the environment conditions in Wadi Allaqi, that: 1) it is
versatile crop and plays an important role as a food
security crop especially in semi arid lands, 2) It is adapted
to a wide range of environmental conditions and will
produce significant yields under conditions that are
unfavourable for most other cereals, 3) It is particularly
Sorghum cultivating areas
adapted to drought, however, primarily a plant of hot,
semi-arid tropical environments with rainfall from 250
mm that are too dry for many other dry areas crops, 4) It
can be grown successfully on a wide range of soil types
but is mostly suited to soil in Allaqi characterized by
being light sandy and poor in nutrients and can produce
grain on soils where many other crops would fail, 5) The
single sowing of sorghum seeds can get more than one
harvest and with good productivity. Corn maze is the
second most important cereal in Egypt after the rice and
it is cultivated everywhere in country in a wide variety of
climate conditions. Corn was among selected crops that
it is well adapted with hot and drought conditions, very
nutritive [rich of starch, oil and protein] and has a lot
several uses. Every part of the plant can be utilized as
food, fodder and fuel wood. The vegetative parts of
leaves and stem used to feed the livestock of sheep and
Seeds of selected crops to be cultivated in Allaqi
goats because of its high digestibility and palatability and
nutritive value and the seeds used to feed the domestic
birds.
Dried kernels free from seeds some times are used as alternative fuel wood, they produce equal amount
of heat to wood with little smoke and with no dangerous gases and ashes. Bedouins use the corn flour
mixed with the wheat flour to make their traditional bread, they also use it to make thick porridge called
“Aseada”.
Peanuts also widely known as ground nuts originated in Peru and are now grown throughout the warmer
dry areas of the world. Areas of high cultivation include the Africa, South-east Asia and the sub-tropical
region of Australia. Peanut was among recommended crop to be grown in Allaqi that it is tolerant to
drought. Temperature is the major limiting factor for its yield; minimum 50°F is required for proper
growth and development. A peanut crop will not reach optimum maturity in areas with fewer heat units
during the growing season. Soil characteristic in Allaqi appropriate the growth and the development of
peanut, that soil for peanut production should be a sandy light-colour, light textured with good drainage,
and moderately low amounts of organic matter. Such soil is preferred since it is usually loose and friable;
provide proper aeration for the roots and nitrifying bacteria that are necessary for proper mineral
nutrition of the plant, permitting easier penetration of roots and pegs, and easier harvesting. Bedouins
can utilize all parts of peanuts, they can eat seeds [high in food energy, contains 25 to 32% protein and 42
to 52% oil], use the vegetative parts as fodder and the pods or shells can serve as high fibre roughage in
their livestock feed.
13
Chapter 3: Agropastoralism and Implementation Stages
The Project Work Plan Consist of Two Stages:
1. Pre-implementation Stage:
 Review publications and researches implemented in Allaqi (and other arid areas) that help in
carrying out the project and the Agropastoralism technique
 Consultation of experts, academics (in arid areas agriculture, Cairo University) and the Bedouins
in issues related to most appropriate agriculture techniques in arid areas to insure a successful
project results.
 Meetings with the director of Nature Conservation Sector in Cairo and the director of Wadi Allaqi
Biosphere Reserve to collect information on Wadi Allaqi nature and conditions that may help or
restrict the project implementation and to insure their cooperation.
 Construction the wooden nursery and preparation tools and other requirements for the
plantation of target species.
 Implementation awareness programs targeted the Bedouins including meetings and
presentations to show the essentiality of agropastoralism as solution for climate change stresses
and lack of grazing resources. 2. Implementation Stage:
 Plantation the seeds of target species in nursery to be moved latter to Bedouins farms.
 Selection the Bedouins farms locations.
 Establish fences round farms for protection from domestic animals grazing.
 Supply Bedouins with crops seeds, target species seedlings, materials and cultivation tools.
 Cultivation process by Bedouins (farms will be cultivated by commonly used fodder including the
seedlings of threatened target species).
 Agropastoralism farming steps will be under the supervision of the project team for successful
implementation and results.
 Evaluation: Evaluate the impact of Agropastoralism including: 1) The livelihood of Bedouins
(questionnaire), 2) The productivity of natural grazing areas, and 3) Evaluate the growth of target
species (measurements as shoot length, --- etc. and general condition of trees.
 Reporting.
14
Pre-implementation Stage
Agriculture is a new practice for: 1) The Bedouins who live in Allaqi. Herding of sheep and goats as means
of their survival and all their knowledge and experience focused on “How.. Where.. and When to find
resources for their livestock?” and for 2) The project team members who most of them work as a
researchers in Wadi Allaqi Biosphere Reserve and all their activity focused to achieve the objectives of
Wadi Allaqi as protected area including; the conservation, sustainable development and the research
work. It was important for us as a team to understand the linkages between the poverty in Bedouins
communities and the quality of the environmental resources, to know more about the factors impact
resources and to find adapted and alternative livelihood resources. It was challenge, to find a new
practice in Allaqi that can deal with unfavourable biophysical conditions of scarcity of water, infertile
soils, high temperature, high solar radiation, high disease and pest incidence and poor socioeconomic
infrastructure. This led to think about agriculture, but in a special technique, that agree with conditions
in arid areas. Consultation of experts in Desert Research Centre in Cairo was so essential to collect more
information about the semiarid agriculture, the discussions with researchers in Department of rural
Sociology, Department of the pastures and natural resources in dry areas, Department of agriculture in
arid and sustainable development, were benefit to know how to apply the agriculture in Allaqi, to
improve use of the limited resources and managing the natural resources sustainably. Several meetings
were held (including presentations) with Bedouins tribes, director of Nature Conservation Sector in Cairo,
the director of Wadi Allaqi Biosphere Reserve and the director of Allaqi village, to show our project and
related activities, to know their opinions and ideas and to insure their cooperation.
Implementation Stage
Nursery plant propagations and farms constructions
Containers nursery was used in seeds propagation process, three species were planted: Balanites
aegyptiaca (L.) Del., Medemia argun Wurttenb. ex H.Wendl and Hyphaene thebaica L. Fruits of Balanites
were collected from Wadi Murrra in midstream part of Allaqi which far about 80 km from the Lake
Nasser. To have the seeds, the fleshy pulp of the fruit was removed by allowing the fruit to soften in
water for days and then scraping them over electric grinder. Dried and uninfected seeds were planted
into polythene bags at a depth 2 cm, in moist soil (mixture of sand and clay in proportion 2:1) and two
seeds were placed in each point. Medemia and Hyphaene also were planted in the nursery in somehow
similar technique to Balanites. They were mechanically scraped to remove the hard fruit pulp and soaked
in water to overcome the seeds dormancy and soften the seeds coat barrier. Nine fenced farms with
surface area 81m2 were constructed nearby to Bedouins settlement in the village. Each farm contained
ten seedlings distributed in pattern that make the distance between two seedlings three metres giving
adequate space for cropping. Sorghum was the first crop cultivated in January 2012 and will be harvested
after three months in May.
Project evaluation
Evaluation aims to trace causes to outcomes, in other words, it allows us to determine in what degree we
achieved the project objectives, if the activities followed in the project has been effective and if it cause a
change (positive or negative) in Bedouin society. Questionnaire with open and ended questions was used
to collect qualitative information about the size of family, number of livestock (indicator), sources of
livelihood … etc. The evaluation was two times before and after the project.
15
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Balanites mechanical scarification.
Farms construction.
Ziziphus seedlings in Nursery.
Transplantation of Ziziphus in farms.
Project evaluation using questionnaires.
16
Chapter 4: Project Outcomes
Agroforesty and agropastoralism are long term projects; it
means that many of their objectives can be achieved after
sometime. The total period of the project was 13 months, part
of it was spent in preparation work, which makes it not
adequate to have all the objectives of the project. The
plantation in the farms (trees seedling) started in October
2011, the first cropping sorghum, was in last January 2012 and
it will be harvested in May 2012. One of outcomes that should
be mentioned is the new knowledge and experience related to:
Conditions of arid agriculture, seeds plantation in nursery,
agroforestry techniques and transplantation of seedlings.
Furthermore, the Bedouins community became more
acceptable to present of alternative livelihood resources and
more awarded about their environmental problems. The
project provides the Bedouins with essential bases of
agroforestry technique represented by the knowledge and the
facilities which provide sustainability to outcomes. The arid
habitats cover about 37% of the protected areas in country and
most of them have similar challenges, so the project could be
as experimental stage to identify positive and negative sides of
application the agropastoralism strategy in other parts in
country for conservation and for new livelihood resources.
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