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Metternich (1773-1589)
The Austrian Empire dominated central Europe. Austria was a cosmopolitan state, existing because of its
Habsburg dynasty. Its great political leader was Prince Klemens von Metternich, who epitomized
reactionary conservatism since anything else would destroy Austria. Metternich also opposed moves to
constitutionalism in German states -since Austria was a part of Germany, and calls for a united Germany
would pose a danger to Austria.
J.S. Mill (1806-1873)
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) was the most important Liberal thinker of the mid 19th century. Brought up by
a strict utilitarian father, he could read Greek at age 4. He stands at the transition stage between old
individualist Liberalism and the later Liberal parties which took the principle of the "greatest happiness for
the greatest number" and used it to promote social welfarism. In On Liberty (1859), his most famous
political work,t he outlined three fundamental freedoms:- of Belief, of Taste and pursuits, of Uniting with
others. But he also discussed the rights of society as he saw individual actions have social consequences
and that sometimes the interests of the community must come first.
Congress of Vienna (1814)
The Congress of Vienna ran from September 1814 to November 1815. Four Powers dominated -Britain,
Austria, Prussia, Russia - and they constructed a post-Napoleonic political order around four principles: No
one power should dominate Europe; legitimate monarchs should be restored to power; France should be
contained; there was a non-vindictive boundary settlement with France. There were plans to maintain order
by having frequent meetings -continued for a few years - the so called "Concert of Europe", but soon
disagreements made this redundant. However, there was no major general war in Europe for a hundred
years. The Balance of Power worked.
The Quadruple Alliance (1815)
In 1815 Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia established a "quadruple alliance"to regulate European
politics after the fall of Napoleon.
Karl Marx (1818-1883)
Karl Marx (1818-1883) was born in Trier in the Rhineland. His father was a Jewish convert to Lutheranism.
After attending universities in Bonn, Berlin and Jena, he published radical papers in Koln and Belgium,
[Rheinische Zeitung] until 1849 when he came to live in London for many years. Marx drew his theory from
three main sources: German philosophy, English economics and French history. While much of what he
wrote is complex,and sometimes turgid, he was also able of writing prose inspiring enough to ignite
apolitical movement.
Carlsbad Decrees (1819)
The Carlsbad Decrees showed the fear of the German states about nationalism and liberalism. These
decrees banned student associations[Burschenschaften] -which advocated replacing local loyalties with
loyalty to a united German state. Secret police went into operation in many German states and censorship
was imposed in universities.
Peterloo Massacre (1819)
Following the defeat of Napoleon, a very conservative "Tory" government takes over in Britain. Its goals
were to support the interests of the traditional country landowner. But this was against the massively
shifting social and economic background of the Industrial revolution. Political and police coercion was used.
Famously at Peterloo in 1819 a peaceful political gathering in Manchester was attacked by troops.
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Revolts in Naples, Sicily, and Piedmont (1821)
After the Congress of Vienna, Italy was left divided between many small states,most of them dominated by
non-Italian ruling houses restored to power by the allies. The new governments acted repressively, and
sent much of the Italian intelligentsia to prisoner exile. A series of revolts challenged these regimes, but all
were suppressed by military force.
Revolt in Spain (1822)
One of the early tests of the Concert of Europe came when a liberal revolt came arose Spain. Despite
Britain's opposition, the other powers authorized France to intervene to crush the rebellion.
Decembrists' Revolt in Russia (1825)
Under Tsar Alexander I (b.1777-r.1801-d.1825) Russia was the most reactionary country of all. After the
blows dealt by Napoleon, the Russian monarchy opposed all change. It also gained a reputation as great
military power. Alexander's successor, Tsar Nicholas I (1825-1855) adopted a policy of "Official
Nationalism," with the slogan "Orthodoxy, Aristocracy, and Nationalism." Just after he assumed the throne
a group of liberal army officers revolted. Nicholas crushed them, and ever after opposed liberalism, kept
serfdom, and resisted any change. This had the effect of alienating almost all thinking people from the
regime.
Greek Independence (1829)
By the 1820s the Ottoman Empire had succumbed to corrupt government. Greeks mounted a national
liberation movement, and were supported by Romantics in Western Europe who had been brought up
reading Homer and the Greek classics. With the aid of France,Britain and Russia, a small Greek state was
established, but one which added territory piece by piece as the Ottoman Empire got weaker during the
19th century.
Revolutions in France, Belgium, Poland, and Italy (1830)
The Bourbon monarchy was restored in France in 1815. The first new king, Louis XVIII (a brother of the
Louis XVI who had been executed) was a fairly mild ruler and issued The Charter of 1814, which permitted
religious toleration, but made catholicism the official religion. It did not disturb property changes since
1789.The next king proved to be a problem -- Charles X in 1824. He tried to overturn the Charter after
liberals scored a victory in Elections to Chamber of Deputies. In 1830 he faced a revolution. It was primarily
a political revolt, although Paris workers --following an economic downturn after 1827-- also took to the
streets. Middle class deputies seized moment to bring about a constitutional monarchy. In July 1830 revolt
brought King Louis Philippe (a distant relative of the Bourbon dynasty) to throne. He accepted The Charter
as a right of the people. The same year also saw revolutions in Belgium, which successfully broke away
from the Netherlands; in Poland, which was suppressed by the Russian Army; and in Italy, which was
suppressed by Austria.
Young Italy founded (1831)
Nationalism was initially linked with Liberals who, especially in Germany and Italy led the call for unity
versus the old rulers. The liberal ideal of "popular sovereignity" -- i.e. that the right to rule derives from the
people -- made liberalism and nationalism fit well together. Young Italy, led by Giuseppe Mazzini(18051872), was a paradigmatic liberal nationalist organization. It originated after the suppression of the 1830
revolution and kept alive nationalist hopes in Italy.
British Reform Bill (1832)
Throughout the 1820's there were political campaigns for the reform of Parliament and economic Free
Trade. In 1832 the Great Reform Bill was made law -- a compromise with the middle class that prevented
revolution. From 1832 on, British politics was essentially"liberal". This is not the "liberalism" of today, but a
political ideology which promoted market economics and efficient government. "Liberals"were the party of
business interests.
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Britain abolishes slavery in its Colonies (1833)
British evangelical Christians had turned against slavery in the late 18thcentury. In 1833, the new Reform
Parliament banned slavery in all Britain's colonies, and the Royal Navy began to act against the Atlantic
slave trade of other countries.
Zollverein founded (1834)
One of Britain's advantages at the start of the Industrial Revolution was the complete lack of internal tariff
barriers. In Germany, which was divided into many small states,such tariffs and tolls presented a serious
problem to economic growth. The Zollverein (or "Customs Union") was a conscious effort to enable
German industry to develop. It also turned out to be the first step towards German unification.
Chartist Movement begins (1838)
In the late 1830s, Britain acquired a mass working class movement organized around a"People's Charter" Chartism. The movement began when in 1836 William Lovett(1800-1877) formed London Working Men's
Association. The Charter had six points - all connected to how Parliament was run. It called for: Universal
male suffrage; Annual elections; Secret ballots; Equal electoral districts; Abolition of property qualifications
for MPs; Payments of members of parliament. The movement was radical and quite sophisticated. Its most
renowned orator was Fergus O'Connor, who made speeches all over the country. It was not entirely united
as a movement - some would not accept violence.Once conditions improved in late 1840s it lost some of its
force. But at once stage it had the support of about half the population. It is a unique example of a mass
working class movement before Marxism.
Irish Famine (1846-1848)
Ireland relied on the potato as its main source of food. In 1845, a fungus attacked the potato crop, and
famine broke out. The British government, concluding that government should not interfere in the economy
did nothing, and even allowed food to be exported from Ireland. The result was more that a million dead in
Ireland, and a massive emigration.
Repeal of Corn Laws in Britain (1846)
The Communist Manifesto (1848)
Karl Marx' and Frederich Engels' Communist Manifesto qualifies as a"Great Book" both for its elevated
rhetoric and its later impact. To some degree it was a work of fiction since there was no actual Communist
party at the time. Das Kapital, written from 1867 on, was probably Marx's major theoretical work, but the
Manifesto,with its memorable lines and images, was the source of most Communists' inspiration.
Revolutions of 1848 (1848)
The 1848 Revolution in France led to popular upheavals throughout Europe, especially in the Austrian
Empire - which was the most illiberal and anti-nationalist state in Europe.Revolutions also severely
challenged established rulers in Italy, and Germany.
Revolutions of 1848 (1848)
In 1848 a whole series of revolutions took place throughout Europe. Beginning in France,they severely
challenged established rulers in Austria, Italy, and Germany.
Italian Unification (1850-1860)
Louis Napoleon becomes emperor of France (1851)
In the French Presidential Elections of 1848, a split between radicals led to the election of Louis Napoleon
(1808-1873) in 1848. He was a nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, and after being elected president of
France he followed a family tradition by using a popular plebescite to make himself emperor in 1851. He
took the title Napoleon III, claiming that Napoleon's son should have been Napoleon II. His reign lasted
until 1870, and in practice, his government adopted liberal methods. Among peasants who had voted for
Louis Napoleon, it seems that many believed it was Napoleon I who had given them their land, rather than
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their own actions in 1789. This "Napoleonic Legend" mixed up ideas of romanticism, nationalism, and
peasant desires.
Cavour becomes prime minister of Piedmont-Sardinia (1852)
The Kingdom of Sardinia was the most important Italian run state, and the focus of Nationalist aspirations
in Italy. Until 1850 Italy was dominated by Austria, and a battle ground for the great powers. Count Camillo
Cavour (1810-1864) was the semi-liberal minister of Kingdom of Sardinia. 1851 to 1861. He built Sardinia
into a modern and economically sound state. Cavour's aims were to bring Northern Italy under Sardinia's
control, and to show Piedmont as a serious power - e.g. he entered troops in the Crimean War. He was not
really concerned with southern Italy.
Crimean War (1854–1856)
Russia's effort to take advantage of the weakening Ottoman Empire was resisted by France and Britain.
This was the first war reported by modern journalistic methods.
Civil War in the United States (1861-1864)
The American Civil War developed due to causes particular to the American experience, but it also
reflected the agenda of nation building and nationalism that was so prevalent in Europe.
Russia frees Serfs (1861)
Tsar Alexander II "the Liberator" (1855-81) is credited the abolition of serfdom in 1861. Russian serfdom
had been especially brutal, but Russia's defeat in the Crimean war lead the government to embark on a
modernization program that necessitated the ending of serfdom. A crucial mistake was made, which lead to
continuing social problems. Unlike in France in 1789, where the peasants got their land freely, and
afterwards became a very conservative force in later French society, the Russian peasants they had to pay
for the land they got over many decades (the money went to government, which had already compensated
the nobles). Serfs seem to have felt this was unfair, but more importantly they could not afford to pay. The
result was no or little progress in agricultural technology, and massive social discontent.
Bismarck became chancellor of Prussia (1862)
King William I (1861-1888) had a problem of controlling the Prussian Parliament, so in 1862 he recruited
Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898) Bismarck, former Prussian ambassador to Russia and France, as
Chancellor. Bismarck was the most remarkable political leader of late 19th century. He was the effective
ruler of Prussia from 1862, and Germany from 1871, until 1890. In a speech to Parliament 1862, Bismarck
argued that Germany would not be united by the liberals who had no power base, but rather by blood and
iron. Debates about him: Bismarcks' long tenure in office saw Prussia unite all the other German states
except Austria into a new German Empire, a state which was potentially the most powerful in Europe from
the moment of its creation in 1871.
Lincoln's "Emancipation Proclamation" (1863)
Lincoln's proclamation freed slaves in the Confederate States (not Union States) but transformed the
American Civil War in world opinion from a political into a moral struggle. Often US history is discussed as
if it had nothing in common with European events. Although he is not usually thought of in this way,
perhaps Abraham Lincoln can be seen alongside figures such as Mazzini and Bismarck in struggling to
create a stronger national unity..
Revolt in Poland (1863)
Central Poland had been largely under Russian control since the late 19th century, but this was resisted by
the Polish nobility. Following Tsar Alexander I's reforms, rising expectations lead to a major Polish rebellion
in 1863. The Russian army was able to suppress the uprising, but not to prevent a continuing surge of
nationalist ideas.
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Austro-Prussian War (1866)
After 1848 Prussia was strongest state in Germany. If Germany was to be united it would have to be by
Prussia, but Austria was still the most prestigious German state. After a war with Denmark 1864 over the
territory of Schleswig-Holstein, Prussia becomes leader of Germany and Austrian supporter Prussia. But in
1866, Bismarck turned on Austria and declared war. Victory for Prussia meant Austria gave up its role in
Germany, and Bismarck was able to establish a North German Confederation in 1866. It established the
structure of Bundesrat and Reichstag which was later used when the Southern German states were added
five years later to create the German Empire.
Canadian Independence and Unification (1867)
Canada was split between a French Roman Catholic population in Quebec and some eastern provinces,
and a Anglophone Protestant population in most of the rest of the country. From 1867 it became a self
governing dominion within the British Empire.
Creation of Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy (1867)
After 1866 and the defeat by Prussia there was an internal crisis in Austria.Hungarian nationalists resisted
the control of the German-dominated Habsburg court. The problem was solved by the Ausgleich
[compromise] of 1867. The Austrian Empire became Austria-Hungary and the Hungarians achieved virtual
independence in the so called Dual Monarchy. Hungary covered larger than the area covered by Magyar
speakers, so there were still ethnic tensions in the Habsburg lands as other groups began to make their
nationalist claims. The "Ausgleich" of 1867 only divided the Empire for reasons of internal governance foreign and military affairs were kept under unified direction.
Franco-Prussian War (1870)
Widely seen as a war engineered by Bismarck, the war of 1870 saw the destruction of the French "Second
Empire" and the creation of the new German Empire. The war began over a dynastic issue -- the offer of
the throne of Spain to a German prince. Bismarck engineered a public insult to France, which declared
war. Prussia brought the southern German states into the war, and defeated France in 1870 at the Battle of
Sedan.
German Unification (1871)
Following the defeat of France, a new German Empire [or Reich] wasproclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors at
Versailles in 1871. All German states except Austria,while maintaining some independence agreed to join a
German Empire. A united German parliament was established with called the Reichstag. This was the
"Second Reich." [The first was the "holy Roman Empire" of the Middle Ages; the "Third" was to be Nazi
Germany.] The manner of Germany's unification affected the kind of state it became. Not a liberal
democracy, but a slightly limited monarchy, still dominated by the old ruling class, and not the bourgeoisie
as in other countries. German political history for the rest of the century was to be about the attempt to
keep control of the state by that old Prussian ruling class. The new German Empire was the most important
new political fact in Europe from 1871 on. It transformed the balance of economic, military and international
power. The remarkable growth of its industry soon enabled it to challenge Great Britain's leadership in that
area also.
Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864)
China was infiltrated by Christian missionaries and traders from the 17th century on. In 1850, a missionary
influenced Chinese farmer's son, Hung Xiuquan (1814-1864) reached the conclusion that he was the
younger brother of Jesus sent to found the Heavenly Kingdom on earth. Faced with the collapse of Qing
dynasty rule (under Western onslaught), Hung tapped into the deep millenarianism of the Chinese
peasantry (previously expressed in Buddhist terms) and began a rebellion - the Taiping Rebellion
("Taipingtien-quo" means the "Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace"). There were many other revolts, but
this was by far the most serious. Lasting from 1851 to 1864 it took control of large swerves of south and
central China, including the southern capital of Nanking. There a theocraticmilitary government was
established. Although it was millenarian in form, the Taiping leaders adopted many policies which would
later become the marks of modernizers in China: prohibition of opiumsmoking, gambling, the use of
tobacco and wine, polygamy, the sale of slaves, and prostitution. The promoted the equality of the sexes:
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they abolished foot-binding and appointed of women as administrators and officers in the Taiping army.
They also tried to abolish the private ownership of land and property, and they developed a program for the
equal distribution of land.
U.S. forces opening of Japan (1853)
Japan's military class had closed off Japan to contact with the West in the seventeenth century. In 1853,
the United States sent an expedition to Japan led by Commodore Perry (1794-1858) to force Japan to
trade with the West. The result was treaty between Japan 1854 and the rapid accommodation of Japan to
the rest of the world.
First International (1864)
In 1864, Karl Marx helped members of trades unions form the International WorkingMen's Association,
known as the "First International."
Britain's Second Reform Bill (1867)
The Reform Act of 1867 extended the vote to every male adult householder, and to male lodgers paying
£10 for unfurnished rooms. All in all the vote was extended to about 1,500,000 men, and it essentially gave
the vote to lower middle class men and working class men in towns.
Meiji Restoration in Japan (1867)
By the mid-nineteenth century European states were establishing political control throughout the globe.
Determined to prevent this in Japan a group Japanese used the institution of the emperorship to overthrow
the Shogun, the leader of the hereditary military dictatorship. They deliberately investigated Western power
and then set about remodeling Japan along the most modern lines. In the 1860s and 1870s this meant
copying German methods of industry and government.
Suez Canal opened (1869)
In 1869 the Suez canal was built by a French company and open a shipping link between the
Mediterranean and the Indian ocean. In 1875, taking advantage of the crisis in the Egyptian government,
the British government bought the Suez Canal as a way to link with its possessions in India. It soon
became a vital link in the naval linking of the British Empire. After Egyptian nationalists revolted in 1882,
British troops occupied Egypt, which itself became part of the British Empire.
Paris Commune (1871)
The collapse of the government of Louis III Napoleon lead to new elections in France, which were won by a
Conservative monarchist government. Paris, which was dominated by a much more radical political
ideology, refused to accepted the new government, and the city declared itself a commune. The
government used force to suppress the commune and killed about 25,000 Parisians in the process.
Bismarck's Kulturkampf (1872-1878)
After the German Empire was created in 1870, Bismarck identified the Catholic Church as insufficiently
loyal to the state. With the support of German Liberals, Bismarck passed laws attacking Catholic
institutions such as schools, religious orders, and church marriage. The Church fought back, and after
1878, the laws were rescinded as Bismarck decided to concentrate on a more serious foe -- the growing
socialist movement.
Romanian Independence (1878)
The Ottoman Empire continued its decline throughout the nineteenth century. There had been a nationalist
revolts in Romania in 1848. The Turkish government gave the area more and more local autonomy, and in
1878, with international support, Romania achieved independence.
Britain's Third Reform Bill (1884)
The Reform Act of 1884 gave the vote to about two thirds of British adult males, and extended the right to
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vote to working class males living in rural areas.
Berlin Conference (1885)
From the late 1860s, European powers had engaged in a "scramble for Africa." In 1885, a conference was
held in Berlin to set the ground rules for territorial acquisition. Colonizers were supposed to have sufficient
resources to control and develop an area, and to treat the Africans according to humane standards.
Africans were not asked their opinion, and Europeans proceeded to use their military power to carve up
Africa in way that had no connection to its geographical or ethnographic features.
Second International (1889)
The First International (or International Working Men's Association)collapsed in the 1870s. In 1889,
socialists from many countries created a loose confederation of autonomous socialist political parties and
trade union organizations that met in a series of the International Socialist Congresses. There was no
permanent organization until the International Socialist Bureau was established as a coordinating body in
1900. The Second International broke down when member parties in the various countries sided with their
governments in 1914.
Ethiopians defeat Italians (1896)
After its unification in 1861, Italy joined other European countries in their rush to colonize Africa. In
Ethiopia, however, the Emperor Menelik II (r. 1889-1913) gained access to Western weapons, and in 1896
was able to defeat an Italian effort at conquest at the of Adua. This meant that Ethiopia was the only
African country which was not colonized by European colonial forces, although it was briefly occupied by
Italian Fascists between 1936 and 1941.
The Dreyfus Affair (1897–1899)
In 1884 a group of bigoted French officers falsely accused a Jewish army officer, Captain Alfred Dreyfuss,
of treason. When evidence of his innocence came to light three years later, there was an attempted cover
up. The affair created a huge scandal in France, with liberals lining up as "Drefusyards" and conservatives
as"Anti-Dreyfusyards."
World Zionist Organization founded (1897)
In response the Dreyfus affair, the Austrian journalist Theodore Herzl (1860-1904) formalized many of the
ideas of an incipient Jewish nationalist movement in a pamphlet called The Jewish State. In 1897, he led
the formation of the World Zionist Organization, which was created to advance the cause of a Jewish
national homeland in Palestine.
Spanish-American War (1898)
For the most part American expansion in the nineteenth century had been through the conquest of
contiguous territory controlled by Mexico or Native Americans. At the end of the century, the United States
joined the frenzy of overseas imperialism by declaring war on Spain. After defeating Spain, and nationalist
forces in the Philippines, the United States acquired colonies in Puerto Rico, the Phillipines, and several
other Pacific Islands. Cuba, while remaining nominally independent, also came under American control.
Boxer Rebellion (1899–1900)
Unlike Japan, the Chinese government put up no effective resistance to Western imperialism. In 1899 a
Buddhist millenialist sect -- known in the West as the 'Boxers" from their stye fo martial arts -- began an
uprising in which Westerners and Chinese Christians were killed. This uprising was supported covertly by
the Chinese government. Western powers sent troops into China to suppress the rebellion and forced the
government to pay large indemnities.
Boer War (1899–1902)
British Settlers in the nineteenth century began to move to South Africa. In response, Dutch Settlers, or
Boers, who had been there since the seventeenth century had moved northwards and established
independent states called Transvaal and the Orange Free State. When gold was discovered in the
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Transvaal in the 1880s, the British decided to conquer the two Boer states. The war was far from easy, and
although the British won, it took three years to do so. After the war, the British dealt leniently with the
Boers, who were allowed to dominate politically the Union of South Africa. They establish polices of racial
repression in South Africa that lasted until the late twentieth century.
Russo-Japanese War (1904)
by 1904 Japan's rapid industrialization had made it able to compete as a modern nation. Indeed, the
country began to act like a European imperial power when it invaded China in 1894 and forced it to give up
Korea and Taiwan. In 1904 Japan entered into a war with Russia. Against exceptions in the West, Japan
comprehensively defeated Russia at sea and on land. In doing so, it took its place alongside the other
international great powers.
Hyde Park Rally for Female Suffrage (1908)
Women's political activism in the nineteenth century went in two major directions. Some women
concentrated on "moral" issues such as slavery, alcohol abuse, and the sex trade. Others, however,
organized around demands for the right to vote (i.e. suffrage). In Britain, the Women's Social and Political
Union, led by Emmeline Pankhurst (1858-1928) was the most radical organization, and organized a series
of demonstrations for the vote: the rally in 1908 drew 250,000 women. Political activism was suspended
during the World War, but after their war effort women won the vote in Britain in 1918. Mrs. Pankhurst
herself ran for Parliament as a candidate of the Conservative Party.
World War I (1914)
World War was not caused by internal conflict withing Europe rather than overseas imperialism. The War
so weakened European countries, by liquidating assets, that after 1918 a series of political independence
movements in the colonized countries began to challenge the European empires.
Darwin (1809-1882)
On a sea voyage Charles Darwin (1809-1882) saw the massive variety of species on the Galapagos
Islands (off the coast of Ecuador) due to adaptation of one species into many others to fulfil ecological roles
played by others in other areas. In 1859 he proposed his theory of evolution through a mechanism of
natural selection in On the Origin of the Species and in 1871 applied this idea to human beings in The
Descent of Man.The idea of evolution was not original to Darwin, but its spread is due to him. The crucial
point was his use of the principle of natural selection (also thought of by Alfred Russel Wallace, 1823-1913)
by the "survival of the fittest."
Realism and Naturalism (1850-1900)
Writers in late 19th Century became impressed by science in general and then by the new science, which
saw man as at the subjection of vast uncontrolled forces. Their goal was to show characters in the course
of their everyday existence rather than as figures in an entertainment.
Primary Source: Émile Zola: Germinal,1885, translated by Havelock Ellis (1894), full text
European Population: 270 million (1850)
Beginning of rebuilding of Paris (1853)
Repeated revolutions in Paris were aided by narrow streets, which allowed barricades to be built by mobs.
Under Napoleon III, the administrator Baron Haussman began a program of demolishing crowded streets
and replacing them with broad, and more easily controlled, avenues.
Freud (1856-1939)
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) came from a prosperous Viennese Jewish family. He based his theories on
the experiences he had in treating mentally ill patients. Freud identified a new "science" of psychoanalysis,
which became perhaps the single most important theory for the way people in the 20th century thought
about their own identities.
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Flaubert's Madame Bovary (1857)
Gustave Flaubert's (1821-1880) Madame Bovary told the story of the illicit sex life of the wife of a smalltown French physician in full and explicit terms. It was an example of a "realist" novel, one that attempted
to capture how human life actually was.
On the Origin of Species (1859)
Charles Darwin's On the Origin of the Species first presented to the public his ideas of evolution through a
process of natural selection.
Pasteur's Germ Theory (1860s)
London Underground Railway (1863)
As long as people could not travel easily, they had to live near their work. Subways and other urban
railroads allowed people to work and shop in the center of a city, but to live in less crowded suburbs. The
world's first subway opened in London in 1863, and it was rapidly copied in Paris, New York and other
large cities. One result was the cities very rapidly covered much large areas of the countryside.
Syllabus of Errors (1864)
The Roman Catholic Church was challenged by the industrial and social changes of the nineteenth
century. In 1864, Pope Pius XI issued a list (or syllabus) or errors. Some of these were theological errors,
but other items were protests against modern society. Despite this document, the popes proved quite
capable of using the methods of modern society to spread their message.
Suez Canal opened (1869)
In 1869 the Suez canal was built by a French company and open a shipping link between the
Mediterranean and the Indian ocean. In 1875, taking advantage of the crisis in the Egyptian government,
the British government bought the Suez Canal as a way to link with its possessions in India. It soon
became a vital link in the naval linking of the British Empire. After Egyptian nationalists revolted in 1882,
British troops occupied Egypt, which itself became part of the British Empire.
Periodic Table (1870)
In 1870 the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907) compiled a chart showing the atomic weight of
all the known elements, and indicating by gaps other elements that remained to be discovered. It was a
symbol of the immense advances made by chemistry in the nineteenth century.
Second Industrial revolution (1870-1914)
The first industrial revolution, from 1760 took advantage of one major technical innovation in the steam
engine, but was based above all on the application of factory methods to the manufacture of textiles. From
1870 onwards advanced chemical and metal technology created a new surge of economic change. By the
end of the nineteenth century electric power and the internal combustion engine were creating still more
new industries.
Impressionism (1874-1900)
Impressionism was one a series of artistic movements which tried to embrace modern life. By adopting a
new understanding of color and light they suggested the randomness of reality and sought to convey the
impression the eye actually sees at the first moment of looking.
Einstein (1879-1955)
In 1870, the Newtonian model of the physical universe still held, along with the notion that science
describes the real world. Thanks to the work of Albert Einstein(1879-1955) this picture of the universe
changed by 1914. In 1905, he proposed the General Theory of Relativity which made the status of the
observer crucial in how the universe appeared.
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Telephone (1879)
Telegraph technology had enable long distance instance messaging by 1844. In the 1870's Alexander
Graham Bell (1847-1922) successfully created the telephone, a machine that enabled instant voice
messages.
Expressionism (1900-1920)
Expressionism was an artistic movement that self-consciously attacked the middle-class world created by
industrial society. Rather than representing how things looked, they sought to express the mood of the
painter.
Theory of Relativity (1905)
Einstein's General Theory of Relativity was published in 1905. It posed a direct,and successful, challenged
to the paradigm of the universe established by the classical physics of Sir Isaac Newton.
Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring (1913)
Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971) applied the principles of expressionism to music. His music for a ballet called
the Rite of Spring was deliberately off-beat and dissonant and lead to a riot by an outraged audience at its
first performance.
Triple Alliance (1882)
The "Alliance System" was a long term result of the Franco-Prussian War,and a direct result of the way
Germany was unified. Bismarck had unified Germany by uniting it against France, and the new German
Empire had been proclaimed not in Germany, but in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles. France had to
surrender to the new Germany, the area known as Alsace-Lorraine. Bismarck did not want to expand
Germany any more but he had to try to keep France isolated. He did this by attempting to isolate France,
and for the most part Bismarck succeeded. The crucial issue for Germany was to make sure Russia (in the
east) and France (to the west) were not allies - since any war would then have to be fought on two fronts.
In 1879a Dual Alliance was made with Austria/Hungary. Bismarck then got Austria and Italy to agree that
each will defend the other if one is attacked in 1882. This Triple Alliance lasted until 1914.
Franco-Russian Alliance (1894)
France was isolated until 1890. At that time Kaiser Wilhelm II (1888-1918) dismissed Bismarck to try to
conciliate socialists in the Reichstag. The new regime in Germany was less concerned than Bismarck to
keep on good terms with Russia. France took the opportunity to woo Russia, and in 1894 France and
Russia become Allies.
First Moroccan Crisis (1905)
Under Bismarck Germany had not had any ambitions to build an overseas empire, but after 1890, the was
an increasing demand from some Germans for a "place in the sun." By 1890, however, most of the world
had already been divided between other European powers which meant that Germany's impegoals brought
it into conflict with the older imperial players. In 1905 there was a clash between Germany and France over
French efforts to control Morrocco.
Entente Cordiale (1904)
Britain kept out of European power politics and concentrated on her overseas empire. But Britain began to
get very worried about the rising power of Germany. From 1898 a building up of the German Navy began
and there was an arms race in which tension increased between Britain and Germany. As a result, Britain
and France, even though they were traditional rivals, settled outstanding colonial disputes and in 1904
reached an Entente Cordiale (friendly understanding). By 1907, Britain was so worried about Germany, in
allied with Russia (another old enemy -- it had been fought during the Crimean War in 1851), and the Triple
Entente was created.
Russo-Japanese War began (1904)
By 1904 Japan's rapid industrialization had made it able to compete as a modern nation.Indeed, the
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country began to act like a European imperial power when it invaded China in 1894 and forced it to give up
Korea and Taiwan. In 1904 Japan entered into a war with Russia. Against expectations in the West, Japan
comprehensively defeated Russia at sea and on land. In doing so, it took its place alongside the other
international great powers.
General Strike and Revolution (1905)
The war with Japan helped speed inflation and rise in price of food led to riots in Moscow and St.
Petersburg, but all the Tsar's troops were in East Asia and there was a power vacuum in the cities. On
January 22, 1905, an activist Orthodox priest called Father Gapon and march on Winter Palace to present
a - petition to the Tsar. He was a sort of Orthodox "Liberation Theologian," who believed the Tsar would
help his people if only he knew their sufferings. The Tsar's troops opened fire, and over a 1000 people
were killed. This punctured the myth that the Tsar loved his people and a real revolutionary movement
develops. In October 1905, there was a successful General Strike: nothing moved in Moscow or
Petersburg. Worker's Councils, or Soviets were set up. They were able to gain power as the Army was
away in the East. The Tsar gave in to the pressure, and issued the October Manifesto. He granted a
Parliament (Duma) and some civil liberties. After the army returned from the east, he was able to withdraw
some of his concessions.
Revolt in Ottoman Empire (1908)
The Ottoman Empire had been a great power based on its Islamic rather than Turkish national identity, but
by 19th century there was a fairly corrupt court in Istanbul and the Ottoman Empire was beginning to break
up in Africa, and Europe. In 1908 Turkish nationalists staged a revolution with the goal of preserving as
much Turkish power as possible.
First Balkan Crisis (1908)
In 1908, Austria-Hungary annexed two provinces, Bosnia and Herzegovina, which were home to Serbs,
Croats and others. This offended Serbia, which wanted to annex these territories also. Serbia's great ally
was Russia, which pressured Austria to withdraw from the provinces. In response, Austria called upon its
great ally, Germany, and Germany's intervention forced Russia to back down.
Second Moroccan Crisis (1911)
The conflict between German and French aims in Morrocco that had first caused a crisis in 1905, erupted
again in 1911, and forced Britain to take a stand against Germany. These imperial squabbles did not cause
the war, but helped clarify which countries would ally with each other in case of a large scale war.
Second Balkan Crisis (1912)
In 1912-1913, the various Balkan states defeated Turkey in a war, and then fought among themselves for
the spoils. Austria-Hungary intervened, and threatened to defeat Serbia until Russia intervened. As in
1908, Germany then forced Russia to back down. The forces and conflicts in the two Balkan crises of 1908
and 1911 were exactly the same as in 1914, and World War I can be seen as growing out of what was, in
effect,the Third Balkan Crisis.
Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand (1914)
The Austrian Crown Prince (i.e. the heir to the throne), Archduke Ferdinand was assassinated in Sarajevo
by Black Hand operative on 28 June, 1914, and this proved to be the spark that began the long expected
war. Serbia was dominated by Nationalist politicians who, while protesting the government of Serbs in the
Austrian Empire, were willing to fight, and indeed succeed, in establishing Serbian control over areas
occupied by Macedonians and Albanians. It was a Serbian government agent who assassinated Archduke
Franz-Ferdinand and began the series of incidents which led to war.
Beginning of World War I (1914)
The problem for Austria in deciding to go to war with Serbia over the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand
was that the Alliances did not kick in for an aggressive war. Germany pushed Austria by promising support
-- the so-called "Blank Check" -- and Austria decided to attack by 24 July, 1914. Mobilization began all over
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Europe by 30 July and once started, it was hard to stop. As soon as Germany realized a war was
inevitable,it had to be prepared to strike first. Germany invaded France through Belgium on Aug 1, 1914.
Britain, as the official protector of Belgium, declared war on Aug 4,1914.
Battle of Marne (1914)
Part of the German plan was to allow France to penetrate into German territory, and then trap the French
Army by invading through Belgium. But the initial German attack was stalled. General Helmuth von Moltke
not a great general; he made the German defense too strong so that the French Army did not penetrate
Germany; and the Belgians put up a resistance that let France and Britain get troops up and ready. The
German advance was stopped, at the Battle of the Marne September 1914 and a stable front was
established from the Channel to Switzerland.
Tsar takes command of Army (1915)
The Russian army was unprepared for war, with many troops being sent into battle without rifles. As a
result the well-equipped German army scored a series of victories. In August 1915, the Tsar himself took
personal command of the army, but was unable to reverse the collapse of Russian power. One result was
that the Tsar could now be blamed directly for the military defeats.
Italy joins Allies (1915)
Italy had been part of the Triple Alliance, but refused to join the war on behalf of Austria-Hungary and
Germany. In 1915, it entered the war on the side of the Western allies.
Battle of Verdun (1916)
In 1916, the German attacked the French fortress at Verdun with the deliberate intent of weakening France
by causing massive casualties. The battle that ensued lasted ten months from February to December
1916, and 700,000 men lost their lives. .
Easter Rebellion in Dublin (1916)
During the war governments tried to promote dissent and political unrest among their opponents. In 1916,
Germany provided support to the Irish Nationalists "easter Rebellion" in Dublin. British forces crushed this
rebellion, but after the war ended had to come to terms with Irish desires for independence.
U.S. entered war (1917)
The United States had avoided European entanglements throughout its history, but when German
submarines began attacking neutral shipping in an effort to blockade Britain,American public opinion turned
against Germany. In April 1917, President Wilson declared war against Germany. By early 1918, the
American contribution was still small, but the threat of new resources impelled Germany to one final effort
to overrun France in Spring 1918.
March Revolution (1917)
As a result of Russia's losses in the war, society fell apart. There were a series of workers revolts on
February 23 1917. [Russia used the old "Julian" Calendar,which was 11 days behind the Gregorian
calendar used in the West, and later in Russia. The result was that the "February revolution" actually took
place in March 1917 on the standard calendar.] This revolt was not organized by anyone. It began on a
breadline and was unexpected even to Lenin who was in Switzerland at the time. The Tsar abdicated
March 15 1917 and a Provisional Government was organized.
November Revolution (1917)
After the fall of the Tsar, the official "Provisional" government, based in the Russian Parliament (or Duma)
continued the war with Germany. Much power, however, was seized by soviets (or councils) set up in
various cities. Of these the most important was the Petrograd Soviet of Workers and Soldiers. In October
1917 (November 6-8 according to the new Calendar), the Bolsheviks, led by Lenin and Trotsky, staged
what was more a coup d'etat than a massive revolution. The Bolsheviks stormed the Winter Palace and
Kerensky, the leader of the Provisional Government, fled leaving Lenin in charge.
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Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918)
Ending the war was crucial to the Bolsheviks' chances of retaining power. On March 3, 1918, they signed
the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, in which Russia agreed to give up huge areas of Western Russia and agree to
an indemnity.It was never put into effect as Germany lost in the West in 1918.
Civil War (1918-1920)
Many groups opposed the Bolshevik seizure of power and a Civil War broke out in Russia between the
Whites (supporters of the Tsar) and the Reds (or Bolsheviks). There were local civil wars in Ukraine, in the
north, and in the East. Leon Trotsky was the chief organizer of the Red Army, which was set up
immediately after the revolution and proved very effective. By 1920/21, the Bolsheviks were firmly in
control.
End of World War I (1918)
After initial losses early summer 1918, the Allies, helped by 250,000 American troops and the invention of
the tank, brought Germany's Spring Offensive to a halt. The balance shifted rapidly, and soon the German
army was in retreat. At the end of October,German allies such as Bulgaria and Turkey surrendered, and on
November 3rd so did Austria.Meanwhile, a revolution broke out in Germany, and on November 9 Kaiser
Wilhelm abdicated and fled the country (to live in Holland). On November 11th, the new German
Republican government accepted an armistice.
Treaty of Versailles (1919)
Unlike the Congress of Vienna in 1915, the Versailles settlement attempted to redraw the map of Europe,
and to punish the vanquished. Germany, Austria and Russia all lost territory, and nine new "nation-states"
were created: Finland, Estonia,Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Austria, Hungary.
Germany was to pay reparations of $5 Billion per year until 1921, and then a fixed sum which would be
paid off over 30 years. Germany was also forced to accept that it bore the guilt of starting the war.
Congress of Berlin (1877)
Civil War in Russia (1918-1920)
Many groups opposed the Bolshevik siezure of power and a Civil War broke out in Russia between the
Whites (supporters of the Tsar) and the Reds (or Bolsheviks). There were local civil wars in Ukraine, in the
north, and in the East. Leon Trotsky was the chief organizer of the Red Army, which was set up
immediately after revolution and proved very effective. By 1920/21, the Bolsheviks were firmly in control.
Versailles Treaty (1919)
Unlike the Congress of Vienna in 1814-15, the Versailles settlement attempted to redraw the map of
Europe, and to punish the vanquished. Germany, Austria and Russia all lost territory, and nine new "nationstates" were created: Finland, Estonia,Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Austria,
Hungary. Germany was to pay reparations of $5 Billion per year until 1921, and then a fixed sum which
would be paid off over 30 years. Germany was also forced to accept that it bore the guilt of starting the war.
Russian Famine (1920-1921)
After the war with Germany, and the Civil War, Russia faced a third disaster in 1920-1921 when a famine
struck and between 4 and 7 million people died. Recognizing the need for a rapid increase in food
production, Lenin instituted the New Economic Policy(NEP), which allowed small scale private production
in both industry and agriculture. The policy was successful an soon there was enough to eat.
Irish Free State (1921)
In 1919 Irish Nationalists began a war with the British over control of Ireland. After two years of bloodshed,
a treaty in 1921 created the "Irish Free State" in 26 of Ireland's 32 counties, with a Protestant enclave
created in Northern Ireland. The war, the civil war within the Irish Free State, and the discrimination visited
on Catholics in Northern Ireland created a legacy of bitterness that still persists.
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Joyce's Ulysses (1922)
March on Rome (1922)
After World War I, Italy was in turmoil. There was upset about Italy's failure to become a great power, and
its liberal democratic government was seen by many Italians as corrupt. In this situation a former editor of a
socialist newspaper, Benito Mussolini (1883-1945), created a political movement called Fascism designed
to appeal to a desperate middle class. Mussolini's followers, called Black Shirts, attacked socialists both
verbally and physically. In October 1922 they staged a "March on Rome" which led to King Victor
Emmanuel III's (1900-46) appointing Mussolini as Prime Minister, even though his party was in minority in
parliament. In 1924a new election law was passed that mandated that the largest party with over 25%
would gets 2/3 of the seats in parliament. Using this law, Mussolini rapidly secured complete political
power.
Egyptian Independence (1923)
Nationalist movements around the world began to challenge European empires in the 1920s. In Egypt,
which had been controlled by the British but was nominally independent, nationalist opposition forced the
British to grant real independence in 1923. In other areas, the struggle was to take much longer.
Occupation of Ruhr (1923)
The Treaty of Versailles required Germany to accept guilt for the war and to pay reparations to the
victorious powers. In May 1921 the figure for such reparations was set at 123 Billion gold marks, an
amount that proved impossible to pay. When Germany defaulted, the nationalist French Prime Minister
Raymond Poincare (1860-1934) ordered French troops to occupy Germany's industrial heartland, the Ruhr
Valley. The German government responded by calling for general resistance and by printing money to pay
for a general strike. The result was the massive inflation of 1923: in 1914 $1 was worth 4.2 German Marks;
in 1921 $1 was worth 64 marks; by November 1923, $1 was worth 4 trillion Marks. This inflation destroyed
middle class saving and was important in explaining the turn to extreme solutions.
Munich Putsch (1923)
The National Socialist German Workers Party [NSDAP], or nazis, grew rapidly from about 1920. In 1923,
after the period of massive inflation, and with the help of the German war hero General Ludendorff, Nazis
in Munich marched on local government offices in order to sieze power. The "putsch" was easily
suppressed, and Hitler was tried and sent to prison for a few months. The incident succeeded in generating
a lot of publicity for the Nazis, although they remained politically impotent until 1929.
Death of Lenin (1924)
After the end of the Russian Civil war, Lenin moved to consolidate Bolshevik power in Russia. In 1922 he
had a stroke and died 1924. Lenin's role was crucial in the Russian Revolution. In the Union of Soviet
Socialists Republics, Lenin was lionized, and his tomb in Red Square, Moscow, was a center of secular
pilgrimage.
Beginning of First Five Year Plan (1928)
There was competition for power once Lenin started to fade. Initially main struggle was between Nikolai
Bukahrin (1888-1939) and Leon Trotsky (1877-1940), with another,Joseph Djugushvili "Stalin" (1879-1953)
on the sidelines. Trotsky's power was due to role as head of the Red Army. His was the more left wing
faction and was not keen on NEP. He wanted rapid industrialization to make Russia a great power and
looked for worldwide revolution to support the Russian Revolution. Bukharin (1888-1938) led the group
opposed to Trotsky and was the editor of Pravda. He tended to be pro peasant. The real power, however,
turned out to belong to Stalin. He came to power as a party bureaucrat, placing his supporters in significant
positions all over the Party. Initially Stalin supported the NEP and Bukharin, and then he won the struggle
against Trotsky. Stalin was concerned to have the revolution successful in one country --Russia -- before
the rest of the world and proposed a "Socialism in one country"doctrine 1924. From 1928 on, Stalin created
a second revolution in the form of a series of Five Year plans to force through massive industrial
development. The methods used to obtain results were brutal, but in terms of achieving goals this was a
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success . There was a 400% increase in production in 12 years 1928-40 - the most rapid advance to
industrialization ever.
Stock market crash (1929)
Although the European economies did not expand much in the 1920s, there was a boom in USA. In
October 1929, the New York Stock Market crashed and induced a major economic depression in both the
US and the rest of the world. There were declines in production, employment, and consumption, with very
high rates of unemployment, up to 22% in some areas. Overall Western European economies in 1932
shrank to half their 1929 size.None of the solutions adopted by Western governments succeeded in ending
the depression,which lasted until World War II. In the meantime, the highly directed economic growth of
totalitarian states looked like solutions to many.
Japan invades Manchuria (1931)
In 1931, Japan initiated a pattern of aggressive invasion by conquering the Chinese province of Manchuria.
The Japanese Tet up a puppet government and renamed the state Manchukuo. Thus began the Japanese
effort to create a large scale Japanese empire in East Asia.
Famine in Russia (1931-1932)
The Russian New Economic Policy(NEP) had been supported by Stalin. Its aim had been to stop food
shortages. But in 1928-29 it stopped working as the government wanted when some farmers (known as
Kulaks) held grain off the market to raise prices. In 1929,Stalin decided that Russia must take control of
agriculture. Many peasants resisted the government take over of their land, and destroyed crops and
livestock in protest. In response the Stalin ordered the enforcement of collectivization and destruction of the
kulaks. The result was a mass famine in which 4 to 6 million people were deliberately starved to death. The
state successfully took control of the land, but Soviet agriculture was never able to achieve production
goals.
Nazis gain power (1933)
Adolph Hitler (1888-1945) was the Austrian-born son of a minor customs official. He fought in the German
Army during World War I as a non-commissioned officer but did not become a German citizen until 1932.
The Nazis' appeal stemmed from the promises the party made to get rid of the economic hardship faced by
Germany in the 1920s, and again during the Depression that began in 1929. Between 1930 and 1932
German unemployment rose from: 2.25to 6 million. In this context both Nazis and Communists gained
increased support: In the 1928 elections, the Nazis held 12 seats, Communists 54; in 1930, the Nazis won
107 seats,Communists 77; in July 1932, the Nazis won 230 seats and 37.5% of vote. November 1932
elections actually saw a drop to 196 seats and 33.1% of the vote. Franz von Papen, Chancellor in May
1932, drew the Nazis into government, and despite their losses in the November elections, they emerged
as the largest party in the German Parliament. In January 1933, President Paul von Hindenburg made
Hitler Chancellor of Germany. Another round of elections was held, and this time the Nazis won 44% of the
vote. Shortly after the elections, there was an arson attack on the Reichstag building, and the Nazis, with
some allies, passed the Enabling Act of July 1933. All other parties were abolished and the act gave Hitler
dictatorial power under Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution. When Hindenburg died in 1934, Hitler was in
sole control.
Beginning of Great Purges in Soviet Union (1934)
Stalin did not feel secure in his power. He was especially jealous of old Bolsheviks and those who had
worked during the 1917 revolutions. After Sergei Kirov (1888-1934), government official, was assassinated
in 1934, there were a series of purges and show trials in which Stalin's opponents would be forced publicly
to recant their wrong-doings. In scenes reminiscent of the French reign of terror, there were mass trials
1936-38. Hundred of thousands were killed or sent to a series of prison camps called Gulags.
Primary Source: The Soviet Purges-Official Explanation, 1936
Primary Source: N.I. Bukharin: Last Plea, from"The case of the Anti-Soviet 'Bloc of Rights and Trotskyites',
Heard before the Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the U.S.S.R., Moscow, March 2-13, 1938
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Nuremberg Laws (1935)
Nazi anti-Semitism combined longstanding Christian anti-Judaism with ideas of racial superiority derived
from Darwinian theory. From the start the party used anti-Semitic literature as part of its appeal. In 1935, a
series of "Nuremberg Laws" were passed against Jews, depriving them of citizenship and marriage rights,
and requiring Jews to wear a yellow star of David on their clothes. For the Nazis, anyone with one Jewish
grandparent was a Jew, regardless of current beliefs.
Italy invades Ethiopia (1935)
Mussolini's professed goal was to make Italy an imperial great power. In 1935,Italian troops invaded
Abyssinia (Ethiopia). This action was condemned by the international League of Nations, but nothing was
done to prevent the Italian conquest.This proved to be a sign to Hitler that international organizations were
too weak to prevent aggression.
Popular Front in France (1936-1938)
The Popular Front was an alliance of Communists, Socialists and moderates against the growing threat of
Fascism. A Popular Front government controlled France from 1936 until 1938, but was unable to pull
France out of the economic depression. Its collapse left France more politically divided than ever.
Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)
In 1936 civil war broke out in Spain between an elected radical republican government and right-wing
nationalist rebels led by General Francisco Franco (1892-1975).Germany and Italy supported the rebels,
but there was no official support from other Western states for the republican government. The war saw the
first use in Europe of airplanes to bomb large numbers of civilians and set the pattern for the coming world
war. By 1939, Franco had won the war, and remained in power until his death in 1975.
Japanese-Chinese War Begins (1937)
In 1937, Japan expanded its effort to control China from the northern province of Manchuria to the more
populated areas to the south. Fairly rapidly the Japanese took control of most coastal areas and began to
push inland. In the process, major atrocities were perpetrated against Chinese civilians, including the
infamous rape of the Chinese capital of Nanking.
Kristallnacht (1938)
Although the Nuremburg laws of 1935 attacked Jews legally, Anti-Semitism became more radical from
1938 and systematic violent persecution began in November of that year. On the night of November 9-10,
Nazi storm troopers attacked Jewish-owned shops and destroyed over 1000 synagogues across Germany.
Thousands of Jews were rounded up and sent to concentration camps. The sound of breaking glass gave
this nights its German name of Kristallnacht.
Munich Conference (1938)
Much of German foreign policy was in Hitler's hands. His explicit goal was an expansion in territory
controlled by the German people, which he presented as inherently superior and destined to rule. In March
1935, Germany renounced disarmament. In March 1936, Germany moved its army into the Rhineland,
which had been a demilitarized zone under the Versailles treaty. In March, 1938. Nazis marched into
Austria and forcibly united it with the rest of Germany. The Western powers did nothing to prevent any of
this activity. In May 1938, Germany began to demand territory -- called the Sudentenland - in
Czechoslovakia. This time the Western powers intervened, and on Sept 15-29 1938 there was a
conference in Munich. France and Britain, which was led by Neville Chamberlain and was committed to
avoiding war by appeasing Hitler, allowed Germany to take the Sudetenland.Germany occupied the
Sudetenland and then all of Czechoslavakia by March 15 1939.
Russo-German agreement (1939)
The great threat for Germany, as in 1914, was a war on two fronts. But the Soviet Union also was not
ready for war, and so on August 23, 1939, a Nazi-Soviet Non-aggression Pact was signed. The pact
included secret provisions -- it divided Poland between Russia and Germany, and it allowed the Soviet
Union to take over the Baltic States and Bessarabia.
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Invasion of Poland (1939)
After the pact with the Soviet Union, Poland was next target of Hitler's aggression. The German
propaganda calling attention to the number of Germans in Poland began in March,1939. This time British
Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain announced a guarantee to the Polish government. When Germany
attacked Poland on Sept 1, 1939, Britain and France declared war on September 3.
Battle of Britain (1940)
Dunkirk (1940)
Speed and force were the key to early German success as the generals were keen to avoid the trench
stalemate of WWI. There was a period known as the "Phoney War" in the west until Spring 1940, but then
France was invaded in April 1940, and its army proved completely incapable of responding to the attack.
British troops were trapped by the French collapse on the beaches of Dunkirk. A flotilla of small craft
managed to rescue 200,000 British and over 100,000 French troops.
France falls (1940)
After the failure of its army, in June 1940, France asked for an armistice. Under Field Marshal Henri
Philippe Petain, northern France was given over to German rule, while the South was ruled from the town
of Vichy. For over a year, Britain was the only power opposing Germany.
Germans attack Soviet Union (1941)
Germany attacked the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa in June 22 1941.The initial plan had been to
start in May, but the Italian attack on Greece and Egypt diverted German resources as Mussolini failed,
and delayed Operation Barbarossafor six weeks. German advances were rapid and the Nazis get as far as
Leningrad and Moscow by Dec 1941. Despite early warnings Stalin was surprised at attack, and the Soviet
Union initially lost 2.5 million of its 4 million troops. Of 15,000 planes, only 700 were left.Moscow could
probably have been taken, but Hitler diverted resources south to try to access Russian oil fields. When the
Winter set in, the German army's advance was halted as the troops were unprepared to deal with the
Russian winter.
Pearl Harbor (1941)
On December 7, 1941, hoping to prevent American opposition to its imperial efforts in Asia, Japanese
planes attacked and bombed the American naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. The United States
government immediately declared war on Japan and joined in the European war against Japan's allies,
Germany and Italy. Despite the Depression, the United States remained untouched by devastation that
was occurring elsewhere, and was producing 35% of the world's industrial output: its participation swung
the course of the war..
Stalingrad (1942)
The German goal in 1942 was to access the oil fields of the Caspian Sea. In August 1942, the Germans
reached the outskirts of Stalingrad. There the greatest land battle in history took place in which the
Russians lost more men (over 1 million) than the US did in the whole war. By February 1943, the Russians
had won and began to push back the German army.
Battle of Midway (1942)
Although a decision was made to concentrate on the War in Europe, the first necessity was to stop
Japanese advances in the Pacific. At the Battle of the Coral Sea in Spring 1942,and the Battle of Midway in
June, Japanese advances were stopped. By August, with the American capture of Guadalcanal, the
offensive against Japan began.
Normandy invasion (1944)
Under the leadership of the American General Dwight Eisenhower (1890-1969), Britain became a troop
camp as United States and the other Allies trained an invasion army. On D-Day -June 6 1940 - Allied
armies invaded Normandy and, at huge cost of life, establish a beachhead in continental Europe. On
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March 7, 1945 the river Rhine was crossed at Remagen, and the German collapse soon followed. The War
in Europe ended on May 8th.
Hiroshima (1945)
With Germany defeated the problem of defeating Japan remained. A series successful "island hopping"
battles had enabled the United States to reach the Mariana Islands in June 1944. These were used as a
base from which to bomb Japan, although the Japanese put up a strong resistance. It was calculated, in
the light of Japanese resistance, that a frontal attack on Japan might cost from 30,000 to one million, US
casualties. Meanwhile a fear amongst some scientists that the Nazis were developing an atomic bomb led
to establishment of the "Manhattan Project" in Spring 1943 with the goal of developing an American Atomic
capability. Four bombs were made by 1945. On July 16,1945, a successful Atomic test explosion was
conducted. In what is still a controversial action, on August 6, 1945, a 9000 lb bomb was dropped on
Hiroshima. This city had not been bombed before and one aim of bombing it was to see the effects of a
bomb on a virgin area. A Uranium bomb was used, and exploded at 32,000 feet. At least 78,000 men,
women and children were killed out of a population of 200,000. This included 6,000 young children on their
way to school, and 20 US air men in POW camps. On August 9th a plutonium bomb was dropped on
Nagasakai and 30,000 people killed. At the same time conventional B-29 raids continued, including a 1000
B-29 raid on August 14, as the commander, General Carl Spaatz wanted "as big a finale as possible." On
August 14th 1945, the Japanese surrendered and World War II was over.
Social Democratic Labor party founded (1898)
With roots back to the populist movement of the 1870s, in 1898 Russian Marxists founded the Social
Democratic Labor party. At the partyÕs second congress in 1903, Lenin forced a split in the party between
his followers, the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks. In 1912 the Bolsheviks organized themselves as a
separate party.
New Economic Policy (1921-27)
With the failure of War Communism by 1920, the Soviet regime adopted a compromise. The state
controlled large industry and banks while allowing smaller private enterprises, including farms, to exist
alongside the managed part of the economy.
Yalta Conference (1945)
In a series of conference before World War II ended, British, Soviet, and American leaders met to sort out
the postwar settlement. At Yalta in February 1945, Churchill, Stalin, Roosevelt met. At the insistence of
Roosevelt, it was agreed that European states were to have independent governments and elections.
However, it was also agreed that such governments should be friendly to Russia.
UN founded (1945)
The United Nations is a permanent body that was set up by the victors after the war as a successor to the
League of Nations. Its first meeting was in San Francisco in April 1945, with New York chosen as
permanent headquarters. Aims of the United Nations Charter included collective security and an end to
colonialism. Major powers were given a greater say in the organization than all others by their membership
in the "Security Council." Many commentators have been skeptical about the UN, but it has had some clear
successes, particularly in its affiliated organizations such as the World Health Organization.
Truman Doctrine (1947)
Harry S. Truman became President of the United States when Roosevelt died on April 12, 1945. Although
Truman used rougher language with the Russians than Roosevelt, at a conference in Potsdam, he agreed
to the division of Europe that allowed Stalin to annex eastern Poland. After the war, however, he became
determined to "contain" the spread of communism, and established a "doctrine" of American policy that
military and economic aid would be offered to countries threatened by a communist takeover.
Marshall Plan
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India gains Independence (1947)
The British Empire in India, known as the Raj, ended in 1947. The Indian Congress Party, guided by
Mohandas K. Gandhi, had struggled for independence since the 1900s. Indian Muslims, organized in the
Muslim League, agitated for a distinct Muslim state to be called Pakistan ("Land of the Pure"). Although the
Muslim and Hindu populations were mixed together all over India, the British agreed to a partition of the
country, a partition that led to millions of refugees in a mass exchange of populations.
Berlin Blockade (1948-49)
After World War II, Germany was divided into four zones, but the city of Berlin, which was deep in Soviet
zone, was itself divided into four zones. Soviet policy was to keep Germany weak and divided. When the
Western Allies began a program of economic recovery in 1948, Stalin responded by blockading the three
Western zones in Berlin. All movement of goods by road and rail was prevented. From June 1948 until May
1949 an effective Western response was mounted through the mechanism of an airlift. Not only did this
overcome the Soviet action, but it created a favorable image of Berliners in Western countries and so
helped heal some of the hatreds generated by the war.
NATO (1948)
In 1949 the United States entered a military alliance with Canada and most of the nations of Western
Europe against the threat from the Soviet Union. The North Atlantic Treaty of March-Aug 1949 created the
North Atlantic Treaty Organization, or NATO, and as the first "entangling alliance" constituted a
fundamental change in United States foreign policy. The isolationism that had prevailed since the creation
of the country now gave way to an effort to exercise leadership on a global scale.
Israel Founded (1948)
Britain acquired control of Palestine in 1919 in a mandate confirmed by the League of Nations. During
World War I, Britain had committed itself to establishing a national homeland for Jews in Palestine. This
policy was opposed, sometimes violently, by the Arab leadership in Palestine. After World War II, and a
campaign by the Jewish community in Palestine for the creation of a Jewish state, the United Nations was
called in to create a solution. The UN proposed, and approved, a plan to divide Palestine into a Jewish and
an Arab state. The Jewish community, led by David Ben Gurion, proclaimed the establishment of the state
of Israel, and immediately had to fight a war of independence against invading Arab armies. The Israelis
were successful, and created a state in a territory somewhat larger than the original division proposed by
the UN. The conflict ultimately created millions of refugees -- both among Arabs who left Israel, and among
Jews from Arab countries who found they were no longer welcome.
Indonesia gains Independence (1949)
Communist victory in China (1949)
The Japanese aggressors in China had been resisted by the official "nationalist"government of China, but
more successfully by the army of the Chinese Communist Party.After Japan was defeated, war continued
in China as the Communists gradually defeated the forces of the government. In 1949 the nationalist
government took refuge on the island of Taiwan, and Mao Zedong (1893-1976), the leader of the
Communists proclaimed the establishment of the Peoples' Republic of China.
Primary Source: Mao Zedong: In Commemoration of the 28th Anniversary of the Communist Party of
China, June 30, 1949
European Coal and Steel Community (1950)
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Korean War (1950-1953)
Like Germany, Korea had been divided after World War II, with a Soviet controlled zone in the north and an
American controlled zone in the south. In 1949, both powers withdrew and left client states in place. In
1950, the North Koreans, with Soviet and Chinese backing,invaded the south. The United States,
supported by the United Nations, intervened and soon almost captured the north. At that stage, Chinese
troops entered the war and pushed the American/UN forces back. By 1953, when a truce was agreed, the
division of the Korean peninsula was almost the same as before, but there were one and half million
casualties and the country was in ruins.
Death of Stalin (1953)
Stalin died in 1953. His successors, while adhering to communism, dismantled some aspects of the
totalitarian society he had created. In 1956 Nikita Krushchev, who emerged as Stalin's successor,
denounced the "cult of the personality" fostered by Stalin. Under his rule, the Soviet Union continued its
Cold War conflict with the United States,but allowed more cultural freedom within Russia, and stressed the
production of consumer goods.
France withdraws from Vietnam (1954)
Indochina was conquered by France in 1857-1883. During World War II, it was taken over by the
Japanese, but France claimed its colonial rights after the war. A nationalist/communist independence
movement called the Viet Minh had begun in 1930 led by Ho Chi Min(1892-1969). The Viet Minh fought
Japan, and then France. At Dien Bien Phu in 1954, French forces were overrun, and Vietnam was divided
into two independent states. Cambodia and Laos also became independent.
Structure of DNA mapped (1954)
Science since the end of World War II had made a series of major breakthroughs. In 1953,the spiral
structure of DNA, the material in chromosomes that contains hereditary information, was mapped. Genetic
research and manipulation of an entirely new kind were now possible.
Warsaw Pact (1955)
In 1955, the Soviet Union countered NATO by creating its own military alliance in easter Europe -- the
Warsaw Pact. Now both sides faced each other in central Europe in two military blocs.
Egypt seizes the Suez Canal (1956)
In 1956 Gamel Abdul Nasser (1918-1970), an Arab nationalist leader, overthrew the corrupt king of Egypt
and made himself president. One of his earliest acts was the nationalize the Suez canal, which had long
been a major British concern. Britain, France, and Israel all attacked Egypt, but the Soviet Union
threatened to intervene on the side of Egypt. Not wanting another war, the United States pressured the
three invading powers to withdraw. Nasser ended up as an Arab hero, and, for the first time,Britain and
France were forced to accept that they were no longer in the in same league as US and USSR.
Uprising in Hungary (1956)
After Stalin's death, some Eastern Europeans hoped that there would be a relaxation in Soviet control over
their nations. In 1956, a liberal communist government under Imre Nagy (1896-1958), came to power and
introduced a number of reforms, including a multi-party system. The Soviets sent the tanks in, crushed the
Hungarian government, and hanged Nagy.
Common Market (1957)
The destruction of two world wars led some leaders to look for European integration as a way to avoid war.
The process has been mainly economic, since no one state would give up sovereignty. In 1951 France,
West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxemburg created the European Coal and Steel
Community, with a limited remit but in a vital economic sector. The goal was to so integrate the industries
of these countries that they could not go to war with each other. In 1957 the same countries signed the
Treaty of Rome, which created the EEC (European Economic Community, or "Common Market"). The EEC
eliminated all tariffs, and allowed the free flow of capital and free exchange of labor. The EEC was run by a
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High Commission appointed by political leaders of each country. Since 1957, the EEC has evolved into the
European Union, and many more European countries have joined.
Berlin Wall (1961)
In 1961 relations between East and West hit a new low. Under orders from the Soviet Union,East Germany
erected a hundred mile long wall around the Western controlled area of Berlin in order to keep citizens of
eastern European countries fleeing to the West. The wall graphically symbolized the division of Europe,
and its destruction in 1989 equally symbolized the fall of communism.
Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)
In 1959 a revolution in Cuba, led by Fidel Castro, overthrew the American-supported dictatorship. When
the United States terminated aid, Castro turned towards the Soviet Union for help. In October 1962
American spy planes detected the installation of a Soviet missile site in Cuba, missiles that posed a direct
threat to the United States. In what was mainly a political struggle, since Soviet submarines meant that
attacking the United States was already possible, President John F. Kennedy ordered United States ships
to intercept Soviet ships carrying more missiles to Cuba. It seemed that a nuclear war was possible until
Khushchev backed down and the crisis was ended with an agreement.
Algeria gains Independence (1962)
Algeria lies just across the Mediterranean Sea from France. There was heavy French settlement in the 100
mile wide coastal strip, and France claimed Algeria as part of its home territory. However, most of the
population were Arabs or Berbers. In 1954 the Algerian Liberation Front (FLN) began a ferocious war for
independence. In 1958, the French war time leader, Charles de Gaulle (1890-1969), came out of
retirement to lead France to an acceptable peace. France withdrew and Algeria became independent in
1962.
Krushchev falls from power (1964)
In 1964, Stalin's successor Nikolai Krushchev, who had been weakened by policy embarrassments such as
the Cuban missile crisis, was removed from power by competitors within the Communist Party of the Soviet
Union. Leonid Brezhnev (1906-1982), a more conservative leader took over and ruled until his death in
1982.
Mao's Cultural Revolution (1966)
The Chinese leader Mao Zedong proved to be an excellent organizer of revolutions, but a failure at
government. His major economic initiatives failed, and in 1959-1963 these policies combined with a series
of droughts provoked a famine in which up to twenty million Chinese died. In 1966, Mao decided to reignite
revolutionary zeal by instituting a "cultural revolution" against what he saw as the conservative forces within
the Chinese Communist Party. The result was a regime dominated by zealots, who destroyed large parts of
China's cultural heritage and enforced humiliation and death on anyone perceived as an opponent of the
revolution.
Student Uprisings (1968)
In 1968, all over the Western World there were student revolts: at Berkeley and Columbia in the United
States, in Paris, and in Czechoslovakia as part of the Prague Spring.This revolts were an aspect of a
movement known as the "New Left". The students disliked Stalinism as much as capitalism, and argued
that workers were no longer a revolutionary group but had been brought into the system. The students and
their successors had a new group of concerns - often organized around the concept of oppression. Some
students looked to the ideas of Leon Trotsky or Mao Zedong, but most people in the New Left were not
affiliated with a particular ideology, or were eclectic about positions they adopt. Rather than following the
"Old Left" model of a single party, a series of overlapping political movements emerged, for instance in
women's groups, lesbian and gay groups, pacifist and environmental groups, and in groups organized
around ethnic or racial identity.
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Invasion of Czechoslovakia (1968)
In 1968, reformers gained control of the Czechoslovak Communist Party and attempted to introduce
reforms that would combine a socialist economic system with personal freedom. In August 1968, the Soviet
Union sent in the tanks and crushed this effort at reform. The Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev (1906-1982)
expressed the "doctrine" that Soviet intervention was justified to preserve socialism in any state.
Landing on Moon (1969)
The technological weapons of World War II began a period in which science is now characterized by high
government spending on research, since it is just too expensive, for the most part, for an individual to work
alone. The Cold War spurred the effort to develop rocket technology, which could be used for both
weapons and satellites. The race to put a human being in space, and to land on the moon, had less direct
military benefit but was keenly supported in the United States in 1960s as a symbol of national prowess. In
1969, the Apollo II mission landed two men on the moon, and the event was televised around the world.
Few at the time would have believed that after 1973, no other human would walk on the moon in the
twentieth century.
Britain, Ireland, Denmark join EEC (1972)
The European Economic Community created in 1957 proved to be a great success. The economies of the
member countries expanded at a much faster rate than those of other European states. In 1972, the first
phase of expansion of the EEC began when Britain,Ireland, and Denmark joined.
Oil Crisis (1973)
In 1973, Arab states invaded Israel, When the West supported Israel, Arab oil-producing states retaliated
by limiting production and dramatically raising oil prices, which increased six fold between 1973 and 1975.
This increase in the cost of a basic commodity in economies still largely dominated by manufacturing
provoked a series of economic crises in the West throughout the 1970s and 1980s.
End of Vietnam War (1975)
The United States had concluded that its policy of "containment" of communism had worked in Korea. In
1956, when Communists in Vietnam began pressuring the government of South Vietnam, the United States
began a program, to train the South Vietnamese army. From the mid-sixties on the United State's
involvement escalated until it became involved in a full scale war. This was the first war where many
Americans thought the United States was in the wrong, and that the methods it was using were thus
criminal.Although throughout the war, polls showed most people supported the war and its aims, a
significant number became disaffected with both the war and the country. Many Americans and Europeans
came to regard the United States not as protector of liberty, but as ambitious, aggressive, and imperialist.
The war eventually ended with the collapse of South Vietnam and the forced United States withdrawal in
1975.
Helsinki Accords (1975)
The Helsinki accords in 1975 were signed by the Soviet Union since they recognized the defacto borders
created after World War II. But the agreement also contained Soviet signatures to a series of statements
on basic human rights. It is not clear that the Soviet government had any intention of honoring such rights,
but they proved to be a major tool for opposition movements within the eastern bloc.
Invasion of Afghanistan (1979)
In 1979, the Soviet Union intervened to support a Communist coup in Afghanistan, a nation on the its
southern border. This began a period of increased tension in the Cold War. Its more long term effect was
that the Soviet Union found itself entangled (as the United States had been in Vietnam) in an expensive
guerrilla war. In 1989, the Soviets withdrew in shambles, and left Afghanistan in the hand of an extremist
government hostile to both Communism and the West.
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Gorbachev comes to Power (1985)
After a period of weak Soviet leaders, Mikhail Gorbachev assumed leadership of the Soviet Union in 1985.
recognizing problems in Soviet society, he embarked on a policy of restructuring ("perestroika"), openness
"("glasnost") and disarmament. All three were intended to bring the Soviet Union up to Western standards
of living, but not at the cost of Communist Party power. His policies, nevertheless, worked to weaken both
the Soviet control of its allies in Eastern Europe and the power of the Communist Party in Russia. By 1991,
the Soviet Union dissolved as its constituent republics proclaimed their independence, and Gorbachev
himself was forced from power.
Fall of Communism (1989)
In 1989 a series of challenges to Soviet control in Eastern Europe came to fruition. Long processes of
economic and political liberalization in Poland and Hungary began to affect the surrounding states. In the
fall of 1989, student-led protests in Czechoslovakia brought about the collapse of the communist
government. Bowing to public pressure, communist governments quickly collapsed without violence in East
Germany and Bulgaria, and by the end of the year, in bloodier circumstances, the regime in Romania was
also destroyed.
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