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UNIT 4 IN-SITU CONSERVATION
Structure
4.0
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
4.12
Introduction
Objectives
In-situ conservation
4.2.1 In-situ conservation : Advantages, risk and opportunity
4.2.2 Biodiversity Conservation : International Efforts
4.2.3 India’s initiative for in-situ conservation
Protected Areas in India
National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuary
4.4.1 Concepts of Species
Biosphere Reserve
4.5.1 Definition
4.5.2 Characteristics of biosphere Reserves
4.5.3 Function of Biosphere Reserve
4.5.4 Structure and Design of Biosphere Reserve
Wetlands
4.6.1 Characteristics of Wetlands
4.6.2 Classification of Wetlands
4.6.3 Hydro geomorphic Classes
4.6.4 Wetlands in Drylands
4.6.5 Intertidal Wetlands
4.6.6 Functions of Wetlands
4.6.7 Protection and Rehabilitation
4.6.8 Wetland in India
Mangroves
4.7.1 Occurrence
4.7.2 Establishment
4.7.3 Zonation in Mangroves
4.7.4 Mangrove Ecology
4.7.5 Mangrove Biology
4.7.6 Species of Mangrove
4.7.7 Geographical Regions particularly in Asia
Coral Reef
4.8.1 Biology
4.8.2 Formation
4.8.3 Distribution
4.8.4 Ecology and Biodiversity
4.8.5 Threats
4.8.6 Protection and Restoration
4.8.7 Reefs in Past
Let us sum up
Check your progress & the key
Assignments / Activities
References / Further Readings
4.0
INTRODUCTION
The 1992, United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, held in Rio
de Janeiro, brought the topic of biodiversity conservation into the living rooms of the
world and helped place this critical issue on the agendas of world leaders. While the
ranks of those concerned with biodiversity seem to have diversified and increased, a
basic understanding of what it is, what it means to mankind, and how it can be
protected is still lacking.
In an effort to solve these problems, the World Conservation Union has attempted to
clarify the definition and show the value of "biodiversity." Going beyond "genetic
makeup," the IUCN interprets biodiversity to encompass all species of plants,
animals, and microorganisms and the ecosystems (including ecosystem processes) to
which they belong. Usually considered at three different levels--genetic diversity,
species diversity, and ecosystem diversity--it is the complicated mosaic of living
organisms that interact with abiotic substances and gradients to sustain life at all
hierarchical levels (McNeely, 1990). Furthermore, each of these levels extends
enormous, often immeasurable, economic and social benefits to mankind. Although it
is recognized that a very high percentage of the total biodiversity exists in a small
number of tropical countries, significant diversity also occurs in temperate zones and
in aquatic ecosystems as well.
Biodiversity conservation is accomplished in a number of ways. During the last
decade, plans for biodiversity conservation have been developed by the World
Resource Institute and the IUCN with support from World Bank and other
institutions. Basically, the conservation plan has an holistic approach and
encompasses whole spectrum of biota and activities ranging from ecosystems at the
macro level (in situ conservation) to DNA libraries at the molecular level (ex-situ
consrvation). Ex-situ methods focus on species conservation in botanic gardens, zoos,
gene banks, and captive breeding programs while in-situ methods use the
conservation areas as "warehouses" of biological information.
4.1
Objective
The main aim of this unit is to understand and identifying appropriate management
interventions for conservation of biological resources through in-situ for the benefit of
our future generations. Such steps are :
4.2

To share the knowledge and experiance of biodiversity conservation;

To study the factors that lead to environmental degradation and overuse of
biological resources;

To understand the strategy for in-situ conservation and use of appropriate
technology to achieve the goals of in-situ conservation;

To study the importance and mechanism of protected areas, biosphere reserves,
wetlands, mangrooves, and coral reefs.
IN-SITU CONSERVATION
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In situ means in the natural, original place or position; as in the location of the explant
on the mother plant prior to excision. In situ conservation which include conservation
of plant and animals in their native ecosystem or even in man made ecosystem, where
they naturally occur. Thus in-situ conservation refers to protection zones and areas of
high biological diversity. These areas, describd as natural ecosystems, will protect
species with minimum human interference.
This type of conservation applies only to wild fauna and flora and not to the
domesticated animals and plants, because conservation is achieved by protection of
populations in nature. This method of conservation mainly aims at preservations of
land races with wild relatives in which genetic exists and/ or in which the weedy/ wild
forms present hybrids with related cultivars. These are evolutionary systems that are
difficult of plant breeders to stimulate and should not be knowingly destroyed.
The in-situ conservation of habitats has received high priority in the world
conservation strategy programmes launched since 1980. Institutional, arrangement,
especially in countries of the developing world, have been emphasized. This mode of
conservation has some limitation however; there is risk of material being lost due to
environmental hazards. Further the cost of a maintaining a large portion of available
genotypes in nurseries or field may be extremely high.
In-situ conservation includes a system of protected areas of different categories e.g.
National parks, Sanctuaries, National Monument, Cultural landscapes, Biosphere
Reserves, etc. One of the best methods to save wildlife species, which is on the road
to extinction, is to put it in a special enclosure to reproduce. Sanctuaries and National
parks, whose legal definition varies from country to country, best illustrate this.
4.2.1 Advantages, Risks, and Opportunities of In-situ Conservation
In-situ maintenance of biodiversity through the establishment of conservation and
multiple-use areas offers distinct advantages over off-site methods in terms of
coverage, viability of the resource, and the economic sustainability of the methods:
Coverage
A worldwide system of protected and multiple-use areas would allow a significant
number of indigenous species and systems to be protected, thus taking care of the
unknowns until such time as methods are found for their investigation and utilization.
Viability
Natural selection and community evolution continue and new communities, systems,
and genetic material are produced (World Conservation Monitoring Center, 1992).
Economic sustainability
A country that maintains specific examples of biodiversity stores up future economic
benefits. When the need develops and this diversity is thoroughly examined,
commercially valuable genetic and biochemical material may be found.
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It is not sufficient to establish a conservation area and then assume its biodiversity is
automatically protected and without risk. Many risks, both natural and man-created,
remain. An extreme example was the near-obliteration of the entire remaining habitat
of the golden lion tamarin (Leontopithecus r. rosalia) in 1992 by fire. Shaffer (1981)
cites four broad categories of natural risk:
Demographic uncertainty resulting from random events in the survival and
reproduction of individuals.
Environmental uncertainty due to random, or at least unpredictable, changes in
weather, food supply, and the populations of competitors, predators, parasites, etc.
Natural catastrophes such as floods, fires, or droughts, which may occur at random
intervals.
Genetic uncertainty or random changes in genetic make-up due to genetic drift or
inbreeding that alter the survival and reproductive probabilities of individuals.
The greatest uncertainties, however, are often anthropogenic. The elimination of
habitat to make way for human settlement and associated development activities is the
most important factor contributing to the diminishing mosaic of biodiversity. These
uncertainties can only be met with a full array of conservation programs, including
those that use ex-situ methods.
Despite the long list of uncertainties and risk, there is hope for progress. In the last
decade not only have pressures from the scientific community and the efforts of nongovernmental organizations led to stronger language in international agreements, but
segments of the development community have accepted the idea that a large degree of
compatibility exists between the need to develop and the need to maintain
biodiversity. Further acceptance depends, however, on a number of attitudinal
adjustments on the part of many who call for in-situ conservation, as well as on a
clearer understanding of the rationale behind it by those whose activities conflict with
it. The success of conservation also requires a modification of how we cost economic
goods and services in the short, medium, and long term.
Globally, the possibilities for undertaking in-situ programs such as national parks,
biological reserves, and other conservation areas appear to be somewhat favorable.
However, the status of these protected areas is often not healthy and unforeseen
problems repeatedly arise. The establishment of the Gurupi Biological Reserve in the
eastern Brazilian Amazon, for example, significantly increased the level of threat by
causing a rush of illegal extraction of forest resources. This site is probably the most
endangered conservation unit in the Amazon basin. Worldwide, the list of endangered
protected areas is growing in number, and additional human-dominated activities such
as water development, mining, road construction and resulting development, livestock
grazing, poaching, logging, and other removal of vegetation continue to threaten their
integrity (IUCN/UNEP/WWF, 1991).
4.2.2 Biodiversity Conservation : International Efforts
Biodiversity is the variety and variations occurring in nature, which has sustained the
harmonious existence of life on earth. The components of this diversity are so
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interdependent that any change in the system leads to major imbalance and threatens
the normal ecological cycle.
Acknowledging the need for conservation, the concern for conservation of
biodiversity at global level figured for the first time. In the discussion at the UN
Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm in 1972. The UNEP
identified conservation as priority area in 197. It was only towards 1980’s that
systemic and concentrated efforts to look at biodiversity conservation profile at
international level started with constitution of an Ad hoc working group of experts on
biological diversity by UNEP in 1987. Eventually an experts group was constituted by
UNEP, which started it’s work in 1989.
“Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)” was one of the foremost issues
discussed at the Earth Summit held at Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) between June 3 and 14,
1992. A ceremony to mark the opening of the convention on biological diversity took
place in the afternoon on June 5. This convention entered into force on December 29,
1993. Feranando Collor, the President of the Federal Republic of Brazil was the first
to sign the convention, followed by India, and 155 other nations. At present, 166
countries are parties to the convention.
This international treaty is a historic treaty in that it not only reflects the commitment
of global community for conservation and sustainable used of biodiversity but also
visualizes sharing of benefits arising out of utilisation of genetic resources with the
countries of origin.
Objectives : According to this, the main objectives of the convention are :
1.
The conservation of biological diversity.
2.
The sustainable use of components of biodiversity.
3. The fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization genetic
resources.
Features : The main features of the convention are:
1.
The authority to determine access to genetic resources rests with national
governments and is subject to national legislation;
2.
The commercial benefits arising out of the use of biological resources of a
country will be shared with that country on a equitable and fair basis;
3.
The access to the transfer of technology to developing countries will be provided
under fair and most favorable terms mutually arrived at. In case of technology
subject to patents such access and are consistent with the adequate protection of
intellectual property rights.
4.
The developed countries will provide new and additional financial resources to
enable developing countries to meet the agreed full incremental costs to them of
implementing measures which fulfill the obligation of the convention; and
5.
The extent to which developing country parties will effectively implement their
commitments under the convention will depends on the effective implementation
by developed country parties of their commitments under the convention related
to financial resources and transfer of technology. The level of implantation by
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developing countries will also take into consideration the fact that economic
development and poverty eradication are their primary and overriding priorities.
Each country/ nation shall as far as possible and as appropriate to take measure for insitu conservation of biological diversity under article (8) of the Convention of
Biological Diversity (CBD) which are summarized below :
a. Establish a system of protected areas of areas where special measures need to be
taken to conserve biological diversity;
b. Develop, where necessary, guide-lines for the selection establishment and
management of protected area or area where special measures need to be taken to
conserve biological diversity;
c. Regulate or manage biological resources important for the conservation of
biological diversity whether within or outside protected areas with a view to
ensuring their conservation and sustainable use;
d. Promote the protection of ecosystems, natural habitats and the maintenance of
viable populations of species in natural surroundings;
e. Promote environmentally sound and sustainable development in areas adjacent to
protected areas with a view to furthering protection of these areas;
f.
Rehabilitate and restore degraded ecosystem and promote the recovery of
threatened species, inter alia, through the development and implementation of
plants or other management strategies;
g. Establish or maintain means to regulate, manage or control the risk associated
with the use and release of living modified organisms resulting from
biotechnology which are likely to have adverse environmental impacts that could
affect the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, taking also into
account the risks to human health;
h. Prevent the introduction of control or eradicate those alien species which threaten
ecosystems, habitats or species;
i.
Endeavour to provide the conditions needed for compatibility between present
uses and the conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable use of its
components;
j.
Subject to its national legislation, respect, preserve and maintain knowledge,
innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities embodying
traditional lifestyle relevant for the conservation and sustainable use of biological
diversity and promote their wider application with the approval and involvement
of the holders of such knowledge, innovations and practices and encourage the
equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of such knowledge,
innovations and practices;
k. Develop or maintain legislation and/ or other regulatory provisions for the
protection of threatened species and population;
l.
Where a significant adverse effect on biological diversity has been determined
pursuant to article 7 of CBD, regulate or manage the relevant processes and
categories of activities and
m. Cooperate in providing financial and other support for in-situ conservation
outlined in subparagraphs (a) to (l) above, particularly to developing countries.
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4.2.3 India’s Initiative for In-situ Conservation
India is fortunately placed in a position of advantage. Ours is tropical country with a
tremendous heterogeneity of environments ranging from tropical rain forests of
Andaman and Arunachal Pradesh to the deserts of Rajasthan and Ladakh. It lies at the
junction of the three biogeographical provinces of Africa, temperate Eurasia and
Orient. As a result, it has rich biological heritage that qualifies it as one of the 12megadiversity nations of the world.
The industrial nations, on the other hand, lie in temperate regions of the world that are
quite poorly endowed with natural diversity. Also, many of these countries have
suffered severe onslaught on nature till mid 19th or early 20th centuries. As a result,
while these nations are far ahead of the tropical world in technologies, the bulk of
biodiversity resides in third world countries.
India is, in a way a connecting link. We are not so rich in biodiversity as Colombia or
Indonesia, nor so advanced technologically as Germany or Japan. But we possess both
substantial levels of biodiversity and technological capabilities. So we must take the
lead in steering the biodiversity convention in the direction of brighter scenario. Not
only this, but being signatory to the convention, India has moral binding to adopt
conservation measures as provided in various clauses of the CBD document.
Dr M S Swaminathan (1983) reviewed the scientific aspects of conservation. He
suggested that the first step in conservation should be defining the categories of
materials (plants/ genes) for preservation and the major methods preserving them.
In India, institutionalised management of biodiversity in situ started with the
establishment of the first National Park, the Hailey National Park (now Jim Corbett
National Park) in 1935. Following this, more than 500 PAs were set up representing a
wide range of ecosystems. The Wildlife Institute of India (WII) proposed a
biogeographic classification system recognizing ten zones divided into 25 provinces
in which over 300 landforms were identified. The existing network of PAs was
evaluated for its representativeness vis-a-vis the classification system. Sites were
identified to fill the gaps and the suggested network recommended 148 National Parks
and 550 Sanctuaries covering 200,000 sq. kms, which is about 5 % of the country’s
total geographical area. These suggestions have found extensive support and already
4.76% of the total geographical area (excluding the open seas) has been brought under
the system of Protected Areas (PAs). Currently there are 97 National Parks and 508
Wildlife Sanctuaries in the major biogeographic zones of India. The total extent of
PAs includes 5 designated as World Heritage Sites, 15 Biosphere Reserves and 6
internationally significant wetlands of India have been declared Ramsar sites under
Ramsar convention.
Institutional efforts at in-situ conservation of endangered animals were initiated in the
country about 30 years ago with the launching of Project Tiger. An all-India tiger
census conducted in 1972 revealed that there were only 1,827 tigers in the country as
against an estimated 40,000 at the turn of the century. Taking this as an indication of
the deteriorating health of India’s wilderness, the Government of India launched the
Project Tiger in 1973 with the support of WWF-International. 28 PAs in the country
have been designated as Tiger Reserves. The 1993 census placed the tiger population
at 3750.
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The tiger has not been the only beneficiary a number of other endangered species such
as the swamp deer, elephant, rhino and wild buffalo have received protection through
Project Tiger. This programme has thus had a direct impact on conservation of
biodiversity. The enhanced programmes introduced in the second phase of Project
Tiger include the establishment of guidelines for tourism in tiger reserves,
management of buffer areas, integration of local populations through ecodevelopment programmes and establishment of Nature Interpretation Centres.
Indian holds the largest number of Asian elephants with 20,000 – 24,000 in the wild
and nearly 3000 in captivity. The state of elephant in India was officially recognized
in 1990 by the Government of India (GOI) when Ministry of Environment & Forests
(MoEF) set up a task force to prepare the baseline document for conservation project
on the species. The task force identified several elephant reserves throughout the
country. Gajatame or Project Elephant covering all the elephant states in country was
formally launched in 1992.
Other special conservation programmes have also been initiated and these include the
Indian Rhino, Lion, certain primates (Indo-UA Primate Project in Northeast India),
and aquatic mammals especially river dolphins.
In-situ conservation of selected species of birds and reptiles have been fortified
through captive breeding programmes. An Indo-British collaborative programme
undertook captive breeding of the endangered white-winged wood duck.
The GOI started the crocodile breeding and management project in 1976 with FAOUNDP assistance to save the three endangered crocodilian species namely the freshwater crocodile, salt-water crocodile and the rare gharial. Eleven sanctuaries have
been declared specially for crocodile protection including the National Chambal
Sanctuary in MP, one of the largest in India.
More than 30 species of turtles and tortoises are known in India. Forest departments,
autonomous institutions, universities and NGOs are jointly working on the
conservation of turtles and tortoise in India. Captive rearing of fresh water turtles for
reintroduction is being undertaken in the Chambal valley by the Uttar Pradesh State
Forest Department. This is one of the major fresh water turtle conservation
programmes in India. The Gahirmatha beach in the state of Orissa is the largest
rookery for the Olive Ridley Turtle in the world. A programme to tag and monitor the
nesting turtles has been launched by the WII in collaboration with M S Swaminathan
Research Foundation (MSSRF).
MoEF launched the biosphere reserve programme in 1986. The primary objective of
this programme was to identify representative ecosystems, which are still in pristine
condition and strengthen the conservation efforts keeping in view the livelihood needs
of the people. The various implications and facets of this issue are being debated
through a consultative process.
The Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE) has identified 309
forest preservation plots of representative forest types for conservation of variable and
representative areas of biodiversity. 187 of these plots are natural forests and 117 in
plantations, covering a total area of 8500 hectares.
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There are a number of Non Government Organisation (NGO) initiatives for in-situ
conservation in the country. One of these is the WWF-India’s Community
Biodiversity Conservation Programme. This programme, which has supported 46
projects throughout the country primarily, focuses on in-situ conservation of habitats,
species and biodiversity conservation traditions of local communities with the active
participation of the people.
NGO initiative has focused on Medicinal Plant Conservation Area Programme
(MPCA) of the Foundation for Revitalization of Local Health Traditions (FRLHT)
has identified natural areas rich in medicinal plants in south India. With the
collaboration of the State Forest Departments of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu
and leading community health NGOs, the FRLHT has established 30 MPCAs and is
in the process of setting up 15 parks to store germplasm of threatened, rare and
endemic medicinal plants.
4.3
PROTECTED AREAS IN INDIA
The depletion of biodiversity is an alarming problem all over the world. The World
Conservation strategy suggests that the initial efforts of bio-diversity conservation
should aim at establishment and maintenance of a network of protected Area (PA)
system by making policy changes involving local people in the PA management and
mobilizing financial resources for their conservation and protection. The strategies
also lay down that considering the stress on environment, all countries should aim at
earmarking 10% of their land area for PA network for biodiversity conservation.
The Commission of National Parks and Protected Areas (CNPPA) of IUCN has been
deliberating on this issue since 1978. In the Steering Committee meeting of the
CNPPA held in 1993, a consensus was reached to have the following set of categories
for the PAs. These are given below with the broad management objectives :
Category I
Strict Nature Reserve / Wilderness Areas : Protected areas managed
mainly for science or wilderness protection.
Category II
National Park : Protected areas managed mainly for ecosystem
conservation and recreation.
Category III
Natural Monument : Protected areas managed mainly for conservation
of specific natural features.
Category IV
Habitat / Species Management Areas : Protected areas mainly for
conservation through management intervention.
Category V
Protected Landscape / Seascape : Protected areas managed mainly for
landscape/ seascape conservation and recreation.
Category VI
Managed Resource Protected Area : Protected areas managed mainly
for landscape/ seascape conservation and recreation.
In India, PAs belonging to (categories II, IV, V, and VI) are being managed. Category
I corresponds to the sanctum sanctorum of the PAs and Category III sometimes occur
9
incidentally in various PAs, but very often these areas may be occurring outside the
conventional PAs also.
National Parks in India fall in Category II, Sanctuaries come under Category IV and
Biosphere Reserve under Category IV.
It can be seen that in National Parks, the main objective should be ecosystem
conservation and recreation. The sanctuaries should fall under habitat/ species
management areas, which are to be conserved through managemental intervention.
Category V are areas basically maintained for the protection of catchment’s areas of
rivers, sea coasts, and for recreation.
In India, the creation of national park, wildlife sanctuaries, and biosphere reserves is
an attempt to manage wildlife by defining protected areas (PAs). Wildlife therein is
regularly monitored and necessary management strategies for their perpetuation and
preservation are formulated and implemented. These protected areas not only benefit
wildlife, but indirectly humans too. Their protection means the protection of entire
ecosystem, which is necessary to continue to enjoy the benefit we may now receive
from it.
The National Wildlife Database Cell of the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) has been
developing a National Wildlife Information System (NWIS) on the Protected Areas of
the country. National Wildlife Database (NWD) is providing information on the
conservation status of animal species, biogeographic regions, administrative units,
habitat types and the network of protected areas in India, in a variety of formats and
also providing an extensive bibliographic support for wildlife research.
The number of national parks and sanctuaries has increased from 33 in 1952 to a total
of 221 by the end of December 1980 covering 2-3% of the total geographical area and
10% of the total forest area of the country. Today, India has a network of 614
Protected Areas including 97 National Parks, 508 Wildlife Sanctuaries, 15 Biosphere
Reserve, 7 Conservation Reserves, 25 elephant reserves and 2 Community Reserves
covering a total of 156,548.49 km2 of geographical area of the country which is
approximately 4.76%.
The rich biodiversity in india has given shape to variety of cultural and ethnic
diversity which includes over 550 tribal communities of 227 ethnic groups spread
over 5,000 forest villages.
Under the United Nation World Heritage Convention, India has declared 5 PAs as
World Heritage Site. These are :
i.
Kaziranga National Park
ii.
Keoladeo Ghana National Park
iii. Manas Wildlife Sanctuary
iv. Nanda Devi National Park
v.
Sunderban National Park
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4.4
NATIONAL PARKS AND WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
National park or a sanctuary may be defined as an area, declared by state, for the
purpose of protecting, propagating or developing wildlife therein, or its natural
environment for their scientific, educational and recreational value. The definition
adopted by IUCN (1975) is as follows :
A national park is a relatively large area where –
1. One or several ecosystems are not materially altered by human exploitation and
occupation, where plant and animal species, geomorphological sites and habitats
are of special scientific, educative and re-creative interest or which contain a
natural landscape of great beauty.
2. The highest competent authority of the country has taken steps to prevent or
eliminate as soon as possible exploitation or occupation in the whole area and to
enforce effectively the respect of the ecological, geomorphological or aesthetic
features which have led to its establishment.
3. Visitors are allowed to enter, under special conditions, for inspirational, cultural
and re-creative purpose.
A national park is an area dedicated to conserve the scenery (or environment) and
natural objects and the wildlife therein. In national parks, all private rights are nonexistent and all forestry operations and other usages such as grazing of domestic
animals are prohibited. However, the general public may enter it for the purpose of
observation and study. Certain parts of the park are developed for tourism in such a
way that enjoyment will not disturb or scare the animals.
As per National Wildlife Database, June 2008, there are 97 existing national parks in
India covering an area of 38,199.47 km2, which is 1.16% of the geographical area of
the country (Table 4.1). In addition to the above 74 national parks covering an area of
16,630.08 km2 are proposed in the Protected Area Network Report (Rodgers et al.
2002). The network of parks will go up 171 after full implementation of the above
report.
Wildlife Sanctuary
A wildlife sanctuary, similar to national park, is dedicated to protect the wildlife, but
it considers the conservation of species only and also the boundary of it is not limited
by state legislation. Further, in the sanctuary, killing hunting or capturing of any
species of birds and mammals is prohibited except by or under the control of highest
authority in the department responsible for management of the sanctuary. Private
ownership may be allowed to continue in a sanctuary, and forestry and other usages
permitted to the extent that they do not adversely affect wildlife.
The difference between a sanctuary and a national park is subtle and even confuging.
Hunting without permit is prohibited and grazing or movement of cattle is regulated
in sanctuary. But hunting and grazing are absolutely prohibited in national park which
may be established within or outside a sanctuary i.e. the difference is mostly the
interference of human or human activities in the area. In a sanctuary, the human
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activities are allowed but in a national park the human interference is totally
prohibited.
Table 4.1 : State-Wise Break Up of National Parks
State/UTs
Andhra Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Chhattisgarh
Goa
Gujarat
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
Jammu & Kashmir
Jharkhand
Karnataka
Kerala
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Manipur
Meghalaya
Mizoram
Nagaland
Orissa
Punjab
Rajasthan
Sikkim
Tamil Nadu
Tripura
Uttar Pradesh
Uttarakhand
West Bengal
Union Territories
Andaman & Nicobar
Chandigarh
Dadra & Nagar Haveli
Daman & Diu
Delhi
Lakshadweep
Pondicherry
India
Area of
State
(km2)
275068
83743
78438
94163
135194
3702
196024
44212
55673
222235
79714
191791
38863
308252
307690
22327
22429
21081
16579
155707
50362
342239
7096
130058
10486
240926
53485
88752
8249
114
491
112
1483
32
493
3287263
No. of
NPs
4
2
5
1
3
1
4
2
2
4
1
5
6
9
6
1
2
2
1
2
0
5
1
5
2
1
6
5
Area
Covered
(km2)
373.23
2290.82
1977.79
335.65
2899.08
107.00
480.11
48.25
1430.00
3930.25
231.67
2472.18
558.16
3656.36
1273.60
40.00
267.48
150.00
202.02
990.70
0.00
4122.33
1784.00
307.84
199.79
490.00
4731.00
1693.25
% of
State
Area
0.14
2.74
2.52
0.36
2.14
2.89
0.24
0.11
2.57
1.77
0.29
1.29
1.44
1.19
0.41
0.18
1.19
0.71
1.22
0.64
0.00
1.20
25.14
0.24
1.91
0.20
8.85
1.91
9
0
0
0
0
0
0
97
1156.91
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
38199.48
14.02
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
1.16
12
According to National Wildlife Database, June 2008, there are 508 existing wildlife
sanctuaries in India covering an area of 118,236.94 km2, which is 3.60% of the
geographical area of the country (Table 4.2). Another 217 sanctuaries are proposed in
the Protected Area Network Report covering an area of 16,669.44 km2.
Table 4.2 : State-Wise Break Up of Wild life Sanctuaries
State/ UTs
Area of
State
(km²)
275068
83743
78438
94163
135194
3702
196024
44212
55673
222235
79714
191791
38863
308252
307690
22327
22429
21081
16579
155707
50362
342239
7096
130058
10486
240926
53485
88752
Andhra Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Chhattisgarh
Goa
Gujarat
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
Jammu & Kashmir
Jharkhand
Karnataka
Kerala
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Manipur
Meghalaya
Mizoram
Nagaland
Orissa
Punjab
Rajasthan
Sikkim
Tamil Nadu
Tripura
Uttar Pradesh
Uttarakhand
West Bengal
UNION TERRITORIES
Andaman & Nicobar
8249
Chandigarh
114
Dadra & Nagar Haveli
491
Daman & Diu
112
Delhi
1483
Lakshadweep
32
Pondicherry
493
India
3287263
22
11
18
12
11
6
22
8
33
15
11
21
15
25
35
1
3
7
3
18
12
23
7
20
3
23
6
15
12599.19
7606.37
1932
2856.06
3583.25
647.96
16440.94
206.95
6171.00
10312.25
1945.58
3888.14
1894.49
7158.40
14152.69
184.40
34.20
680.75
20.34
6969.15
323.80
5447.03
399.10
2997.60
403.85
5222.47
2418.65
1203.28
% of
State
Area
4.58
9.08
2.46
3.03
2.65
17.50
8.39
0.47
11.08
4.64
2.44
2.03
4.87
2.32
4.60
0.83
0.15
3.23
0.12
4.48
0.64
1.59
5.62
2.30
3.85
2.17
4.52
1.36
96
2
1
1
1
1
0
508
389.39
26.13
92.16
2.18
27.20
0.01
0.00
118236.94
4.72
22.92
18.77
1.95
1.83
0.03
0.00
3.60
No. of
WLS
Area covered
( km²)
13
4.5
BIOSPHERE RESERVE
The idea of 'biosphere reserves' was initiated by UNESCO in 1973-74 under its Man
and Biosphere (MAB) programme. The MAB, launched in 1970 by UNESCO, is a
broad based ecological programme aimed to develop within the natural and social
sciences a basis for the rational use and conservation of the resources of the biosphere
and for the improvement of the relationship between man and the environment; to
predict the consequences of today's actions on tomorrows world and thereby to
increase man's ability to manage efficiently the natural resources of the biosphere
reserve. The approach emphasizes the importance of the structure and functioning of
ecological systems and their mode of reaction when exposed to human intervention
including impact of man on the environment and vice-versa. MAB is primarily a
programme of research and training and seeks scientific information to find solution
of concrete practical problems of management and conservation. MAB's field projects
and biosphere reserves constitute the main goal of the whole programme.
The Indian National Man and Biosphere (MAB) committee identifies and
recommends potential sites for designation as Biosphere Reserves, following the
UNESCO’s guidelines and criteria. By april 2008, 15 biosphere reserves have been
established in India and some additional sites are under consideration (Table – 4.3).
4.5.1 Definition
Biosphere Reserve (BR) is an international designation made by UNESCO for
representative parts of natural and cultural landscapes extending over large area of
terrestrial or coastal/marine ecosystems or a combination thereof. BRs are designated
to deal with one of the most important questions of reconciling the conservation of
biodiversity, the quest for economic and social development and maintenance of
associated cultural values. BRs are thus special environments for both people and the
nature and are living examples of how human beings and nature can co-exist while
respecting each others’ needs.
These areas are internationally recognized within the framework of UNESCO's Man
and Biosphere (MAB) programme, after receiving consent of the participating
country. The world’s major ecosystem types and landscapes are represented in this
network.
4.5.2 Characteristics of Biosphere Reserves
The characteristic features of biosphere reserves are
1) The biosphere reserves are protected areas of land and /or coastal environments
wherein people are an integral component of the system. Together, they constitute
a worldwide network linked by international understanding for exchange of
scientific information.
2) The network of brs includes significant examples of biomes throughout the world.
3) Each br include one or more of the following categories:I)
Brs are representative examples of natural biomes
II) Brs conserve unique communities of biodiversity or areas with unusual
14
natural features of exceptional interest. It is recognized that these
representative areas may also contain unique features of landscapes,
ecosystems and genetic variations e.g. one population of a globally rare
species; their representatives and uniqueness may both be characteristics of
an area.
III) BRs have examples of harmonious landscapes resulting from traditional
patterns of land-use.
IV) BRs have examples of modified or degraded ecosystems capable of being
restored to more natural conditions.
V) BRs generally have a non-manipulative core area, in combination with areas
in which baseline measurements, experimental and manipulative research,
education and training is carried out. Where these areas are not contiguous,
they can be associated in a cluster.
4.5.3 Functions of Biosphere Reserves
Conservation

To ensure the conservation of landscapes, ecosystems, species and genetic
variations;

To encourage the traditional resource use systems;

To understand the patterns and processes of functioning of ecosystems;

To monitor the natural and human-caused changes on spatial and temporal scales;
Development

To promote, at the local level, economic development, which is culturally,
socially and ecologically sustainable;

To develop the strategies leading to improvement and management of natural
resources;
Logistics support

To provide support for research, monitoring, education and information exchange
related to local, national and global issues of conservation and development;

Sharing of knowledge generated by research through site specific training and
education; and

Development of community spirit in the management of natural resources.
Beneficiaries
Direct beneficiaries of biosphere reserves are the local people and the ecological
resources and indirect beneficiaries are scientists, government decision- makers and
the world community.
15
4.5.4 Structure and Design of Biosphere Reserves
In order to undertake complementary activities relating to biodiversity conservation
and development of sustainable management aspects, brs are demarcated into 3 interrelated zones. These are (i) natural or core zone (ii) manipulation or buffer zone (iii) a
transition zone outside the buffer zone;
The Core Zone
The core zone is kept absolutely undisturbed. It must contain suitable habitat for
numerous plant and animal species, including higher order predators and may contain
centers of endemism. Core areas often conserve the wild relatives of economic
species and also represent important genetic reservoirs. The core zones also contain
places of exceptional scientific interest. A core zone secures legal protection and
management and research activities that do not affect natural processes and wildlife,
are allowed. Strict nature reserves and wilderness portions of the site are designated as
core areas of br. The core zone is to be kept free from all human pressures external to
the system.
The Buffer Zone
In the buffer zone, which adjoins or surrounds core zone, uses and activities are
managed in ways that protect the core zone. The uses and activities include
restoration, demonstration sites for enhancing value addition to the resources, limited
recreation, tourism, fishing, grazing, which are permitted to reduce its effect on core
zone. Research and educational activities are to be encouraged. Human activities, if
natural within br, are likely to be permitted to continue if these do not adversely affect
the ecological diversity.
The Transition Zone
The transition zone is the outermost part of a biosphere reserve. This is usually not
delimited one and is a zone of cooperation, where conservation, knowledge and
management skills are applied and uses are managed in harmony with the purpose of
the biosphere reserve. This includes settlements, croplands, managed forests and area
for intensive recreation and other economic uses characteristics of the region.
In buffer zone and the transition zones, manipulative macro-management practices are
used. Experimental research areas are used for understanding the patterns and
processes in the ecosystem. Modified or degraded landscapes are included as
rehabilitation areas to restore the ecology in a way that it returns to sustainable
productivity.
16
Table 4.3 Existing and Proposed Biosphere Reserves in India
A) Existing Biosphere Reserves, their Area, Date of Notification and Location
S
No
1.
Name of the
Biosphere
Reserve
Nilgiri
2.
Nanda Devi
3.
4.
Nokrek
Manas
5.
Sunderbans
6.
Gulf of Mannar
7.
Great Nicobar
8.
Similipal
9.
Dibru-Saikhowa
10.
Dehang Debang
11.
Kangchendozonga
12.
Pachmarhi **
13.
Agasthyamalai
14.
Achanakmar Amarkantak
15.
Kachchh
Total
Date of
Geographical
Location (state)
notification
Area (km2)
Parts of Wynad, Nagarhole,
5520.00 01.08.86
Bandipur and Madumalai,
Nilambur, Silent Valley and
Siruvani Hills (Tamil Nadu, Kerala
& Karnataka)
Parts of Chamoli, Pithoragarh &
5860.69 18.01.88
Almora districts (Uttrakhandl)
820.00 01.09.88
Parts of Garo hills (Meghalaya)
2837.00 14.03.89
Parts of Kokrajhars, Bongaigaon,
Barpeta, Nalbari, Kamrup and
Darang districts (Assam)
Parts of Delta of Ganges &
9630.00 29.03.89
Brahamputra river system (West
Bengal)
Indian part of Gulf of Mannar
10500.00 18.02.89
between India & Sri Lanka (Tamil
Nadu)
885.00 06.01.89
Southern most islands of Andman
and Nicobar (A & N Islands)
4374.00 21.06.94
Parts of Mayurbhanj district
(Orissa)
765.00 28.07.97
Part of Dibrugarh and Tinsukia
districts (Assam)
5111.50 02.09.98
Parts of Siang and Debang Valley
(Arunanchal Pradesh)
2619.92 07.02.00
Parts of North and West Sikkim
(Sikkim)
4926.28 03.03.99
Parts of Hoshangabad,
Chhindwara and Betul districts
(Madhya Pradesh)
3500.36 12.11.01
Parts of Thirunelveli and Kanya
(area extended
Kumari Districts in Tamil Nadu
on 30.03.05)
and Thiruvanthapuram, Kollam
and Pathanmthitta in Kerala
(Tamilnadu and Kerala)
3835.51 30.03.05
Part of Bilaspur district of
Chhattisgarh, Dindori and
Anuppur districts of Madhya
Pradesh (Chhattisgarh and
Madhya Pradesh)
12454.00 29.01.08
Parts of Kachch, Rajkot, Surendra
Nagar and Patan districts of Gujrat
(Gujrat)
17
* Sites with bold letters have been recognized by UNESCO on World Network of
Biosphere Reserves and proposals in respect of S. No. 4, 8, 11 and 12 are under
consideration.
** Revised area (4981.72 km2) under consideration by GOI, MOEF, after due
approval of the State Govt.
B) Potential sites yet to be designated as BR.
S No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
4.6
Name of Proposed BR
Namdapha
Thar Deserts
Little Rann of Kutch
Kaziranga
Panna
North islands of Andaman
Abujhmarh
Cold Desert
Seshachalam
Chintapalli
Lakshadweep islands
Singbhum
States
Arunachal Pradesh
Rajasthan
Gujarat
Assam
Madhya Pradesh
Andman & Nicobar
Chhatisgarh
Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh
Lakshadweep
Jharkhand
WETLAND
A wetland is an area of land consisting of soil that is saturated with moisture, such as
a swamp, marsh, or bog.
As defined in terms of physical geography, a wetland is an environment "at the
interface between truly terrestrial ecosystems and aquatic systems making them
inherently different from each other yet highly dependent on both". In essence,
wetlands are ecotones. Wetlands often host considerable biodiversity and endemism.
In many locations such as the United Kingdom and USA they are the subject of
conservation efforts and Biodiversity Action Plans.
The United States Army Corps of Engineers and the United States Environmental
Protection Agency jointly define wetlands as "those areas that are inundated or
saturated by surface or ground water at a frequency and duration sufficient to
support, and that under normal circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetations
typically adapted for life in saturated soils. Wetlands generally include swamps,
marshes, bogs, and similar areas."
4.6.1 Characteristics of wetlands
Soils
Wetlands are found under a wide range of hydrological conditions, but at least some
of the time water saturates the soil. The result is a hydric soil, one characterized by an
18
absence of free oxygen some or all of the time, and therefore called a "reducing
environment."
Vegetation
Plants (called hydrophytes or just wetland plants) specifically adapted to the reducing
conditions presented by such soils can survive in wetlands, whereas species intolerant
of the absence of soil oxygen (called "upland" plants) cannot survive. Adaptations to
low soil oxygen characterize many wetland species.
There are many types of vegetation in wetlands. There are plants such as Cattails,
bulrushes, Sedges, Arrowhead, Water Lilies, Blue Flag, and Floaters like common
duckweed. Pondweed is also another type of plant that grows in wetlands, but it is not
easily seen. Peatland can be dominated by red maple, silver maple, and Elm trees.
Some types of trees in peatland can exhibit lower trunks and roots that have adapted
to the wet surroundings by forming buttresses,like the cypress, enlarged root bases to
better support the trees in the mucky soil. Trees can also form knees, raised roots that
allow for gas exchange. Swamps can also have white Cedar, Tamarack, and White
Pine. Below the canopy, there are often limited amounts of shrubs such as speckled
Alder, Winterberry, and Sweet Gale.
Mangroves are a species of plant which typically thrive in coastal wetlands (called
marine or estuarine environments). They are a special tree taxon that can survive in
salty wetland water. Mangroves also provide the base for the wetland food chain.
They are the producers in the wetland environment. Because mangroves add sulfur to
the wetlands, it makes the water more acidic, therefore allowing decomposed matter
in the water to biodegrade faster than it normally would, which in turn, provides more
food for the organisms in the wetland ecosystem.
Hydrology
Generally, the hydrology of a wetland is such that the area is permanently or
periodically inundated or saturated at the soil surface for a period of time during the
growing season. The presence (or absence) of water is not necessarily a good method
for identifying wetlands because the amount of water generally fluctuates depending
on such things as rainfall patterns, snow melt, dry seasons, longer droughts, and tidal
patterns. Often the same wetland can appear to be an open body of water some times
and a dry field at other times due to significant fluctuations in water levels. The three
water sources that contribute to wetlands are:

Precipitation falling within the wetland

Groundwater moving up or out from the subsurface of the wetland

Surface flow from the surrounding watershed or nearby water bodies (lakes,
streams, oceans, etc.)
Location determines which of these sources will be contributing water to a wetland.
Topography
Generally, wetlands are located within topographic features that are lower in elevation
that the surrounding landscape such as depressions, valleys, and flat areas.
19
Topography plays an important role in determining the size and shape of a wetland by
controlling where the water goes and how long it stays there.
4.6.2 lassification of Wetland
Below are terms used for various types of wetlands:
A bog or muskeg is acidic peat land (peat bog). A moor was originally the same as a
bog but has come to be associated with this soil type on hill-tops. A moss is a raised
bog in Scotland A fen is a freshwater peat land with chemically basic (which roughly
means alkaline) ground water. This means that it contains a moderate or high
proportion of hydroxyl ions (pH value greater than 7). A carr is a fen which has
developed to the point where it supports trees. It is a European term, mainly applied
in the north of the UK. A fresh-water marsh's main feature is its openness, with only
low-growing or "emergent" plants. It may feature grasses, rushes, reeds, typhas,
sedges, and other herbaceous plants (possibly with low-growing woody plants) in a
context of shallow water. It is an open form of fen. A coastal salt marsh may be
associated with estuaries and along waterways between coastal barrier islands and the
inner coast. The plants may extend from reed in mildly brackish water to salicornia on
otherwise bare marine mud. It may be converted to human use as pasture (salting) or
for salt production (saltern). A swamp is wetland with more open water surface and
deeper water than a marsh. In North America, it is used for wetlands dominated by
trees and woody bushes rather than grasses and low herbs, but this distinction does
not necessarily apply in other areas, for instance in Africa where swamps may be
dominated by papyrus. A dambo is a shallow, grass-covered depression of the central
and southern African plateau which is waterlogged in the rainy season, and usually
forms the headwaters of a stream or river. It is marshy at the edges and at the
headwater, but maybe swampy in the centre and downstream. A mangrove swamp or
mangal is a salt or brackish water environment dominated by the mangrove species of
tree, such as Sonneratia. Species A paperbark wetland is a fresh or brackish water
environment dominated by the Melaleuca tree. A bayou or slough are southern United
States terms for a creek amongst swamp. In an Indian mangrove swamp, it would be
called a creek. A constructed wetland is artificially contrived wetland, intended to
absorb flash floods, clean sewage, enhance wildlife or for some other human reason.
A pocosin is a bog-like wetland dominated by fire-adapted shrubs and trees, found
mainly in the southeastern United States on the Atlantic Coastal Plain. Seasonally
flooded basins or flats. Inland fresh meadows. Inland shallow fresh water.
4.6.3 Hydrogeomorphic classes
The Hydrogeomorphic (HGM) Approach is a system developed by the US Army
Corps of Engineers to classify all wetlands based on three factors that influence how
they function: position in the landscape (geomorphic setting), water source
(hydrology), and the flow and fluctuation of the water once in the wetland
(hydrodynamics). There are seven classes (types) of wetlands in this system:
20

Riverine

Depressional

Slope

Mineral soil flats

Organic soil flats

Estuarine fringe

Lacustrine fringe
This approach also intends to develop subclasses of wetlands to account for specific
conditions of various regions.
4.6.4 Wetlands in drylands
In contrast to wetlands in other biomes (usually permanent and fresh water), wetlands
in drylands are more diverse in their composition, depending on the local climate and
other particularities of the surroundings. They can be fresh or saline, permanent,
seasonal
or
temporary,
filling
intermittently
or
regularly.
Wetlands in drylands can be attributed all values and uses of wetlands found in other
biomes. However, given the stark contrast to their dry surroundings, many of these
values are enhanced. This applies to the water balance where gradual release and
storage of rainwater by wetlands amid drylands is crucial due to the unpredictability
and incalculability of rain. During dry seasons, wetlands in drylands are also pivotal
as refugia for wildlife, livestock and people. Moreover, biodiversity levels are higher
than in wetlands in other major biomes, in particular because of the accessibility of
water amid an otherwise very dry environment.
4.6.5 Intertidal wetlands
In intertidal wetlands the majority of natural stress comes from salinity and tidal
movements. The intertidal wetlands must be able to survive extreme conditions of
mainly salt water at high tide, fresh water at low tide and times of flood and brackish
water at other times. The saline water is a very difficult condition for plants to survive
in. The grey mangrove accomplishes this by excluding salt in the root system, salt
glands in the leaf, and waxy leaves to minimize water loss. However it is vulnerable
to changes in salinity levels. Changes to tidal movements through increased run-off or
altered drainage can cause the roots of mangroves to be inundated for longer than
normal periods affecting their pneumatophones. It can also be pushed past its
threshold level if water quality is changed. Thus even healthy ecosystems are
vulnerable to change. Some species such as oysters and molluscs have been used as
indicator species, with any decline in their numbers indicating the ecosystem is under
stress. A change in nutrient levels may also affect primary productivity and thus bring
about change.
21
4.6.6 Functions
Hydrologic
Hydrologic functions include long term and short term water storage, subsurface
water storage, energy dissipation, and moderation of groundwater flow or discharge.
e.g. By absorbing the force of strong winds and tides, wetlands protect terrestrial areas
adjoining them from storms, floods, and tidal damage.
Biogeochemical
Nutrient cycling, retention of particulates, removal of imported elements and
compounds, and the import and export of organic carbon are all biogeochemical
functions of wetlands. Wetlands remove nutrients from surface and ground water by
filtering and by converting nutrients to unavailable forms. Denitrification is arguably
the most important of these reactions because humans have increased nitrate
worldwide by applying fertilizers. Increased nitrate availability can cause
eutrophication, but denitrification converts biologically available nitrogen back into
nitrogen gas, which is biologically unavailable except to nitrogen fixing bacteria.
Denitrification can be detected in many soils, but denitrification is fastest in wetlands
soils. e.g. Intertidal wetlands provide an excellent example of invasion, modification
and succession. The invasion and succession process is establishment of seagrasses.
These help stabilize sediment and increase sediment capture rates. The trapped
sediment gradually develops into mud flats. Mud flat organisms become established
encouraging other life forms changing the organic composition of the soil.
Wildlife habitat
Wetland provide a safe and lush environment for many different species of fish, birds,
and insects. It includes the mallard duck, the Sickleback fish, mangroves, and water
moccasins.
Plant habitat
Like animals, their are number of plant communites that will only survive in the
unique environmental conditions of a wetland. In the continental U.S. wetlands
account for only 5 percent of the total land area but over 30 percent of the nation's
vascular flora occur in wetlands. For example, Mangroves establish themselves in the
shallower water upslope from the mudflats. Mangroves further stabilize sediment and
over time increase the soil level. This results in less tidal movement and the
development of salt marshes (succession). The salty nature of the soil means it can
only be tolerated by special types of grasses e.g. saltbush, rush and sedge. There is
also changing species diversity in each succession.
Value to humans
While many of the functions above are directly or indirectly beneficial to humans and
society, wetlands are specifically valuable to people as places for recreational and
educational activities such as hunting, fishing, camping, and wildlife observation.
Wetlands are often filled in to be used by humans for everything from agriculture to
parking lots, in part because the economic value of wetlands has only been recognized
22
recently: the shrimp and fish that breed in salt water marshes are generally harvested
in deeper water, for example. Humans can maximize the area of healthy, functioning
wetlands by minimizing their impacts and by developing management strategies that
protect, and where possible rehabilitate those ecosystems at risk.
Wetlands are sometimes deliberately created to help with water reclamation. One
example is Green Cay Wetlands in Boynton Beach, Florida in the United States.
4.6.7 Protection and rehabilitation
Historically, humans have made large-scale efforts to drain wetlands for development
or to flood them for use as recreational lakes. Since the 1970s, more focus has been
put on preserving wetlands for their natural function—sometimes also at great
expense. One example is the project by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to control
flooding and enhance development by taming the Everglades, a project which has
now been reversed to restore much of the wetlands as a natural habitat and method of
flood control.
The creation of the treaty known as the Ramsar Convention (1971), or more properly
"The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, especially as Waterfowl
Habitat", demonstrates the global concern regarding wetland loss and degradation.
The primary purposes of the treaty are to list wetlands of international importance and
to promote their wise use, with the ultimate goal of preserving the world’s wetlands.
Exclusion
Those responsible for the management of wetland areas often facilitate public access
to a small, designated area while restricting access to other areas. Provision of defined
boardwalks and walkways is a management strategy used to restrict access to
vulnerable areas, as is the issuing of permits whilst visiting.
Education
In the past, wetlands were regarded as wastelands. Education campaigns have helped
to change public perceptions and foster public support for the wetlands. Due to their
location in the catchment area, education programs need to teach about total
catchment management programs. Educational programs include guided tours for the
general public, school visits, media liaison, and information centers.
4.6.8 Wetland in India
India become party to the Ramsar Convention in October 1981. Two important
mandates of the convention are that the parties:
1. Designate at least one wetland in their territory for the list of wetlands of
international importance and to conserve the ecological characetrisitc of the same
and
2. Make wise use of all wetlands in their territory whether or not they are designate
for the Ramsar list by developing National Wetland Policies.
23
In accordance to Ramsar convention, India has designated the six internationally
significant wetlands as Ramsar sites. These are :
i.
Chilka Lake (1,16,500 ha)
ii.
Keoladeo Ghana Natioanl Park (2,900 ha)
iii. Wular Lake (18,900 ha)
iv. Harike Lake (4,100 ha)
v.
Sambhar Lake (2,873 ha) and
vi. Loktak Lake (26,600 ha)
4.7
MANGROVE
Mangrove ecosystem is a peculiar habitat found at the interface between land and sea.
The term "mangrove" is being applied to the specific ecosystem of the intertidal world
in the tropics and subtropics and the plant community of this ecosystem is termed as
"mangrove vegetation".
Mangroves (generally) are trees and shrubs that grow in saline coastal habitats in the
tropics and subtropics. The word is used in at least three senses: (1) most broadly to
refer to the habitat and entire plant assemblage or mangal, for which the terms
mangrove swamp and mangrove forest are also used, (2) to refer to all trees and large
shrubs in the mangal, and (3) narrowly to refer to the mangrove family of plants, the
Rhizophoraceae, or even more specifically just to mangrove trees of the genus
Rhizophora. Mangals are found in depositional coastal environments where fine
sediments, often with high organic content, collect in areas protected from high
energy wave action.
Mangroves are found extensively in the estuarine regions where mud-flats are wide
and gently sloping. Besides estuaries, they also inhabit the intertidal regions of
shallow bays and creeks where the environment is conducive for the growth of
mangroves. Mangroves are flood buffers. They also help to stabilize climate by
moderating temperature, humidity, wind and even waves. They are specially adapted
to withstand salinity, wave action, and can grow in poor soils. They actually protect
the land from the impact of the sea.
Growing in the intertidal areas and estuary mouths between land and sea, mangroves
provide critical habitat for a diverse marine and terrestrial flora and fauna. Healthy
mangrove forests are the key to healthy marine ecology.
4.7.1 Occurrence
The richest mangrove communities occur in tropical and sub-tropical areas, i.e.,
between the 30°N and 30°S latitudes where the water temperature is greater than 24ºC
in the warmest month, where the annual rainfall exceeds 1250mm and mountain
ranges greater than 700m high are found close to the coast. Mangroves are found
practically in almost all the continents, excepting Europe, the Arctic and Antarctic.
Luxuriant patches of mangroves are found on all the other continents but the best
mangroves are found in Asia, especially in India and Bangladesh - the Sunderbans
are the largest mangrove forest in the world both in size as well as biodiversity
24
The total area of mangroves in India is about 6,740 sq. km, which is about 7% of the
world's total area of mangroves. Of the total mangroves 80% are present along the
east coast, mostly forming the Sunderbans, Bhitarkanika and the Andaman & Nicobar
mangroves. The Gangetic Sunderbans is about 4,000 sq. km whereas Andaman &
Nicobar is about 700 sq km. Besides, large rivers like Mahanadi, Krishna, Cauveri,
Godavari also harbour major mangroves in their estuarine regions.
The remaining 20% mangroves are scattered on the west coast from Kutch to Kerala.
The reason for such a restricted mangrove cover is the peculiar coastal structure and
the nature of estuaries formed by the relatively small and non-perennial rivers except
Narmada and Tapi.
4.7.2 Establishment
Under the right conditions like the formation of a mud-flat, growth of mangroves is
initiated. Stabilization of mud-flats is a preliminary process in the establishment of
mangroves. Pioneer plant species initiate this process. The roots of these plants help
in binding the soil and also help the establishment of micro-organisms which further
help in stabilizing the area. Stabilization starts from the land side and gradually shifts
towards the sea. The pioneer plants are species like Porterasia coarctata and some
members of the Cyprus family. These are slowly replaced by other mangrove plants
and then these mangroves gradually spread towards the sea.
Once mangroves grow, the submerged banks are fully stabilized. Then the plants
slowly reach a stage which is called the climax vegetation. A climax vegetation of
mangroves is represented by the complete circle of life where there are different
species of plants, animals (both terrestrial and aquatic) and micro-organisms forming
an ecosystem called the tropical salt marsh or the mangrove ecosystem. In case the
sediments are not stabilized, submerged banks are washed out. Thousands of deltas
are formed and washed out every year before they can be stabilized. In the Gangetic
delta this situation is quite common.
4.7.3 Zonation in Mangroves
Mangal along a tropical bay characteristically shows zonation. In India this zonation
may be very distinctive (east coast of India) or merging (west coast of India). A very
broad and general distinction would be:Proximal Zone (Front mangroves)
This zone is towards water front, subject to regular tidal effect where intensity of soil
accumulation and inundation is a continuous process. The mangrove species in this
zone are specially adapted with stilt roots, prop roots for stability and anchorage.
Main species with these features are Rhizophora apiculata and Rhizophora mucronata.
On rocky and coral reef substrata, Avicennia Spp, Sonneratia Caseolaris are also
found. Both Avicennia and Sonneratia produce pneumatophores.
Middle Zones (Mid mangroves)
Above the Rhizophora/ Avicennia line luxuriant group of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, B.
Cylindrica, Lumnitzera racemosa, L. littoralis, Ceriops tagal and Aegiceras
25
corniculatum occur. Ceriops and Bruguiera develop a strong hold fast in the form of
knee roots or bent roots as a special adoption for supporting the erect bole.
Distal Zone (Back mangroves)
Towards island area mangroves like Excoecaris agallocha, Heritiera littoralis and
Xylocarnus spp occur. Both Heritiera and Xylocarpus produce buttresses. Generally
the salinity is on lower side in this zone occurring towards hill sides where run off of
fresh water is for a prolonged period. The duration of tidal submersion is low in this
zone compared to front mangroves.
However, the zonation in mangroves is not so simple and varies from place to place.
Every species has its own level of salinity tolerance. Estuaries on east coast show
distinct zonation. The high salinity range on the east coast estuaries may be the
principal reason for distinct zonation there. The range and force of tidal action also
play a determinant role in creation and maintenance of zones as distribution of seeds
or propagules is influenced by tidal action. Also, tides do influence the salinity in an
estuary.
4.7.4 Mangrove Ecology
A mangrove is a plant and mangal is a plant community and habitat where mangroves
thrive. They are found in tropical and sub-tropical tidal areas, and as such have a high
degree of salinity. Areas where mangals occur include estuaries and marine
shorelines.
Plants in mangals are diverse but all are able to exploit their habitat (the intertidal
zone) by developing physiological adaptations to overcome the problems of anoxia,
high salinity and frequent tidal inundation. About 110 species have been identified as
belonging to the mangal. Each species has its own capabilities and solutions to these
problems; this may be the primary reason why, on some shorelines, mangrove tree
species show distinct zonation. Small environmental variations within a mangal may
lead to greatly differing methods of coping with the environment. Therefore, the mix
of species at any location within the intertidal zone is partly determined by the
tolerances of individual species to physical conditions, like tidal inundation and
salinity, but may also be influenced by other factors such as predation of plant
seedlings by crabs.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Mangroves1.JPG
26
A cluster of mangroves on the banks of the Vellikeel River in Kannur District of
Kerala, India
Once established, roots of mangrove plants provide a habitat for oysters and help to
impede water flow, thereby enhancing the deposition of sediment in areas where it is
already occurring. Usually, the fine, anoxic sediments under mangroves act as sinks
for a variety of heavy (trace) metals which are scavenged from the overlying seawater
by colloidal particles in the sediments. In areas of the world where mangroves have
been removed for development purposes, the disturbance of these underlying
sediments often creates problems of trace metal contamination of seawater and biota.
Mangroves protect the coast from erosion, surge storms (especially during
hurricanes), and tsunamis. Their massive root system is efficient at dissipating wave
energy. Likewise, they slow down tidal water enough that its sediment is deposited as
the tide comes in and is not re-suspended when the tide leaves, except for fine
particles. As a result, mangroves build their own environment. Because of the
uniqueness of the mangrove ecosystems and their protection against erosion, they are
often the object of conservation programs including national Biodiversity Action
Plans.
Despite their benefits, the protective value of mangroves is sometimes overstated.
Wave energy is typically low in areas where mangroves grow, so their effect on
erosion can only be measured in the long-term. Their capacity to limit high-energy
wave erosion is limited to events like storm surges and tsunamis. Erosion often still
occurs on the outer sides of bends in river channels that wind through mangroves, just
as new stands of mangroves are appearing on the inner sides where sediment is
accreting.
Mangroves support unique ecosystems, especially on their intricate root systems. The
mesh of mangrove roots produces a quiet marine region for many young organisms.
In areas where roots are permanently submerged, they may host a wide variety of
organisms, including algae, barnacles, oysters, sponges, and bryozoans, which all
require a hard substratum for anchoring while they filter feed. Shrimps and mud
lobsters use the muddy bottom as their home. Mangrove crabs improve the nutritional
quality of the mangal muds for other bottom feeders by mulching the mangrove
leaves. In at least some cases, export of carbon fixed in mangroves is important in
coastal food webs. The habitats also host several commercially important species of
fish and crustaceans. In Vietnam, Thailand, the Philippines, and India, mangrove
plantations are grown in coastal regions for the benefits they provide to coastal
fisheries and other uses. Despite replanting programs, over half of the world's
mangroves have been lost in recent times.
4.7.5 Biology of Mangrooves
A wide variety of plant species can be found in mangrove habitat, but of the
recognized 110 species, only about 54 species in 20 genera from 16 families
27
constitute the "true mangroves", species that occur almost exclusively in mangrove
habitats and rarely elsewhere. Convergent evolution has resulted in many species of
these plants finding similar solutions to the problems of variable salinity, tidal ranges
(inundation), anaerobic soils and intense sunlight that come from living in the tropics.
Plant biodiversity is generally low in a given mangal—more than twenty species are
uncommon. This is especially true in higher latitudes and in the Americas. The
greatest biodiversity occurs in the mangal of New Guinea, Indonesia and Malaysia.
A red mangrove, Rhizophora mangle
Adaptations to low oxygen
Red mangroves, which can live in the most inundated areas, prop themselves up
above the water level with stilt roots and can then take in air through pores in their
bark (lenticels). Black mangroves live on higher ground and make many
pneumatophores (specialised root-like structures which stick up out of the soil like
straws for breathing) which are covered in lenticels. These "breathing tubes" typically
reach heights of up to thirty centimeters, and in some species, over three meters.
There are four types of pneumatophore—stilt or prop type, snorkel or peg type, knee
type, and ribbon or plank type. Knee and ribbon types may be combined with buttress
roots at the base of the tree. The roots also contain wide aerenchyma to facilitate
oxygen transport within the plant.
Limiting salt intake
Red mangroves exclude salt by having rather impermeable roots which are highly
suberised, acting as an ultra-filtration mechanism to exclude sodium salts from the
rest of the plant. Water inside the plant shows that 90%, and in some cases of high
salinity, up to 97%, of the salt has been excluded at the roots. Any salt which does
accumulate in the shoot is concentrated in old leaves which are then shed, as well as
stored away safely in cell vacuoles. White (or grey) mangroves can secrete salts
directly; they have two salt glands at each leaf base (hence their name—they are
covered in white salt crystals).
Limiting water loss
Because of the limited availability of freshwater in the salty soils of the intertidal
zone, mangrove plants have developed ways of limiting the amount of water that they
lose through their leaves. They can restrict the opening of their stomata (pores on the
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leaf surfaces, which exchange carbon dioxide gas and water vapour during
photosynthesis). They also vary the orientation of their leaves to avoid the harsh
midday sun and so reduce evaporation from the leaves. Anthony Calfo, a noted
aquarium author, has observed anecdotally that a red mangrove in captivity only
grows if its leaves are misted with fresh water several times a week, simulating the
frequent rainstorms in the tropics.
Nutrient uptake
The biggest problem that mangroves face is nutrient uptake. Because the soil is
perpetually waterlogged, there is little free oxygen. Thus anaerobic bacteria liberate
nitrogen gas, soluble iron, inorganic phosphates, sulfides, and methane, which makes
the soil much less nutritious and contributes to a mangrove's pungent odor. Prop root
systems allow mangroves to take up gasses directly from the atmosphere, and various
other nutrients, like iron, from the inhospitable soil. Gases are quite often stored
directly inside the roots and processed even when the roots are submerged during
high tide.
Increasing survival of offspring
In this harsh environment, mangroves have evolved a special mechanism to help their
offspring survive. All mangroves have buoyant seeds suited to dispersal in water.
Unlike most plants, whose seeds germinate in soil, many mangrove plants (e.g. Red
Mangrove) are viviparous, i.e., their seeds germinate while still attached to the parent
tree. Once germinated, the seedling grows either within the fruit (e.g. Aegialitis,
Acanthus, Avicennia and Aegiceras), or out through the fruit (e.g. Rhizophora,
Ceriops, Bruguiera and Nypa) to form a propagule (a seedling ready to go), which can
produce its own food via photosynthesis. When the propagule is mature it drops into
the water where it can then be transported great distances. Propagules can survive
desiccation and remain dormant for weeks, months, or even over a year until they
arrive in a suitable environment. Once a propagule is ready to root, it will change its
density so that the elongated shape now floats vertically rather than horizontally. In
this position, it is more likely to become lodged in the mud and root. If it does not
root, it can alter its density so that it floats off again in search of more favorable
conditions.
4.7.6 Species of Mangrove
The following listing gives the number of species of mangroves in each listed plant
genus and family.
Major components
Family
Genus, number of species
Common name
Acanthaceae,
Avicenniaceae or
Verbenaceae (family
allocation disputed)
Avicennia, 9
Black mangrove
Combretaceae
Conocarpus, 1;
Laguncularia, 11;
Buttonwood, White
mangrove
29
Lumnitzera, 2
Arecaceae
Nypa, 1
Mangrove palm
Rhizophoraceae
Bruguiera, 6; Ceriops, 2;
Red mangrove
Kandelia, 1; Rhizophora, 8
Lythraceae
Sonneratia, 5
Mangrove apple
Minor components
Family
Genus, number of species
Acanthaceae
Acanthus, 1; Bravaisia, 2
Bombacaceae
Camptostemon, 2
Cyperaceae
Fimbristylis, 1
Euphorbiaceae
Excoecaria, 2
Lecythidaceae
Barringtonia, 6
Lythraceae
Pemphis, 1
Meliaceae
Xylocarpus, 2
Myrsinaceae
Aegiceras, 2
Myrtaceae
Osbornia, 1
Pellicieraceae
Pelliciera, 1
Plumbaginaceae
Aegialitis, 2
Pteridaceae
Acrostichum, 3
Rubiaceae
Scyphiphora, 1
Sterculiaceae
Heritiera, 3
4.7.7 Geographical regions particularly in Asia
Mangroves occur in numerous areas worldwide. Mangroves occur on the south coast
of Asia, throughout the Indian subcontinent, in all the southeast Asian countries, and
on islands in the Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, South China Sea and the
Pacific. The mangal is particularly prevalent in the deltas of large Asian rivers.
The Sundarbans is the largest mangrove forest in the world, located in the Ganges
delta in Bangladesh and West Bengal, India. There are major mangals in the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the Gulf of Kutch in Gujarat. Other significant
mangals include the Bhitarkanika Mangroves and Godavari-Krishna mangroves.
The Pichavaram Mangrove Forest near Chidambaram, South India is the second
largest mangrove forest in the world. It is home to a large variety of birds—local
resident, migratory resident and the pure migratory birds—and is separated from the
Bay of Bengal by a lovely beach. It is one of those rare mangrove forests which has
actually increased by 90% between 1986 and 2002.
30
There are large areas of mangroves in Oman near Muscat, in particular at Shinas,
Qurm Park and Mahout Island. In Arabic, mangrove trees are known as qurm, thus
the mangrove area in Oman is known as Qurm Park.
Iranian mangrove forests occur between 25°11′N to 27°52′N. These forests exist in
the north part of the Persian Gulf and Oman Sea, along three Maritime Provinces in
the south of Iran. These provinces respectively from southwest to southeast of Iran,
include Bushehr, Hormozgan and Sistan & Balouchestan.
In Vietnam, mangrove forests grow along the southern coast, including two forests:
the Can Gio Mangrove Forest biosphere reserve and the U Minh mangrove forest in
the Sea and Coastal Region of Kien Giang, Ca Mau and Bac Lieu province.
Growing mangroves
Red Mangroves are the most commonly grown of all species, used particularly in
Marine Aquariums in a sump to reduce proteins and other minerals in the water.
People also may grow them just for their unusual appearance, either in Aquariums, or
as ornamental plants, such as in Japan. In Hawaii, these plants are considered pests,
while in Florida they are heavily protected.
Destruction
The United Nations Environment Program has estimated that a quarter of the
destruction of mangrove forests stems from shrimp farming. Grassroots efforts to save
mangroves from development are becoming more popular as the benefits of
mangroves are becoming more widely known. In the Bahamas, for example, active
efforts to save mangroves are occurring on the islands of Bimini and Great Guana
Cay.
In popular media
The mangrove is used as a symbol in Annie Dillard's essay Sojourner due to its
significance as a self-sustaining biome.
The manga series, one Piece has a forest of giant mangroves forming the Shabondy
Archipelago, notable for creating a resin combined with the oxygen breathed out of
the trees to create large bubbles used and manipulated by the local population for
everything from transport to hotels.
4.8
CORAL REEF
Coral reefs are aragonite structures produced by living organisms, found in shallow,
tropical marine waters with little to no nutrients in the water. High nutrient levels such
as those found in runoff from agricultural areas can harm the reef by encouraging the
growth of algae. In most reefs, the predominant organisms are stony corals, colonial
cnidarians that secrete an exoskeleton of calcium carbonate. The accumulation of
skeletal material, broken and piled up by wave action and bioeroders, produces a
massive calcareous formation that supports the living corals and a great variety of
other animal and plant life. Although corals are found both in temperate and tropical
waters, reefs are formed only in a zone extending at most from 30°N to 30°S of the
31
equator. Reef-forming corals do not grow at depths of over 30 m (100 ft), and
temperature has less of an effect on distribution but it is generally accepted that no
corals exist in waters below 18 °C.
4.8.1 Biology
The building blocks of coral reefs are the generation of reef-building , and other
organisms that are composed of calcium carbonate. For example, as a coral head
grows, it lays down a skeletal structure encasing each new polyp. Waves, grazing fish
(such as parrotfish), sea urchins, sponges, and other forces and organisms break down
the coral skeletons into fragments that settle into spaces in the reef structure. Many
other organisms living in the reef community contribute their skeletal calcium
carbonate in the same manner. Coralline algae are important contributors to the
structure of the reef in those parts of the reef subjected to the greatest forces by waves
(such as the reef front facing the open ocean). These algae contribute to reef-building
by depositing limestone in sheets over the surface of the reef and thereby contributing
also to the structural integrity of the reef.
Reef-building or hermatypic corals are only found in the photic zone (above 50 m
depth), the depth to which sufficient sunlight penetrates the water for photosynthesis
to occur. The coral polyps do not photosynthesize, but have a symbiotic relationship
with single-celled algae called zooxanthellae; these algal cells within the tissues of the
coral polyps carry out photosynthesis and produce excess organic nutrients that are
then used by the coral polyps. Because of this relationship, coral reefs grow much
faster in clear water, which admits more sunlight. Indeed, the relationship is
responsible for coral reefs in the sense that without their symbionts, coral growth
would be too slow for the corals to form impressive reef structures. Corals can get up
to 90% of their nutrients from their zooxanthellae symbionts.
Corals can reproduce both sexually and asexually. An individual polyp may use both
reproductive modes within its lifetime. Corals reproduce sexually by either internal or
external fertilization. The reproductive cells are found on the mesentery membranes
that radiate inward from the layer of tissue that lines the stomach cavity. Some mature
adult corals are hermaphroditic; others are exclusively male or female. A few even
change sex as they grow.
Internally fertilized eggs are brooded in the polyp for a period ranging from days to
weeks. Subsequent development produces a tiny larva, known as a planula. Externally
fertilized eggs develop during a synchronized spawning. Polyps release eggs and
sperm into the water simultaneously. This spawning method disperses eggs over a
larger area. Synchronous spawning depends on four factors: time of year, water
temperature, and tidal and lunar cycles. Spawning is most successful when there is
little variation between high and low tides. The less water movement there is over the
reef, the better the chance that an egg will be fertilized. Ideal timing occurs in the
spring, release of eggs or planula larvae usually occurs at night and is sometimes in
phase with the lunar cycle (3-6 days after a full moon). The period from release to
settlement lasts only a few days, but some planulae can survive afloat for several
weeks (7, 14). They are vulnerable at this time to heavy predation and adverse
environmental conditions. For the lucky few which survive to attach to substrate, the
challenge comes from competition for food and space.
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4.8.2 Formations
Coral reefs can take a variety of forms, defined in following:

Fringing reef – a reef that is directly attached to a shore or borders it with an
intervening shallow channel or lagoon.

Barrier reef – a reef separated from a mainland or island shore by a deep lagoon.

Patch reef – an isolated, often circular reef, usually within a lagoon or
embayment.

Apron reef – a short reef resembling a fringing reef, but more sloped; extending
out and downward from a point or peninsular shore.

Bank reef – a linear or semi-circular in outline, larger than a patch reef.

Ribbon reef – a long, narrow, somewhat winding reef, usually associated with an
atoll lagoon.

Atoll reef – a more or less circular or continuous barrier reef extending all the
way around a lagoon without a central island.

Table reef – an isolated reef, approaching an atoll type, but without a lagoon.
4.8.3 Distribution
Coral reefs are estimated to cover 284,300 square kilometres, with the Indo-Pacific
region (including the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, Southeast Asia and the Pacific)
accounting for 91.9% of the total. Southeast Asia accounts for 32.3% of that figure,
while the Pacific including Australia accounts for 40.8%. Atlantic and Caribbean
coral reefs only account for 7.6% of the world total.
Coral reefs are either restricted or absent from the west coast of the Americas, as well
as the west coast of Africa. This is due primarily to upwelling and strong cold coastal
currents that reduce water temperatures in these areas. Corals are also restricted from
off the coastline of South Asia from Pakistan to Bangladesh. They are also restricted
along the coast around north-eastern South America and Bangladesh due to the
release of vast quantities of freshwater from the Amazon and Ganges Rivers
respectively.
Famous coral reefs and reef areas of the world include:

The Great Barrier Reef - largest coral reef system in the world, Queensland,
Australia;

The Belize Barrier Reef - second largest in the world, stretching from southern
Quintana Roo, Mexico and all along the coast of Belize down to the Bay Islands
of Honduras.

The New Caledonia Barrier Reef - second longest double barrier reef in the world,
with a length of about 1500km.

The Andros, Bahamas Barrier Reef - third largest in the world, following along
the east coast of Andros Island, Bahamas between Andros and Nassau.

The Red Sea Coral Reef - located off the coast of Egypt and Saudi Arabia.
33

Pulley Ridge - deepest photosynthetic coral reef, Florida

Many of the numerous reefs found scattered over the Maldives
4.8.4 Ecology and biodiversity
Coral reefs support an extraordinary biodiversity; although they are located in
nutrient-poor tropical waters. The process of nutrient cycling between corals,
zooxanthellae, and other reef organisms provides an explanation for why coral reefs
flourish in these waters: recycling ensures that fewer nutrients are needed overall to
support the community.
Cyanobacteria also provide soluble nitrates for the coral reef through the process of
nitrogen fixation. Corals absorb nutrients, including inorganic nitrogen and
phosphorus, directly from the water, and they feed upon zooplankton that are carried
past the polyps by water motion. Thus, primary productivity on a coral reef is very
high, which results in the highest values per square meter, at 5-10g C m-2 day-1.
Producers in coral reef communities include the symbiotic zooxanthellae, coralline
algae, and various seaweeds, especially small types called turf algae, although
scientists disagree about the importance of these particular organisms.
Coral reefs are home to a variety of tropical or reef fish, such as the colorful
parrotfish, angelfish, damselfish and butterflyfish. Other fish groups found on coral
reefs include groupers, snappers, grunts and wrasses. Over 4,000 species of fish
inhabit coral reefs. It has been suggested that the high number of fish species that
inhabit coral reefs are able to coexist in such high numbers because any free living
space is rapidly inhabited by the first planktonic fish larvae that occupy it. These fish
then inhabit the space for the rest of their life. The species that inhabit the free space
is random and has therefore been termed 'a lottery for living space'.
Reefs are also home to a large variety of other organisms, including sponges,
Cnidarians (which includes some types of corals and jellyfish), worms, crustaceans
(including shrimp, spiny lobsters and crabs), molluscs (including cephalopods),
echinoderms (including starfish, sea urchins and sea cucumbers), sea squirts, sea
turtles and sea snakes. Aside from humans, mammals are rare on coral reefs, with
visiting cetaceans such as dolphins being the main group. A few of these varied
species feed directly on corals, while others graze on algae on the reef and participate
in complex food webs.
A number of invertebrates, collectively called cryptofauna, inhabit the coral skeletal
substrate itself, either boring into the skeletons (through the process of bioerosion) or
living in pre-existing voids and crevices. Those animals boring into the rock include
sponges, bivalve molluscs, and sipunculans. Those settling on the reef include many
other species, particularly crustaceans and polychaete worms.
Due to their vast biodiversity, many governments world-wide take measures to protect
their coral reefs. In Australia, the Great Barrier Reef is protected by the Great Barrier
Reef Marine Park Authority, and is the subject of much legislation, including a
Biodiversity Action Plan.
34
Algae and coral reef
Researchers found evidence of algae dominance in locations of healthy coral reefs. In
surveys done around largely uninhabited US Pacific islands, algae consists of a large
percentage of the surveyed coral locations. The algal population consists of turf algae,
coralline algae, and macroalgae.
4.8.5 Threats
Human activity may represent the greatest threat to coral reefs living in Earth's
oceans. In particular, pollution and over-fishing are the most serious threats to these
ecosystems. Physical destruction of reefs due to boat and shipping traffic is also a
problem. The live food fish trade has been implicated as a driver of decline due to the
use of cyanide and disaster for peoples living in the tropics. Hughes, et al, (2003),
writes that "with increased human population and improved storage and transport
systems, the scale of human impacts on reefs has grown exponentially. For example,
markets for fishes and other natural resources have become global, supplying demand
for reef resources far removed from their tropical sources”.
Currently researchers are working to determine the degree various factors impact the
reef systems. The list of factors is long but includes the oceans acting as a carbon
dioxide sink, changes in Earth's atmosphere, ultraviolet light, ocean acidification,
biological virus, impacts of dust storms carrying agents to far flung reef systems,
various pollutants, impacts of algal blooms and others. Reefs are threatened well
beyond coastal areas and so the problem is broader than factors from land
development and pollution though those are too causing considerable damage.
Land development and pollution
Extensive and poorly managed land development can threaten the survival of coral
reefs. Within the last 20 years, once prolific mangrove forests, which absorb massive
amounts of nutrients and sediment from runoff caused by farming and construction of
roads, buildings, ports, channels, and harbors, are being destroyed. Nutrient-rich water
causes fleshy algae and phytoplankton to thrive in coastal areas in suffocating
amounts known as algal blooms. Coral reefs are biological assemblages adapted to
waters with low nutrient content, and the addition of nutrients favors species that
disrupt the balance of the reef communities. Both the loss of wetlands and mangrove
habitats are considered to be significant factors affecting water quality on inshore
reefs.
Poor water quality has also been shown to encourage the spread of infectious diseases
among corals.
Copper, a common industrial pollutant, has been shown to interfere with the life
history and development of coral polyps. Fish Trade The hobby of keeping saltwater
aquaria has experienced an increase in world popularity since the 1990s. Beyond sales
of aquaria, air pumps, food, medications and other supplies, the primary product of
the aquarium industry is fish. However, the world market is limited in the diversity of
collected species. For example, among 4000 coral reef fish species, only 200–300 are
exploited. Selection of species results from a demand for fish being highly colorful
35
and being able to be maintained and fed in aquaria. The last point is very important in
the choice of imported species.
Although a few fish species (e.g. Pomacentridae) can be reproduced in aquaria, 95%
of exploited fish are directly collected in the coral environment. Intense sampling of
coral reef fish, especially in South-East Asia (including Indonesia and the
Philippines), has caused great damage to the environment. A major catalyst of cyanide
fishing is poverty within fishing communities. In areas like the Philippines where
cyanide is regularly used to catch live aquarium fish, the percentage of the population
below the poverty line is 40%. In such developing countries, a fisherman might resort
to such unethical practices in order to prevent his or her family from starving.
Most, 80–90%, of aquarium fish exported from the Philippines are captured with
sodium cyanide. This toxic chemical is dissolved in sea water and released into fish
shelters. It has a rapid narcotic effect on fish, which are then easily captured.
However, most fish collected with cyanide die a few months after capture from
extensive liver damage. Moreover, other fish species that are not interesting for the
aquarium market also die in the field.
Dynamite fishing
Dynamite fishing is another extremely destructive method that fishermen use to
harvest small fish. Sticks of dynamite, grenades, or home-made explosives are lit or
activated and thrown in the water. Once the dynamite goes off the explosion brings
about an underwater shockwave, causing the internal organs of fish to liquefy, killing
them almost instantly. A second blast is often set off after the first to kill any larger
predators that are attracted to the initial kill of the smaller fish. This method of fishing
not only kills the fish within the main blast area, but also takes the lives of many reef
animals that are not edible or wanted. Also, many of the fish do not float to the
surface to be collected, but sink to the bottom. The blast also kills the corals in the
area, eliminating the very structure of the reef, destroying the habitat for fish and
other animals important for the maintenance of a healthy reef. Areas that used to be
full of coral become deserts, full of coral rubble, dead fish and little else after
dynamite fishing. With dynamite fishing especially around the Maldives in the Indian
Ocean, have caused a vast majority of problems. With the rising sea level already the
coral reefs act as a natural defence against flooding. With the dynamite fishing, the
coral reefs are destroyed making the islands more vulnerable to flooding.
Bleaching
During the 1998 and 2004 El Nino weather phenomena, in which sea surface
temperatures rose well above normal, many tropical coral reefs were bleached or
killed. Some recovery has been noted in more remote locations, but global warming
could negate some of this recovery in the future. High seas surface temperature
(SSTs) coupled with high irradiance (light intensity), triggers the loss of
zooxanthellae, a symbiotic algae, and its dinoflagellate pigmentation in corals causing
coral bleaching. Zooxanthellae provide 95% of the energy to the coral host. Refer to
Hoegh-Guldberg 1999 for more information.
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Ocean acidification
The decreasing ocean surface pH is of increasing long-term concern for coral reefs.
Increased atmospheric CO2 increases the amount of CO2 dissolved in the oceans.
Carbon dioxide gas dissolved in the ocean reacts with water to form carbonic acid,
resulting in ocean acidification. Ocean surface pH is estimated to have decreased from
approximately 8.25 to 8.14 since the beginning of the industrial era, and it is
estimated that it will drop by a further 0.3 - 0.4 units by 2100 as the ocean absorbs
more anthropogenic CO2. Under normal conditions, the conditions for calcium
carbonate production are stable in surface waters since the carbonate ion is at
supersaturating concentrations. However, as ocean pH falls, so does the concentration
of this ion, and when carbonate becomes under-saturated, structures made of calcium
carbonate are vulnerable to dissolution. Research has already found that corals
experience reduced calcification or enhanced dissolution when exposed to elevated
CO2.
African and Asian dust outbreaks
Dust from the Sahara moving around the southern periphery of the subtropical ridge
moves into the Caribbean and Florida during the warm season as the ridge builds and
moves northward through the subtropical Atlantic. Dust can also be attributed to a
global transport from the Gobi and Taklamakan deserts across Korea, Japan, and the
Northern Pacific to the Hawaiian Islands. Since 1970, dust outbreaks have worsened
due to periods of drought in Africa. There is a large variability in the dust transport to
the Caribbean and Florida from year to year; however, the flux of dust is greater
during positive phases of the North Atlantic Oscillation. Dust events have been linked
to a decline in the health of coral reefs across the Caribbean and Florida, primarily
since the 1970s. Studies have shown that corals can incorporate dust into their
skeletons as identified from dust from the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa in Indonesia in
the annular bands of the reef-building coral Montastraea annularis from the Florida
reef tract. The relative abundance of chemical elements, particularly metals, has been
used to distinguish soil derived from volcanic dust from mineral dust.
Destruction worldwide
Southeast Asian coral reefs are at risk from damaging fishing practices (such as
cyanide and blast fishing), overfishing, sedimentation, pollution and bleaching. A
variety of activities, including education, regulation, and the establishment of marine
protected areas are under way to protect these reefs. Indonesia, for example has nearly
33,000 square miles (85,000 km²) of coral reefs. Its waters are home to a third of the
world’s total corals and a quarter of its fish species. Indonesia's coral reefs are located
in the heart of the Coral Triangle and have been victim to destructive fishing,
unregulated tourism, and bleaching due to climatic changes. Data from 414 reef
monitoring stations throughout Indonesia in 2000 found that only 6% of Indonesia’s
coral reefs are in excellent condition, while 24% are in good condition, and
approximately 70% are in poor to fair condition (2003 The Johns Hopkins
University).
On September 24, 2007, Reef Check (the world’s largest reef conservation
organization) stated that only 5% of Philippines 27,000 square-kilometers of coral
reef are in “excellent condition” : Tubbataha Reef, Marine Park in Palawan, Apo
37
Island in Negros Oriental, Apo Reef in Puerto Galera, Mindoro, and Verde Island
Passage off Batangas. Philippine coral reefs is 2nd largest in Asia.
General estimates show approximately 10% of the coral reefs around the world are
already dead. Problems range from environmental effects of fishing techniques,
described above, to ocean acidification. Coral bleaching is another manifestation of
the problem and is showing up in reefs across the planet.
4.8.6 Protection and restoration
Inhabitants of Ahus Island, Manus Province, Papua New Guinea, have followed a
generations-old practice of restricting fishing in six areas of their reef lagoon. While
line fishing is permitted, net and spear fishing are restricted based on cultural
traditions. The result is that both the biomass and individual fish sizes are
significantly larger in these areas than in places where fishing is completely
unrestricted.
It is estimated that about 60% of the world’s reefs are at risk due to destructive,
human-related activities. The threat to the health of reefs is particularly strong in
Southeast Asia, where an enormous 80% of reefs are considered endangered.
Organisations as Coral Cay, Counterpart and the Foundation of the peoples of the
South Pacific are currently undertaking coral reef/atoll restoration projects. They are
doing so using simple methods of plant propagation. Other organisations as Practical
Action have released informational documents on how to set-up coral reef restoration
to the public.
Marine Protected Areas
One method of coastal reef management that has become increasingly prominent is
the implementation of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). MPAs have been introduced
in Southeast Asia and elsewhere around the world to attempt to promote responsible
fishery management and habitat protection. Much like the designation of national
parks and wild life refuges, potentially damaging extraction activities are prohibited.
The objectives of MPAs are both social and biological, including restoration of coral
reefs, aesthetic maintenance, increased and protected biodiversity, and economic
benefits. Conflicts surrounding MPAs involve lack of participation, clashing views
and perceptions of effectiveness, and funding.
Reef Restoration Technology
Low voltage electrical currents applied through seawater crystallizes dissolved
minerals onto steel structures. The resultant white carbonate (aragonite) is the same
mineral that makes up natural coral reefs. Corals rapidly colonize and grow at faster
than normal rates onto these coated structures. The change in the environment
produced by electrical currents also accelerates formation and growth of both
chemical limestone rock and the skeletons of corals and other shell-bearing
organisms. Within the vicinity of the anode and cathode is a high pH environment
which inhibits the growth of filamentous and fleshy algae, which compete with coral
for space. This, and the increased growth rates cease when the mineral accretion
process stops.
38
The effects of mineral accretion is, however, only temporary. During the process the
settled corals have an increased growth rate, and size, and density, but after the
process is complete the corallites are comparable to naturally growing corallites in
growth rate and density, and are about the same size or slightly smaller.
4.8.7 Reefs in the past
Throughout the Earth history, from a few million years after hard skeletons were
developed by marine organisms, there were almost always reefs formed by reefbuilding organisms in the ancient seas. The times of maximum development were in
the Middle Cambrian (513-501 Ma), Devonian (416-359 My) and Carboniferous
(359-299 Ma), due to Order Rugosa extinct corals, and Late Cretaceous (100-65 Ma)
and all Neogene (23 Ma - present), due to Order Scleractinia corals.
Not all reefs in the past were formed by corals: in the Early Cambrian (542-513 Ma)
resulted from calcareous algae and archaeocyathids (small animals with conical
shape, probably related to sponges) and in the Late Cretaceous (100 -65 Ma), when
there also existed reefs formed by a group of bivalves called rudists; one of the valves
formed the main conical structure and the other, much smaller valve acted as a cap.
4.9
LET US SUM UP
After going through this unit, you would have achieved the objectives stated earlier in
the unit. Let us recall what we have discussed so far.
1.
India is one of the 12-megadiversity countries in the world. Around 1,27,000
species of microorganisms, plants and animals have been described in the
country till date.
2.
India has had a long history of conservation and sustainable use of natural
resources. National strategies and plans for the conservation, sustainable and
equitable use of biological diversity are rooted in the long and rich spiritual and
cultural traditions of the country.
3.
Environmental protection and conservation of natural resources emerged as key
national priorities in India in the wake of the 1972 Stockholm Conference on
Human Environment.
4.
Between the Stockholm Conference and the Rio Earth Summit in June 1992,
India developed an organisational structure and a legal and policy framework for
the protection of environment and wildlife in the country, keeping in mind the
need to simultaneously address the issues of poverty alleviation and natural
resource conservation.
5.
A Department of Environment was established in 1980, and was made a full
fledged Ministry of Environment and Forests in 1985. Until 1980, the
environment and forests of India were the concern of the Department of Science
and Technology and the Ministry of Agriculture, respectively.
6.
In June 1992, the National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on
Environment and Development was brought out by to lay down guidelines for
integrating environmental considerations into India’s process of development.
39
7.
India is one of the earliest signatories of the Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBD) and became Party in early 1994. India has taken important steps in
developing new strategies and further strengthening the existing strategies for
effective conservation and sustainable use of its biological diversity.
Government, Non-Government institutions and local communities have evolved
various systems and approaches for the conservation and sustainable use of
biological diversity.
8.
After India became Party to CBD, held wide-ranging consultations with sectoral Ministries and Departments of the Government of India, State Governments,
experts, technical institutions and other stakeholders to delineate policies and
programmes for further action, in order to consolidate, adapt and augment
existing strategies for conservation and sustainable use and initiate new
programmes based on a sound co-ordinated policy for future actions. The result
of these consultations has been a framework National Policy and Action
Strategy on Biological Diversity which is being further consolidated and
pursued for assisted project to consolidate and detail this is visualised.
9.
In - situ conservation through a system of Protected Areas included 96 National
Parks and 510 Wildlife Sanctuaries covering a total area of 156, 000 sq. km. The
total area covered by PAs has been increased since 1993. There areas
representing the major biogeographic provinces of India and covering more than
5% of the total land area, The total extent of Protected Areas include 5
designated as World Heritage Sites, 15 Biosphere Reserves and 6 Ramsar sites,
besides 28 Tiger Reserves.
10. The Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India has initiated
since 1993 a comprehensive ten-year programme in southern India across the
States of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra for
in situ conservation of the medicinal plants diversity in the Western and Eastern
Ghats. This medicinal plants conservation network is aimed at conserving the
natural resources used by traditional communities.
11. The approach of identifying and actively involving stakeholders in natural
resource management is being seen as an effective and essential strategy for
conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity. The framework
National Policy and Action Strategy on Biological Diversity of the Government
of India recognises the importance of involving the stakeholders including
women, in conservation policies and programmes.
12. Government is developing a national legislation to regulate access to biological
resources, sustainable use of these resources and equitable sharing of the
benefits arising out of their use. The legislation will help achieve the three basic
objectives of the Convention on Biological Diversity viz. conservation,
sustainable use and equitable sharing of benefits derived from such use. A draft
Plant Varieties Act has been prepared for consideration by the Ministry of
Agriculture, which inter recognises and seeks to protect the interest of the
traditional rural and fanning communities, who have made significant
contributions to the conservation and enhancement of genetic diversity
particularly at the intra-specific level.
13.
India’s policies are designed to make the conservation of nature and natural
resources the concern of all citizens of the country. Under the system of
democratic of responsibilities enshrined in constitution amendment No.73 of
1993, local bodies consisting of elected representatives, one third of whom are
40
women, have been entrusted with the responsibility of safeguarding the local
environmental capital stocks. It is hoped these steps will lead to biodiversity
conservation and enhancement becoming a people’s movement.
4.10 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS AND THE KEY
Tick the correct answer :
1. The ‘Wildlife Protection Act’ was passed in :
(a) 1949
(b) 1972
(c) 1912
(d) 1991
2. “MAB’ stands for :
(a) Man, Antibiotic and Bacteria (b) Man and Biotic Community
(c) Man and Biosphere
(d) Meyer, Anderson and Bisby.
3. Which is characteristic component of mangrove vegetation ?
(a) Ficus religiosa
(b) Rhizophora mangi
(c) Mangifera indica
(d) Prosopis juliflora
4. The term ‘Biosphere’ is used for the zone of earth where life exists :
(a) On the lithosphere surface
(b) In the hydrosphere
(c) In the lithosphere and hydrosphere
(d) In the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere
5. World environment day is :
(a) 5 June
(b) 14 Nov.
(c) 2 oct
(d) 28 Feb
Key :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
(b) 1972
(c) Man and Biosphere
(d) Prosopis juliflora
(d) In the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere
(a) 5 June
4.11 ASSIGNMENTS / ACTIVITIES
It is compulsory for every student to complete an assignment/ activity/ project work
from any known prospects of conservation of biological diversity espeially in-situ
conservation. Explain the following (any one):
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Biological wealth of India and its conservation masurements
Wildlife of India
Wildlife management with special reference to India
Protected Areas network in India
UNESCO and Biosphere Reserve Programme
41
4.12 REFERENCES / FURTHER READINGS

Agarwal A (1992). Jhum : Is there a way out? The price of forests. CSE, New Delhi.

Anonymous (2007). List of Protected Areas. An updated source of the Protected
Areas list is the National Wildlife Database Cell. Wildlife Institute of India,
Dehradun.

Bloom DE (1995). International Public Opinion on the Environment. Science 269:
354-357.

Chandra S, Khanna KK and Kehri HK (1995). Microbes and Man. BSMPL
Publishers, Dehra Dun, India.

Chaterjee S (1995). Global ‘Hot Spots’ of Biodiversity. Current Science 68:117781179.

Gadgil M (1994). Reckoning with life. The Hindu Survey of the Environment.

Government of India (1994). Conservation of Biological Diversity in India: An
Approach. MoEF, GOI, New Delhi pp 48.

Green JB (1993). Natural Resources of the Himalaya and the Mountains of Central
Asia. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. pp. 137-290.

IUCN/ UNEP/ WWF. 1991. Caring for the Earth: A Strategy for Sustainable Living..
World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland.

Kellert SR (1992). Ecology, Economics, and Ethics: The Broken Circle.. Yale
University Press, New Haven.

Klemn C (1993). Biological Diversity, Conservation and Law. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland.

List of protected areas in India, Ministry of Environment & Forests available from
http://www.envfor.nic.in

McNeely JA (1988). Economics and Biological Diversity. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland..

McNeely JA (1990). Conserving the World's Biological Diversity. Gland,
Switzerland, and World Conservation Union and World Resources Institute,
Washington, DC.

Myers N (1993). The Question of Linkages in Environment and Development: We
Can No Longer Afford to Split the World into Disciplinary Components. BioScience,
43: 302-310.

Pant DD (1999). Biodiversity Conservation and Evolution of Plants. Current Science
76: 21-23.

Reid WV et al. (1993). Biodiversity Prospecting: Using Genetic Resources for
Sustainable Development. World Resources Institute, Washington DC.

Riklefs RE, Naveh Z and Turner RE (1984). Conservation of Ecological Processes.
International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland,
Switzerland.
42

Udvardy MDF (1975). A Classification of the Biogeographical Provinces of the
World. International Union for the Conservation of Nature, Morges, Switzerland.

Westman WE (1985). Ecology, Impact Assessment, and Environmental Planning..
John Wiley & Sons, New York.

William J (1987). Restoration Ecology: A Synthetic Approach to Ecological
Research. Cambridge University Press, New York.

Wilson EO (1988). The current state of Biological Diversity. In : Biodiversity.
National Academy Press, Washington DC pp. 3-5.

World Conservation Monitoring Center (1992). Global Biodiversity: Status of Earth’s
Living Resources. Chapman and Hall, London.

World Conservation Monitoring Center (1993). Global Biodiversity. Chapman and
Hall, London.

World Resources Institute (1992). World Resources, 1992-93. Oxford University
Press, New York.

WRI/ UNEP/ UNDP (1992). World Resources 1992-93. Oxford University Press,
New York.
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