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Iliad Study Guide Chapters I – IX AUTHOR Homer – Supposedly, Homer is the author of the Iliad. Although the war was probably fought around the year 1250 BC, Homer did not exist till around 800 BC. He never wrote the story. He memorized it and would recite the story, as per the oral tradition. The epic poem was finally written down in 55o BC. Many people assume that Homer was blind because of a character in the Odyssey (Tiresius), who many scholars feel is a self-insert. CHARACTERS Achilles (Greek) – The son of Peleus and Thetis. He is the most skilled of the Greek warriors. His best friend is Patroclus. He is supposedly immune to physical damage to any area except his heel. However, despite this advantage he is told that he will die during the war. Andromache (Trojan) – She is the wife of Hector. They have a young child named Astyanax. Aeneas (Trojan) – He is a relative of the Trojan royal family, and the son of the Goddess Aphrodite. He is considered one of the best Trojan warriors. He is one of the few Trojans who survive the war. Agamemnon (Greek) – The King of Mycenae, the most powerful of the Greek kings. Menelaus is his brother. Many of the other Greeks consider him to be too arrogant. He is the Commanderin-Chief of the Greek army. Ajax (Greek) – The largest of the Greek warriors. He is considered the strongest. At one point in the war, he will duel Hector to a draw. This is significant because he was fated to die by Hector’s sword. Hector gives him the sword at the end of the duel. Ajax will commit suicide with it toward the end of the war. Aphrodite/Venus (Olympian) – The goddess of love. Her involvement in the Trojan War is huge because of several factors. She supports Troy, because Paris is the one who gave her the golden apple, and the second-best warrior in the Trojan army is Aeneas, who is her son. Apollo (Olympian) – The god of the sun. He is on the side of the Trojans. Early on in the story, he inflicts plague on the Greek camp because they insulted his priest, Chryses. Briseis (Trojan) – She is a beautiful woman who was given to the Greek warrior Achilles after her town was captured. She is later taken by Agamemnon as a replacement for Chryseis. Calchas (Greek) – The seer of the Greeks. He speaks to the gods, and he is the one who informs the Greek army that Apollo was angry with Agamemnon. Chryseis (Trojan) – The daughter of Chryses, a priest of Apollo. It is her abduction that causes Apollo to give plague to the Greek Camp. Diomedes (Greek) – The King of Argos. He is one of the fiercest fighters in the Greek army and even is capable of fighting the gods. Dolon (Trojan) – A Trojan spy who is caught by Diomedes and Odysseus. Despite being promised his life by Odysseus, he is murdered by Diomedes after he gives up vital information. Glaucus (Trojan) – An ally of the Trojans, he is a great fighter. He is a descendant of Bellerephon. Hector (Trojan) - The oldest child of Priam and successor to the King of Troy. He is the Trojan’s best warrior. He is a brave man and a good father. He is married to Andromache. Helen (Greek) – The queen of Sparta. She married Menelaus, making him King of Sparta. However, she eventually fled with Paris. However, in the Iliad it is clear that she feels that Aphrodite made her love him. Hephaestus (Olympian) – The son of Hera and Zeus. He is a crippled god, but is very powerful, as he is the god of the forge and fire. (Specifically associated with blacksmithing.) Hera/Juno (Olympian) – Queen of the Gods. She is very bitter about losing the Judgment of Paris, and seeks to destroy the Trojans. She is constantly getting into arguments with Zeus, as he does not want to see Troy destroyed. Hermes/Mercury (Olympian) – The messenger of the gods. He does not have a particularly big role in the Iliad, but does have prominent appearances in Homer’s second story, The Odyssey. Hypnos (Olympian) – The Greek god of sleep. He is called upon several times by Hera to make Zeus fall asleep so that she can work her mischief. When he hides from Zeus, he goes to his mother, the goddess of Night (Nyx). Menelaus (Greek) – The King of Sparta (by marriage). The Trojan War is being fought at his behest, because all of the Greek kings and princes signed a contract to assist Sparta if anyone ever attacked them. His brother, Agamemnon, is the leader of the Greek Army. Myrmidons (Greek) – These are warriors from Achilles’ homeland, called Phythia. They are considered some of the best troops in the Greek army. Nestor (Greek) – The eldest of the Greek kings. He is too old to fight, and leaves that job to his two sons. However, he is considered wise and acts as an advisor to Agamemnon. Odysseus/Ulysses (Greek) – The King of Ithaca. Considered one of the wisest of the Greek warriors, Odysseus plays a major part in ending the war. He is the main character of Homer’s second epic story, The Odyssey. Pandarus (Trojan) – A Trojan archer. He is convinced by a disguised Athena that if he shoots Menelaus, he will be greatly rewarded. He is killed by Diomedes in the subsequent chapter. Patroclus (Greek) – A Myrmidon, he is Achilles’ best friend. He is bothered by Achilles’ refusal to help the Greeks, and eventually leads the Myrmidons into battle himself. Paris (Trojan) – The second oldest child of Priam. Essentially, he caused the war by accepting Aphrodite’s bribe, the love of the most beautiful woman, Helen. He dumped his current nymph girlfriend Oenone, and stole Helen from Menelaus, king of the Spartans. Philocetes (Greek) – A powerful archer who is not actually at the fight at Troy. He was left on an island due to a snake bite that incapacitated him. Polydamus (Trojan) – A Trojan seer who always offers cautious advice. It is he who warned Hector not to attack the Greek camp, and at some points suggested giving Helen back to the Greeks. Poseidon/Neptune (Olympian) – The god of the sea. He wants to destroy the city of Troy because of a slight committed by a previous king of the city. Priam (Trojan) – The King of Troy. He is an old man with around 50 children. He is too old to fight, and relies upon his eldest son, Hector to save his city. Sarpedon (Trojan) – A warrior in the Trojan army who is also a son of Zeus. When he fights Patroclus, Zeus almost saves him by taking him away from the battle, but is convinced not to do it, and he is killed. Thetis (Olympian) – An ocean goddess who marries a mortal, Peleus, because Zeus did not want her to marry any gods. She is the mother of Achilles. Zeus/Jove/Jupiter (Olympian) – The King of the Olympian gods. He is not happy with the Trojan War because he knows it will result in the destruction of Troy, a city he loves. Additionally, he has to deal with tension from the other gods, as half of them support the Greeks, and the other half support the Trojans. BOOK I 1. The story begins with the priest, Chryses, going to Agamemnon to ask for the return of his daughter, Chryseis. His daughter had been given to the Greek king as a prize after their town had been captured. 2. Agamemnon refuses to give the daughter back to the priest and even threatens to kill him, should he ever see him again. As a result, Chryses prays to the god, Apollo, for vengeance. 3. Apollo responds by sending plague into the Greek camp. (Apollo is not only the god of the sun, but of disease as well.) At first it affects the animals, and then the soldiers themselves. Eventually, it becomes so bad, that Achilles asks the seers why the gods are so angry. 4. The seer, Calchas comes forward and agrees to explain if Achilles will protect him. Achilles agrees, and Calchas explains how Apollo is angry at Agamemnon for the treatment of Chryses. 5. Achilles tells Agamemnon that he should return Chryseis to her father Chryses. They get into an argument because Agamemnon feels that he should not lose his woman, and threatens to take someone else’s prize. 6. Agamemnon and Achilles seem to have a distinct dislike for each other. Achilles seems to be a bit jealous of the rewards heaped upon Agamemnon, while Agamemnon is obviously bothered by Achilles’ prowess as a warrior. He dislikes the fact that he has to listen to him. The Iphigenia incident at Aulis probably has to do something with this enmity as well. 7. When Agamemnon threatens to take Achilles’ prize girl, Briseis, Achilles draws his sword, with the intent to kill Agamemnon. However, Hera sees this, and sends Athena down to Achilles. Athena tells Achilles that he should NOT kill Agamemnon, and they will reward him for his patience later. 8. Achilles complains to his mother about his treatment. He tells her that he wants her to use her influence with Zeus to make the Greeks lose the war, so that they will need to apologize to him. 9. As an example of Thetis’ influence, Achilles talks about the time when Zeus was captured and tied up by several of the other gods. Thetis is the one who called the Hecatonchiere, Briareus to free Zeus from his bonds. 10. Thetis demands that Zeus make the Greeks lose until they apologize to her son. Zeus agrees, but complains that Thetis is going to get him in trouble with Hera. 11. When men come to take Briseis away from Achilles, he does not resist because he knows the gods told him to be patient. BOOK II 12. Athena gives Agamemnon a vision where he rallies the army by testing their loyalty and dedication. This fails miserably. When he attempts to use reverse psychology and tells the men they can go home, they are ecstatic and begin to pack. 13. The rout of the Greek soldiers is stopped largely by Odysseus. He tells the men that they should hang in there, as the war is almost over anyway. He tells them that Agamemnon was just testing them, and that they should show resolve. BOOK III 14. Paris, in an uncharacteristic show of bravery, challenges anyone in the Greek army to duel him. The consequences of the duel are that if the Greeks lose, they have to go home, and if the Trojans lose, they must return Helen and the Spartan treasure. Of course, Menelaus is thrilled to accept the challenge. 15. Once Paris sees that Menelaus has accepted the challenge, he attempts to back out of it. However, his older brother Prince Hector, calls him a coward and goads him into fighting. 16. Before the duel commences, Priam overlooks the event from Troy’s battlements. He asks Helen about the Greek warriors in front of him. He is significantly impressed by Achilles, Odysseus and Ajax. 17. The duel is significantly one-sided. Paris is no match for Menelaus, who despite some setbacks in the fight, manages to overpower Paris and then proceeds to drag him towards the Greek lines. Paris is rescued by Aphrodite who returns him to Troy. 18. Aphrodite takes Paris back to his suite, and then demands that Helen make love to him, to brighten up his day. Helen actually refuses at first, being ashamed of Paris’ cowardice. However, Aphrodite threatens her and she complies. 19. After the duel, Agamemnon marches his army to the gates of Troy, and demands Helen and the treasure, as Menelaus had decisively won the duel. BOOK IV 20. Zeus attempts to settle the matter and end the Trojan War, since he loves Troy. However, Hera refuses to consider peace. When Zeus tells her that he will allow her to eradicate Troy, but that she should not complain if he ever destroys one of her favorite cities, she can’t complain. In response she names her three favorite cities (Argos, Mycenae & Sparta) and tells Zeus she doesn’t care if he wipes them out. 21. Athena disguises herself as a Trojan warrior, and baits an archer named Pandarus into firing an arrow at Menelaus, knowing that this will end the truce and cause the fighting to restart. 22. Pandarus fires the arrow, but Athena blocks it slightly so that it does not kill Menelaus. It just merely wounds him. 23. Agamemnon is horrified by this act, and immediately orders the Greeks to attack the Trojans. Agamemnon has two concerns about Menelaus being wounded: The first is that he is worried that his brother might die from his wound and the second is that the whole point of the war was to retrieve Menelaus’ wife, thus it might end the reason for the war in the first place. BOOK V 24. The Greek warrior, Diomedes confronts the archer Pandarus. Although Pandarus does manage to wound Diomedes with an arrow, it does not stop him, and he spears Pandarus in the face, killing him. 25. Diomedes then confronts Aeneas (the 2nd best warrior in the Trojan army), and crushes his leg with a rock. Before he can kill him, Aeneas’ mother, the goddess Aphrodite swoops in and whisks him away to safety. 26. Unfortunately for Aphrodite, Athena has enabled Diomedes to see the gods (who are otherwise invisible). He attacks her, and stabs her in the hand. Aphrodite runs away. 27. Aphrodite’s boyfriend, Ares (the god of war) enters the fight to avenge her. He casts his spear at Diomedes, but it is blocked by Athena’s shield. Diomedes retaliates and stabs Ares in the stomach. Ares flees the battlefield, and complains to Zeus, who merely heckles him. 28. Lastly, Apollo enters and warns Diomedes to back down. He tells him that he is only a mortal and has no business confronting the gods. Diomedes challenges Apollo to a fight, but Apollo refuses, claiming that he will not sully himself by fighting a mortal. BOOK VI 29. Diomedes and Glaucus wind up dueling each other. However, during their fight, they realize that they have familial connections. In honor of their heritage, they decide to exchange armor. Diomedes benefits greatly by this as Glaucus’ armor was worth a lot more than his. 30. At one point, Menelaus captures a prominent Trojan warrior, Adrestos. Adrestos asks Menelaus to ransom him back to his family, who will pay a lot for him. Menelaus appears to accept this, but Agamemnon discourages it, and executes him. 31. Hector returns to the city to perform some tasks. He goes to his brother Paris and berates him for not fighting alongside the other Trojans. 32. Hector goes to visit his wife, Andromache, and his son, Astyanax. The scene displays how Hector is a loving husband and father. One caveat of this, is that his infant son is afraid of him. So although he is a caring man, he is also an intimidating one. 33. One interesting scene is when Helen winds up talking to Hector and compliments him on being a great man, in contrast to the one she is currently with. 34. After visiting the city, Hector goes out to join the Trojan army once more. BOOK VII 35. Hector duels with Ajax. The fight lasts a long time and is a draw. 36. The evening draws near and both sides retire for the night. 37. The Greeks begin to build a defensive trench around their ships. BOOK VIII 38. Zeus decides to fulfil his oath to Thetis. He bans the gods (mainly Hera and Athena) from participating in the fighting and provides personal assistance to the Trojans. 39. The Trojans push the Achaeans back to their ships and become so confident that they do not return to the city, but instead camp near the Greek defenses. BOOK IX 40. The Greek leaders hold a conference about the current situation. Agamemnon contemplates returning to Greece, Diomedes adamantly refuses to abandon the war effort and Nestor advocates apologizing to Achilles. Nestor’s council prevails. 41. Agamemnon concedes and agrees to return Briseis to Achilles, and greatly reward him, including giving him one of his own daughters as a wife. 42. Nestor handles the negotiations and sends a, Ajax and Odysseus to talk to Achilles. 43. Although Achilles is polite and friendly to the embassy, he refuses to rejoin the war. He is still upset at Agamemnon and scoffs at his offerings. BOOK X 44. This chapter takes place during the night. Odysseus and Diomedes decide to do some nighttime reconnaissance. While they are scouting the opposing camp, they bump into a Trojan scout named Dolon who is doing the same thing to the Greeks. They capture him. 45. They interrogate him, and he gives them answers after Odysseus promises not to kill him. They learn about a camp of Trojan allies nearby. Instead of taking him prisoner, Diomedes kills Dolon, explaining that only Odysseus promised not to kill him. 46. After murdering Dolon, Odysseus and Diomedes go to the camp, kill a bunch of Trojan allies (Thracians) and steal supplies and horses. BOOK XI 47. The battle resumes the next day, and a lot of Greek leaders are wounded, and once again they are forced to retreat to the ships. 48. The Greeks desperately send another envoy (Nestor) to Achilles, asking him for help. He seems interested, but does not assist. BOOK XII 49. The Trojans break through the Greek defenses and even manage to set fire to some ships. BOOK XIII 50. A Trojan seer, Polydamas, warns Hector that attacking the Greek ships might cause Achilles and the Myrmidons to rejoin the combat, but Hector ignores him and continues the assault on the Greek defenses. BOOK XIV 51. Hera is desperate to save the Greeks. So she goes to Aphrodite and asks for her blessing to make her appear even more attractive than she already is. She then goes to Hypnos (the Greek god of sleep) and enlists his aid in her plan. 52. Hera goes to Zeus and entices him into lovemaking. After this event, Hypnos causes Zeus to fall asleep. She does this so that he will not be able to prevent the gods from assisting the Greeks. 53. The god Poseidon goes to turn the tide of the battle and helps the Greeks expel the Trojans from their camp. BOOK XV (15) 54. Zeus awakens, and is furious to see that he has been duped. He immediately orders all the gods away from the battlefield, and once again, the Trojans push the Greeks back to their ships. BOOK XVI (16) 55. Patroclus is in Achilles’ tent, and complains that he wants to help the Greek army because they are in trouble. Achilles refuses to help, but tells Patroclus that he can wear his armor and lead the Myrmidons into battle. 56. Achilles allows Patroclus to do this, but warns him that he is only to save the Greek ships, and that once the Trojan army has retreated, his job is done. 57. Achilles rallies the Myrmidons, and cheers them as they launch into battle. 58. Achilles prays to Zeus that Patroclus will survive the fight. 59. Patroclus and the Myrmidons assault the Trojans and save the Greek army. The Trojan army retreats. 60. Patroclus gets carried away, and does not stop fighting. He chases after the fleeing Trojans and kills many of them. 61. Patroclus and Sarpedon fight. Zeus becomes aware that Sarpedon, who is his son, is going to get killed. He contemplates saving him, but Hera goads Zeus into letting Sarpedon die. Indeed, Patroclus does kill him. 62. Patroclus chases the Trojans all the way back to the city, and attempts to climb over the walls. However, Apollo keeps pushing him back. 63. Patroclus’ rampage is suddenly stopped when Apollo dazes him by striking him in the helmet. He is then stabbed in the back by a Trojan warrior, and finally Hector finishes him off. BOOK XVII (17) 64. This chapter shows the fight over Patroclus’ body. Essentially, Hector manages to strip Achilles’ armor off of Patroclus, but the Greeks manage to recapture his corpse. BOOK XVIII (18) 65. Achilles is told of Patroclus’ death and becomes tremendously distraught. 66. Briseis, who was returned to Achilles, also sympathizes with Achilles and mourns his death as well. 67. Achilles is frustrated, because he wants to get revenge on Hector, but he has no armor or weapons of his own. 68. Achilles’ mother, Thetis becomes very sad, not merely because she feels bad that her son has lost his best friend, but because she knows that Achilles will return to the fight, and thus is doomed to die before the end of the war. 69. Once again, Thetis advocates for her son, this time, getting Hephaestus, the god of the forge (blacksmithing) to build him a new set of armor. 70. Polydamus, a Trojan leader, warns Hector to withdraw into Troy because he knows that Achilles will be seeking revenge. However, Hector ignores him and chooses to remain outside of the city. BOOK XIX (19) 71. Achilles is given his new armor, and mounts his chariot preparing to engage the Trojans in battle. BOOK XX (20) 72. Zeus announces to the gods that he is lifting the ban on their interference in the war, as he was largely doing it to appease Thetis, whose son, Achilles is now returning to battle. 73. Achilles rejoins the Greek army and leads them into battle. BOOK XXI (21) 74. Achilles slaughters so many Trojans that they retreat across the river Scamander, who is also a god. Scamander becomes upset at Achilles for filling his river full of Trojan corpses, so he fights Achilles, attempting to drown him. Hephaestus comes to the aid of Achilles, and starts using fire against the river’s water. Eventually, the river is defeated. 75. Apollo does his best to distract Achilles, leading him away from the city of Troy. 76. The Greek gods interfere so much in the battle that they wind up fighting each other. Athena fights Ares, and eventually defeats him by crushing him with a boulder. 77. Hera and Artemis fight. Hera wins the fight by disarming Artemis and beating her over the head with her own bow. 78. Poseidon and Apollo square off, but choose not to fight each other out of mutual respect.