Download Managing coral reefs

Managing coral reefs
Due to the increased pressures on coral reefs, a variety of programmes and policies
have been set up to help conserve the precious ecosystems. Many programmes
have been localised so comparing data has been a problem. Global initiatives have
recently been developed to attempt to understand the threat to coral reefs and how
they can be combated. These initiatives and their outcomes are affected by the fact
that reefs vary greatly in species and composition depending on area, and hence
data can be difficult to match up (which can hinder the conservation process). It has
become increasingly apparent that over the past five years standard methods to
manage and conserve coral reefs have not been fully effective, meaning that
alternative methods and increased cooperation between nations need to be
considered in order to conserve the world’s reef systems for future generations.
Tourism
Credit: J Nortcliffe
Seven million people a year now visit
Thailand on their holidays, a 64-fold
increase since 1969. In response to
increased numbers of tourists to areas
such as Thailand, the Association of
South East Asian Nations (ASEAN)
has produced a strategy to manage
the impacts of tourism on coral reefs.
Marine Parks and reserves have been
created, in which tourists are not
allowed to stay overnight. In the Ban
Don Bay coral reefs of Thailand a
zoning system has been proposed,
and areas have been created where
any destruction of coral is prohibited, where tourist activities are allowed within
guidelines and restrictions, and where there are only guidelines on habitat protection.
Better development of tourist areas is needed to control increased runoff and ensure
sanitation and power station facilities are not affecting the reef in an adverse way.
Methods of managing this include regulated development which follows a risk
assessment in terms of damage to the reef, raising awareness in the area about how
development can alter the reef ecosystem and increasing awareness around the
world about the impacts of tourism on reef areas.
Ecotourism is also being developed in many reef areas popular with tourists. It is
hoped that the concept of ecotourism will become increasingly well known to people,
who will choose the resorts and companies that practice the ideas behind it over
other companies. This, in turn, will lead to increased global awareness of the plight of
coral reefs, and provide some financial support for the conservation programmes and
local communities of these areas.
What is Ecotourism?
The International Ecotourism Society defines ecotourism as “responsible travel to
natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the well-being of local
people”. Ecotourism strives to minimise the impact of tourists on areas, and
encourages environmental and cultural awareness and respect in order to provide
positive experiences for both visitors and hosts. Its aim is also to provide financial
support for the conservation of the areas involved, and to help the economies of
the local areas. International human rights, labour agreements and the host
countries’ political, environmental and social climate are also considered.
Source: The International Ecotourism Society, 2004
http://www.ecotourism.org/index2.php?what-is-ecotourism
Fishing
The aim of fishery management is to
both limit and prevent damage to
fish populations via destructive and
illegal fishing practices. In some
areas in Southeast Asia, blast and
dynamite fishing have been banned.
However, as local communities are
highly dependant on these methods
of fishing as a source of food and
income, regulating the banning of
these methods has proved a
problem. Corruption is rife, and in
some cases the people who should
be managing these problems are in
fact those who are receiving a share
of the money earned from these practices.
Credit: J Nortcliffe
Sustainable aquaculture, where fish are reared purely for food and trade, has been
proposed as an idea, and would mean a regulated amount of fish would be removed
from the reef, leaving others to breed and the fish populations to rise again. Fish
quotas, legal fish sizes and time and space restrictions on fishing could also help to
ease the over fishing problem, along with providing local communities with alternative
means of income (for example, with jobs in the growing tourist industry).
Water quality
River catchment areas must be considered and managed in order to ensure the
successful management of an entire reef,. This can be done via legislation on
development in these areas, in order to limit run off increases and dredging and
therefore decrease the sedimentation and eutrophication potential of the waters in
the reef area. Sewage outlets can also be put down the coast from coral areas so as
to limit the impact of additional nutrients and other pollution in the water, power
stations can disperse hot water into deep areas of the sea and environmental impact
assessments can be carried out whenever development is likely to have an adverse
effect on the reef.
Education and awareness
Education and the cooperation of people around the world are needed if coral reefs
are to survive. People need to be made aware about the link between reef
conservation and informed consumer purchases. Low public appreciation of the
value of coral reefs as a resource (both commercial and ecological) has proved a
continual problem, especially in places where tourism has rapidly increased over the
past twenty years. Locals must also be educated about any management plans, and
if possible the importance of coral reefs should be taught in schools (local to the reef
and abroad).
Case Study: Shoals of Capricorn Programme
The Royal Geographical Society (with IBG) has recently completed one of the largest and
most ambitious research projects in its history - the Shoals of Capricorn Programme 1998 2001. This massive project studied the entire marine environment of the Mascarene
Region of the south-west Indian Ocean, to provide comprehensive information on the
current environment and a plan for its future management. With much of its landmass
between 8m and 20m below the surface, the Mascarene Plateau is a rare example of an
extensive shallow-shelf sea completely detached from land boundaries. The programme
hosted over 200 international scientists from 21 countries, all investigating different aspects
of the marine environments of the region.
Alongside this research ran a comprehensive training and education programme. More
than 300 local people from a wide range of Government and non-government groups were
trained in scientific, practical and marine safety skills, in order to support marine research
in the region into the future. Behind all of this ran a broad-reaching education programme.
Shoals involved more than 400 local children from the Seychelles, Mauritius and
Rodrigues, and assisted in establishing marine education and conservation issues into the
relevant national curricula, thereby providing a mechanism for the continuity of marine
education for future generations.
The work of the Shoals Programme in Mauritius and Seychelles continues. The ongoing
science, training and education initiatives are now being run by the Centre for Marine
Research and Technology in Seychelles.
For further information and access to the programme report, please see www.rgs.org/eac
Credit: J Nortcliffe
International management and
policy
The Convention on the International
Trade in Endangered Species of
Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)
includes around 2000 species of
corals, clams, conch and turtles
found in reefs around the world and
enforces regulations about the trade
of reef products (and potentially
should lower damage from the
souvenir trade).
The Coral Reef Ecosystem Fishery
management Plan (CREFMP) for the western Pacific is the first ecosystem-based
fishery management plan for US waters. It’s aim is to encourage the sustainable use
of coral reef resources in a way that is ecologically and culturally sensitive, lower the
human impacts on coral reef ecosystems via marine protected areas, and facilitate
sustainable fishing in local reef communities. It was approved by the Western Pacific
Fishery Management Council in June 2001.
It has become increasingly clear that international management of reef ecosystems is
what is needed to ensure the areas are protected and preserved. As many of the
world’s reefs are shared between countries, cooperation and a mutual understanding
of what is needed and why is vital to ensure successful management. Lack of
resources, trained staff, equipment and finances all hinder the progress of reef
management. One example of an international effort to conserve reefs is the
International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI), which was established in 1994. The initiative
is a partnership among governments, society and non government organisations
which hopes to stop and reverse the global destruction of coral reef systems. It was
founded by the USA, and includes countries such as Australia, France, Japan,
Jamaica, the Philippines, Sweden, the United Kingdom.
Marine Protected Areas
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) have been introduced in many regions including
Indonesia. These promote responsible fishery management and habitat protection,
and any potentially damaging activities are not permitted. MPAs aim to restore coral
reefs, provide aesthetic maintenance, increase and protect biodiversity and provide
economic benefits to the people in the areas involved. Some, however, are struggling
due to lack of participation, differing views and perceptions and lack of financial
backing. Some marine parks charge entrance fees and sell boat permits and
souvenirs, the revenue of which is spent on the development of reefs as resources
and sustainable management.
Case study: The Great Barrier Reef management strategies
The Great Barrier Reef runs for 1,240 miles along the eastern coast of Australia, is the
largest reef in the world and contains over 2900 reefs built from over 360 species of
coral. It contains over 1500 species of fish, the world’s largest green turtle breeding area
and important seabird breeding islands. The day-to-day management of the Barrier Reef
Marine Park is monitored by the Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service and the Great
Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, who are jointly responsible for ensuring the protection
of this World Heritage Area. Management and protection of the Reef is also achieved
through partnerships with the Queensland Boating and Fisheries Patrol, Queensland
Water Police, Coastwatch and the Australian Maritime Safety Authority. The
management of the area falls into four categories: Resource protection programs, Visitor
education and services, Park monitoring and Surveillance and enforcement.
Conservation is split into three main focus areas: the protection of threatened species,
the identification and protection of reef areas, and the understanding of the major threats
to coral such as bleaching.
For further information and details about the management and conservation of the Great
Barrier Reef, see:
The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority
http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/index.html
Credit: J Nortcliffe
Case Study: The Maldives
The Maldives is a cluster of around 1200 islands located in the Indian Ocean. Two hundred
of those islands are home to the country’s 260,000 people, many of whom rely on the
revenue from its reefs to survive. At present, the Maldives has a growing economy, and
steadily improving living standards. However, there are several issues which the Maldives
must address in order to preserve its reefs and ensure this success continues. For
example, scientists have predicted a 0.5 metre sea level increase during the 21st century,
which could upset the delicate reef ecosystem and potentially submerge the entire country.
The country needs to assess its methods for protecting the marine environment, and
encourage a sustainable and environmentally friendly approach to fishing. Tourism also
needs to be managed, especially as it accounts for 19 per cent of GDP and one fifth of all
employment in the country. The main attraction for tourists are the reefs, which need to be
protected from the impacts of increased visits, souvenir selling and coastal development
(which could see 5000 new hotel rooms built by 2010). The national Environmental Action
Plan identifies areas which need to be looked at in order to begin to protect and preserve
the Maldives’s reefs. These include education, training and legislation in areas such as
fishing and mining, establishing priority areas, managing population growth and migration,
looking at environmental issues such as water quality and deforestation and establishing
marine parks.
Source: Warn (S) and Naish (M), 2000 ‘Changing Environments: AS level geography for
Edexcel B’, Longman
References and Sources
American Association for the Advancement of Science
Birkeland, Charles ‘Can ecosystem management of coral reefs be achieved?’, found
at: American Association for the Advancement of Science
http://www.aaas.org/international/africa/coralreefs/ch3.shtml
Moore, Franklin and Best, Barbara ‘Coral reef crisis: Causes and Consequences’,
found a: American Association for the Advancement of Science
http://www.aaas.org/international/africa/coralreefs/ch1.shtml
Spruill, Vikki and Dropkin, Lisa, ‘Ocean Attitudes 2001: Conservation through
consumer action’, found at: American Association for the Advancement of Science
http://www.aaas.org/international/africa/coralreefs/ch5.shtml
Bowen, Ann and Pallister, John (2001) ‘A2 Geography’, Heinemann
Coral Cay Conservation:
http://www.coralcay.org/science/reefs/how_are_reefs_threatened.php
http://www.coralcay.org/science/reefs/why_conserve_reefs.php
http://www.coralcay.org/science/reefs/coral_reef_ecology.php
Coral Reef Alliance
http://www.coralreefalliance.org/aboutcoralreefs/overview.html
http://www.coralreefalliance.org/aboutcoralreefs/care.html
http://www.coralreefalliance.org/aboutcoralreefs/threats.html
Digby, Bob (Ed) (2000) ‘Changing Environments’, Heinemann
Elcome, David (1999) ‘The Fragile Environment: Pollution and Abuse’, Nelson
Thornes
National Marine Sanctuaries
http://www.sanctuaries.nos.noaa.gov/news/pressreleases/pressrelease03_15_02.ht
ml
Royal geographical Society (with IBG), Shoals of Capricorn Project
http://www.rgs.org/templ.php?page=5expesho
Sea World Adventure Parks
http://www.seaworld.org/infobooks/coral/deathcr.html
http://www.seaworld.org/infobooks/coral/coralcr.htlm
http://www.seaworld.org/infobooks/coral/habdiscr.html
The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority
http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/index.html
The International Ecotourism Society
http://www.ecotourism.org/index2.php?what-is-ecotourism
University of the Virgin Islands
http://manta.uvi.edu/coral.reefer/threats.htm
US Departments of State, Bureau of Oceans and International Environmental and
Scientific Affairs http://www.state.gov/g/oes/rls/fs/2003/17148.htm
US Environmental Protection Agency
http://www.epa.gov/cgi-bin/epaprintonly.cgi
Warn, S and Naish, M (Eds), 2000 ‘Changing Environments: AS level geography for
Edexcel B’, Longman
Wikipedia
http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/coral_reefs
Wilkinson, Clive (Ed) (2004) ‘Status of Coral reefs of the World 2004, Volume 1’,
with the Coral reef Monitoring network, Australian Institute of Marine Science
WWF
http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/marine/what_we_do/coral_reefs/about
/Coral_facts.cfm