Download Chapter 15 Classification

BIOLOGY
CONCEPTS & CONNECTIONS
Fourth Edition
Neil A. Campbell • Jane B. Reece • Lawrence G. Mitchell • Martha R. Taylor
CHAPTER 15
Classification
Modules 15.1 – 15.5
From PowerPoint® Lectures for Biology: Concepts & Connections
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Why should we classify organisms?
• Gives organization – makes it easier to find and
compare information
• Taxonomy – science of classification, give each
organisms a scientific name that is accepted by
all scientists so that all are using the same
name instead of using common names that
might be different in each country.
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Who started all of this?
• Carolus Linnaeus: Swedish botanist
who lived during 18th century.
– Developed a two-name naming system
known as binomial nomenclature (still
used today). Each organisms is given a
scientific name with two parts (genus and
species), the name is always italicized, first
part (genus) is always capitalized and
second part (species) is always lower case.
• Example – wolf is Canis lupis
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How does the Linnaean system work?
• Linnaeus’ system of classification consists of different
hierarchical levels, which includes (from smallest
largest
Largest to to
smallest
taxon, or group):
– Kingdom
– Phylum
– Class
– Order
– Family
– Genus
– Species
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Different numbers of kingdom systems
• Five kingdom system – Monera, Protista, Fungi,
Plantae and Animalia
• Six kingdom system – recently (past 5-10 years)
the Monera were split because the two groups
(Eubacteria and Archaebacteria) were found to be
different. All other kingdoms same as fivekingdom system
• Domain system – newer classification scheme that
attempts to show evolutionary relationships
between all life on earth. Has three groups that
include the bacteria, archaebacteria and eukarya.
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• An example of classification taxa for the house
cat.
Table 15.10
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Human Classification
• Domain – Eukarya
• Kingdom – Animalia
• Phylum – Chordata (Subphylum – Vertebrata)
• Class – Mammalia
• Order – Primates
• Family – Hominidae
• Genus – Homo
• Species - sapiens
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SYSTEMATICS AND PHYLOGENETIC
BIOLOGY
15.10 Systematists classify organisms by phylogeny
• Reconstructing phylogeny is part of systematics
– the study of biological diversity and
classification
• Taxonomists assign a two-part name to each
species
– The first name, the genus, covers a group of
related species
– The second name refers to a species within a
genus
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• Taxonomists often debate the particular
placement of organisms in categories as they
strive to make their categories reflect
evolutionary relationships
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Felis
catus
(domestic
cat)
Mephitis
mephitis
(striped
skunk)
Lutra
lutra
(European
otter)
GENUS
Felis
Mephitis
Lutra
FAMILY
Felidae
SPECIES
ORDER
Mustelidae
Canis
familiaris
(domestic
dog)
Canis
lupus
(wolf)
Canis
Canidae
Carnivora
Figure 15.10
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15.11 Homology indicates common ancestry, but
analogy does not
• Homologous structures are evidence that
organisms have evolved from a common
ancestor
• In contrast, analogous similarities are evidence
that organisms from different evolutionary
lineages have undergone convergent evolution
– Their resemblances have resulted from living in
similar environments
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• Example: California ocotillo and allauidia of
Madagascar
Figure 15.11
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15.12 Molecular biology is a powerful tool in
systematics
• Systematists increasingly use molecular
techniques to
– classify
organisms
Human
Chimpanzee
Gorilla
Orangutan
– develop
phylogenetic
hypotheses
Figure 15.12B
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• A phylogenetic tree based on molecular data
Brown bear
Polar
bear
Asiatic
black
bear
American
black
bear
Sun
bear
Sloth
bear
Spectacled Giant
panda
bear
Lesser
Raccoon panda
Miocene
Pleistocene
Pliocene
Oligocene
Ursidae
Procyonidae
Common ancestral
carnivorans
Figure 15.12A
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15.13 Systematists attempt to make classification
consistent with phylogeny
• Homologous features are used to compare
organisms
• Cladistic analysis attempts to define
monophyletic taxa
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TAXA
Outgroup
(Reptiles)
Eastern box
turtle
Ingoup
(Mammals)
Duck-billed
platypus
Red kangaroo North American
beaver
CHARACTERS
Long gestation
Gestation
Hair, mammary glands
Vertebral column
Long gestation
3
Gestation
2
Hair, mammary glands
1
Derived
characteristic
Vertebral column
Figure 15.13A
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• Cladistic analysis is often a search for the
simplest hypotheses about phylogeny
– Phylogenetic tree
according to
cladistic analysis
– Phylogenetic tree
according to
classical
systematics
Lizards
Lizards
Snakes
Snakes
Crocodiles
Crocodiles
Birds
Birds
Figure 15.13B, C
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THE DOMAINS OF LIFE
15.14 Arranging life into kingdoms is a work in
progress
• For several decades, systematists have classified
life into five kingdoms
MONERA
PROTISTA
PLANTAE
Earliest
organisms
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FUNGI
ANIMALIA
Figure 15.14A
• A newer system recognizes two basically
distinctive groups of prokaryotes
– The domain Bacteria
– The domain Archaea
• A third domain,
the Eukarya,
includes all
kingdoms of
eukaryotes
BACTERIA
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ARCHAEA
EUKARYA
Earliest
organisms
Figure 15.14B
EVOLUTION, UNITY, AND DIVERSITY
1.4 The diversity of life can be arranged into three
domains
• Grouping organisms by fundamental features
helps make the vast diversity of life manageable
for study
• Scientists classify organisms into a hierarchy of
broader and broader groups
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• Most classification schemes group organisms
into three domains:
– Domain Bacteria
– Domain Archaea
Figure 1.4A, B
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– Domain Eukarya
Figure 1.4C-F
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Kingdom Eubacteria
• Prokaryotic
• Single celled
• Lack true nuclei and internal membrane enclosed
organelles.
• Lack a cytoskeleton
• Contain double stranded DNA that is circular.
• Get energy by
– Heterotroph – feed on dead material (detritivores), by attaching
and feeding on living things (parasite)
– Autotroph – can synthesize their own food
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• Structure:
– Have cell walls made of peptidoglycans (type of
carbohydrate and peptide), use gram stain to identify
how thick the cell wall is and what type of bacteria.
Gram positive cells have a thick wall that stains purple
while gram negative cells have a thin wall that stains
pink.
– Classified by appearance
• Cocci – round
• Bacillus – rods
• Spirillus - spiral
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Kingdom Archaebacteria
• Have no internal membrane enclosed
organelles
• Simple, circular DNA
– Relatively new group
– Usually found in harsh environments
like hot springs that are similar to early
earth conditions
– Different from Eubacteria in terms of
membrane structure and membrane
lipids.
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Kingdom Protista
• Simplest of the eukaryotic organisms, may be the
group that connects the prokaryotes and the rest of
the eukaryotes.
– Mostly unicellular
– Some are motile and move with cilia, or flagella or
pseudopodia (ameboid movement)
– Some use asexual reproduction and others use sexual
reproduction.
– Examples include:
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Amoeba
• Large unicellular organism
with amorphous cell shape
– Use cytoplasmic
streaming/cyclosis/ameboid
movement and pseudopodia to
get around
– Heterotrophs that get their
food by
engulfing/phagocytizing
objects and digesting them
with a food vacuole.
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Paramecium
• Ciliated, unicellular organism
whose cell surface is covered with
cilia,
• Have a definite shape
• Contain daisy-shaped contractile
vacuoles to maintain water balance
• Food enters through the oral
groove
• Uses mitosis to reproduce
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Slime molds
• May be either grouped
with protists or fungi
(depending on system)
• Some exist as independent
cells, others might group
together to form a
multicellular mass under
certain conditions.
– Heterotrophic
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Algae
• Photosynthetic protists
• Mostly unicellular
(Tests)
• Includes:
– Diatoms – single celled with shells of silica
– Dinoflagellates – single celled with flagella
– Green, brown and red algae as well as giant kelp
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Kingdom Fungi
• Heterotrophs, absorb their nutrients from
environment, secrete enzymes from their
hyphae (slender root-like filaments) onto the
detritus and absorb digested food directly into
their cells.
• Often detritivores and feed off dead organisms,
help recycle materials.
• Cell walls made of chitin
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Some Fungi:
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Kingdom Plantae:
• Multicellular, eukaryotic, produce their own
food through photosynthesis.
• Cell wall made of cellulose
• Nonmotile
• Have adaptations that allow them to gain the
most light, air and water as possible
• First plants probably evolved from green algae
near shallow water.
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Bryophyta
• Nonvascular plants that also lack woody stems,
usually small due to lack of xylem and phloem
and also usually found in moist environments.
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Tracheophyta - seedless
• Have vascular tissue (xylem and phloem)
• First members were seedless and used spores
to reproduce.
– Examples include ferns and horsetails
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Tracheophyta – with seeds
• Evolution of seed was a major step for the
plants, increased the ability to live in drier
climates, uses male (pollen) and female (ova)
gametes.
• Evolution of flower was next step.
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Kingdom Animalia
• Multicellular and heterotrophic, have become
more complex over time and with the
accumulation of evolutionary adaptations and
more complex body systems.
• Some are sessile and don’t move very much
(hydra)
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Animals may have different types of body symmetry.
Animals with radial symmetry have their body organized into a circular shape
and may have their body cut along any plane from anterior to posterior end.
This produces multiple “ways” to produce a mirror image of the organism’s
body.
Examples of animals with radial symmetry include sea stars and jellies.
Animals with bilateral symmetry have a right “side” and a left “side”. They
only one plane in which their body can be cut and produce a mirror image.
Examples of animals with bilateral symmetry include humans and dogs.
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Dorsal
Transverse
plane
Posterior
Frontal plane
Anterior
Ventral
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Animals have several different ways that their body cavity can form.
Animals with only solid tissue between the gut wall and exterior of the
Animal are called acoelomates.
Animals with an incomplete “space” between the gut wall and exterior of
The animal are called pseudocoelomates.
Animals with a complete “space” between the gut wall and exterior of the
Animal are called coelomates.
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Ectoderm
Mesoderm
Endoderm
Acoelomate
Pseudocoelomate
Coelomate
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Ectoderm
Mesoderm
Endoderm
Pseudocoel
Ectoderm
Mesoderm
Coelomic cavity
Endoderm
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Phylum Porifera (sponges):
First evolutionary step between protists and animals
Have no organs or tissues
Only a small amount of specialization
Can regenerate if separated into pieces
Have flagellated cells that move water into the animal through body pores.
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Phylum Cnidaria (formerly Coelenterata):
Have radial symmetry
Tentacles around a mouth
Have two cell layers (endoderm=inner and ectoderm=outer) and a hollow
body cavity (gastrovascular cavity or gvc)
Have a simple nervous system (nerve net)
Tentacles have nematocysts for stinging and immobilizing prey
Start out as a polyp that lives attached to something and then becomes a
free floating medusa.
Can reproduce either sexually or asexually.
Examples include hydra, sea anemone and jelly fish
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Gastrovascular
Fig. 32.06(TE
Art) cavity
Epidermis
Mesoglea
Gastrodermis
Medusa
Tentacles
Mouth
Polyp
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Gastrovascular
cavity
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Fig. 32.07(TE
Mouth Art)
Gastrodermis
Tentacles Mesoglea
Epidermis
Sensory
cell
Cnidocyte
Discharged
nematocyst
Undischarged
CrossHydra Section
Trigger nematocyst
Filament
Stinging cell (cnidocyte)
with nematocyst
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Fig. 32.11
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Phylum platyhelminthes (flatworms):
Ribbon-like with bilateral symmetry
Have three cell layers
Lack a circulatory system
Have simple light receptors, an anterior ganglion (brain) and two nerve cords
Can regenerate
Are free living but many are internal parasites.
Examples include planaria, flukes and tapeworms
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Fig. 32.13(TE Art)
Eyespot
Intestinal diverticulum
Intestine
Epidermis
Circular muscles
Testis
Intestine
Longitudinal
muscles
Parenchymal
muscle
Protruding Nerve Sperm
Oviduct
pharynx cord duct
Opening
to pharynx
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Fig. 32.14(TE Art)
Hooks
Sucker
Scolex
Repeated proglottid
segments
Uterus
Proglottid
Genital
pore
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Raw, infected fish is
Fig.
32.15(TE
consumed
byArt)
humans
or other mammals
Liver
Metacercarial
cysts in fish
muscle
Bile duct
Adult fluke
Egg
containing
miracidium
Miracidium
hatches after
being eaten
by snail
Cercaria
Redia
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Sporocyst
Phylum nematoda (roundworms):
Have three cell layers
A complete digestive tract with two openings
A pseudocoelom
Lacking a respiratory and circulatory system they exchange
materials directly with environment
Can be free-living scavanging or parasitic species.
Examples include Caenorhabditis elegans
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Phylum annelida (segmented worms):
Have segmented bodies
A complete body cavity (coelom) filled with water
Hydrostatic skeleton
Have a nervous system with an anterior ganglion (brain) and a ventral nerve
cord
Exchange gases directly with environment
Have a pair of nephridia (excretory structures) in each body segment
Have a complete digestive tract
Have a closed circulatory system with five hearts (aortic arches)
Examples include earthworms and leeches
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Fig. 33.12(TE Art)
Clitellum
Segments
Setae
Esophagus Dorsal
Blood Intestine
Hearts
vessel
Pharynx
Septa Longitudinal
Brain
muscle
Mouth
Male
Nerve
gonads
cord Circular
Female
muscle
gonads
Ventral
Blood
vessel
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Nephridium
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Fig. 33.15
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Phylum Arthropoda:
Have jointed appendages and an exoskeleton made of chitin
Open circulatory system
Has a separate system of tubes for gas exchange called tracheal tubes and
Body openings in the abdomen called spiracles
Have complex sensory structures including compound eyes
One of the most abundant groups of animals on the planet
Insects have three pairs of legs
Arachnids have four pairs of legs
Crustaceans have segmented bodies with a variable number of appendages,
Have gills for gas exchange
Examples include insects, arachnids (spiders, ticks and scorpions)
And crustaceans
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Fig. 33.20(TE Art)
Air sac
Thorax
Head
Eye
Antenna
Rectum
Spiracles
Mouthparts
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Malpighian
tubules
Abdomen
Sting
Midgut Poison
sac
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Fig. 33.22(TE Art)
Compound eye
Ocelli
Antennae
Spiracles
Tympanal
organ
Ovary
Rectum
Malpighian
Heart
Gastric
tubules
ceca
Stomach
Crop
Aorta
Brain
Mouth Nerve ganglia
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Fig. 33.23(TE Art)
Tracheoles
Trachea
Spiracles
Spiracles
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Fig. 33.25(TE Art)
Cheliped
Eye
Cephalothorax Abdomen
Telson
Antennule
Swimmerets
Antenna
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Uropod
Walking legs
Fig. 33.28
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Phylum Mollusca:
Have a muscular foot
A mantle that secretes a shell and a rasping tongue called a radula
Most are covered by a hard protective shell secreted by the mantle
Some (squid and octopi) have a reduced internal shell known as a pen
They are mostly aquatic and use gills enclosed in the mantle for
respiration.
Examples include clams, squid and snails
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Esophagus
Muscle
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Radula
Mouth
Fig. 33.08
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Phylum Echinodermata:
Have a spiny body surface
Radial symmetry
Water vascular system and the ability to regenerate lost body parts
Are deuterostomes, have tube feet and a hard internal skeleton made of
Calcium deposits.
Examples include sea stars and sea urchins
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Fig. 33.38
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Fig. 33.40
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Fig. 33.41
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Phylum Chordata:
Have a stiff solid dorsal rod called the notochord and gill slits during
Embryonic development
Have a dorsal hollow nerve cord
A tail that extends beyond the anus (at some point in development)
A ventral heart
Examples include any of the vertebrates
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Fig.
Pharyngeal
pouches
34.02(TE
Art)
Postanal
tail
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Hollow dorsal
nerve cord
Notochord
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Subphylum vertebrata (vertebrates):
Have a notochord during embryogenesis that is later replaced by a bony
Segmented vertebral column that protects the dorsal spinal cord and
Provides anchorage for muscles
Have a bony or cartilaginous endoskeleton
Chambered heart for circulation and increasingly complex
Nervous systems
All internal organs are found in a body cavity called a coelom.
Examples include fish, reptiles, birds and mammals.
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Tail:
Like all chordates,
vertebrates have
a postanal tail at
some point in
their lives.
A vertebral
column
surrounds and
protects the
dorsal nerve
cord.
Fig. 34.09(TE Art)
Skeleton:
All vertebrates
have an
endoskeleton
of cartilage or
bone.
Coelom:
In many vertebrates, the
coelom is subdivided into
cavities housing the heart,
the stomach, intestines,
and liver, and, in some
groups, the lungs.
Head:
All vertebrates
have a brain,
encased within
a protective
skull.
All vertebrates
possess a liver.
Limbs:
All vertebrates
exhibit great powers
of movement, most
utilizing fins or legs.
Kidney:
The excretory
system of
vertebrates is
unique among
animals.
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All vertebrates
possess
endocrine
glands.
Heart:
All vertebrates have a
closed circulatory
system, powered by a
muscular heart.
Jaws:
All but the
earliest
vertebrates
have hinged
jaws.
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Quaternary
(2–Present) 0
Tertiary
(65–2)
50
Agnathans
Jawless fishes
Actinopterygii
Sarcopterygii
Chondrichthyes
Amphibia
Cartilaginous fishes Ray-finned fishes Lobe-finned fishes Amphibians
Cretaceous 100
(144–65)
Jurassic 150
(213–144)
Triassic
200
(248–213)
Permian 250
(280–248)
Carboniferous 300
(360–280)
Devonian 350
(408–360)
400
Silurian
(438–408)
Ordovician 450
(490–438)
Cambrian 500
(545–490)
550
Ostracoderms Placoderms
(extinct)
(extinct)
shell-skinned armored fishes
fishes
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Acanthodians
(extinct)
spiny fishes
Class Chondrichthyes:
Have a cartilaginous endoskeleton
Have large oil-producing livers for buoyancy regulation in water
Use gills for respiration
Examples include sharks, skates and rays
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Aves
Crocodilia
Lepidosauria
Testudines
Mammalia
Sarcopterygii
Actinopterygii
Chondrichthyes
Myxini
Fig. 34.p695(TE Art)
Amphibia
Cephalaspidomorphi
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Class Osteichthyes (bony fish):
Have an endoskeleton made entirely of hard calcified bone, have swim
bladders for the regulation of buoyancy, use gills for respiration.
Examples include bass, trout, tuna, swordfish
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Aves
Crocodilia
Lepidosauria
Testudines
Mammalia
Amphibia
Sarcopterygii
Actinopterygii
Chondrichthyes
Cephalaspidomorphi
Myxini
Fig. 34.p696(TE Art)
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Dorsal aorta
Fig. 34.17(TE Art)
To
heart
Gas Muscular
gland valve
Swim bladder
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Class Amphibia:
Have lungs for gas exchange
Can also exchange gases across their moist skin
Their eggs lack hard shells
Their larvae often live in the water and then metamorphose into the adult form
Must live in close association with the water.
Examples include frogs and salamanders
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Aves
Crocodilia
Lepidosauria
Testudines
Mammalia
Amphibia
Sarcopterygii
Actinopterygii
Chondrichthyes
Cephalaspidomorphi
Myxini
Fig. 34.p698(TE Art)
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Class Reptilia:
Became independent of water for reproduction with the development of a
Hard shelled egg
Have more effective lungs
A heart and thicker skin that allows them to survive on land.
Examples include turtles, lizards and snakes
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Aves
Crocodilia
Lepidosauria
Testudines
Mammalia
Amphibia
Actinopterygii
Chondrichthyes
Cephalaspidomorphi
Myxini
Fig. 34.p702(TE Art)
Sarcopterygii
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Embryo
Fig.
34.23(TE Art)
Leathery
shell
Amnion
Chorion
Allantois
Yolk sac
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Class aves (birds):
Evolved from reptilian dinosaurs with the development of wings
Feathers and light bones for flight
Have a four chambered heart and uniquely adapted lungs that supply lots
of oxygen for flight
Have hard shelled eggs and provide a great deal of parental care during
embryonic development and maturation after hatching.
Examples include robin, cardinal, blue jay and woodpecker
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Aves
Crocodilia
Lepidosauria
Testudines
Mammalia
Amphibia
Sarcopterygii
Actinopterygii
Chondrichthyes
Cephalaspidomorphi
Myxini
Fig. 34.p710(TE Art)
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Fig. 34.34(TE Art)
Barbules
Shaft
Shaft
Hooks
Quill
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Barb
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Fig. 34.36(TE Art)
Caudipteryx
Recently
discovered
fossils of this
theropod
Sinosauropteryx
indicate that it
This theropod
is intermediate
dinosaur had short
between
arms and ran
dinosaurs and
along the ground.
Velociraptor birds. This
Its body was
small, very fast
This larger,
covered with
runner was
carnivorous
filaments that may theropod
covered with
have been used for possessed a
primitive
insulation and that swiveling wrist (symmetrical
are the first
bone, a type of and therefore
evidence of
flightless)
joint that is
feathers.
also found in feathers.
birds and is
necessary for
flight.
Dinosaurs
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Modern
birds
Archaeopteryx
This oldest
known bird had
asymmetrical
feathers, with a
narrower
leading edge
and streamlined
trailing edge. It
could probably
fly short
distances.
Birds
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Class mammalia:
Have hair, sweat glands, mammary glands and four chambered hearts
Evolved over 200 million years ago
Became the dominant terrestrial vertebrate 65 million years ago
Highly effective in regulating bodyt emperature
Most provide extensive care for their young.
Monotremes (duck billed platypus) lay eggs
Marsupials give birth to live young after a short gestation period who
Then complete their development in a pouch.
Placental mammals gestate their young to a more complete state and
Give birth to live young after their development is complete.
Examples include dogs, cats, humans, elephants
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Aves
Crocodilia
Lepidosauria
Testudines
Mammalia
Sarcopterygii
Actinopterygii
Chondrichthyes
Cephalaspidomorphi
Myxini
Fig. 34.p714(TE Art)
Amphibia
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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Fig. 34.39(TE
Embryo
Art)
Chorion
Uterus
Amnion
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Umbilical cord
Placenta
Yolk
sac
Fig. 34.41
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings