Download One group, however, that the United States could not keep out were

Overview: A Changing Society
What Happened
Before
Civil War
Terms:
People
Vocabulary
Themes
Events
Time Period
What’s ALSO happening at
this time
Reconstruction
Jim Crow
Westward Expansion
Progressive Era
Imperialism
World War I
Roaring 20s
1869-1929
● Industrial
Revolution
● natural resources
● transcontinental
railroad
● Bessemer Process
● mass production
● consumers
● factories
● urbanization
● immigrant
● emigrant
● push factor
● pull factor
● Old Immigration
● New Immigration
● assimilation
● pogrom
● genocide
● rugged
individualism
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
American Dream
Andrew Carnegie
steamship
steerage
Ellis Island
Angel Island
Chinese Exclusion Act
ethnic group
ethnic neighborhood
Melting Pot Theory
Salad Bowl Theory
cultural pluralism
xenophobia
nativism
Social Darwinism
Eugenics
pseudoscience
Immigration Restriction
League
● Gentleman’s Agreement
● Expatriation Act of 1907
What Happened After
Great Depression
● Immigration Act of
1917
● Emergency Quota Act
● quota
● National Origins
Act/Johnson-Reed Act
● political machine
● precinct worker
● captain
● ward boss
● city boss
● Tammany Hall
● Boss Tweed
● graft
Context: The American Colonies were agricultural. Their direct purpose was to grow cash crops and
consumable goods for the British. Even after gaining independence, the United States remained predominantly
1
agricultural until the mid 19th century (1850s). Prior to and during the American Civil War, Northern cities
began to transform into centers for factories and manufacturing, while the South continued to concentrate on
farming.
Prior to the transformation of Northern cities, most Americans lived in small isolated communities that were
linked by dirt roads and horse drawn wagons. This meant that these communities needed to be self sufficient,
relying on themselves for food, clothing, and other essentials of everyday life. In 1880, half of American
workers were farmers, while only 15% worked in manufacturing of any sort. This 15% worked in small
individualized shops, relying on individuals with specific skills to produce finished products such as tools,
furniture, clothing and household goods. During this time, most people “shopped local” because it was difficult
to attain goods from distant places.
A society requires natural resources, labor (human resources), capital (money/machinery) and infrastructure
(internal communication and transportation networks) to industrialize. Having an abundance of these, the
United States transformed from a rural society based on a farming economy to an industrial economy with large
metropolitan cities within the span of a few decades from the late 19th century into the early 20th century. This
shift was fueled by the expansion of the railroad, the discovery of natural resources and technological advances
in manufacturing. This transformation, known as the Industrial Revolution, enabled citizens to buy more goods
at cheaper prices. The drawback was that the small, family-operated workshops could not compete and began
to disappear.
The Industrial Revolution took place over more than a century. This revolution, which involved major changes
in transportation, manufacturing, and communications, transformed the daily lives of Americans as much as—
and arguably more than—any single event in U.S. history.
I. A Century of Industrialization
The time period known as the Industrial Revolution began in Britain in about 1760. Over the next century, the
technological advances and new use of natural resources were slowly exported to the United States, allowing
for a similar revolution to occur in America.
A. Technological Innovation:
An early landmark moment in the American Industrial Revolution came near the end of the eighteenth century,
when Samuel Slater brought new manufacturing technologies from Britain to the United States and founded the
first U.S. cotton mill in Beverly, Massachusetts. Slater’s mill, like many of the mills and factories that sprang up
in the next few decades, was powered by water, and helped industrial growth in the north. The focus of industry
in the Northeast also increased the development of transportation systems such as railroads and canals, which
encouraged commerce and trade.
The technological innovation that would come to mark the United States in the nineteenth century began to
show itself with Robert Fulton’s establishment of steamboat service on the Hudson River, Samuel F. B. Morse’s
invention of the telegraph, and Elias Howe’s invention of the sewing machine, all before the Civil War.
Following the Civil War, industrialization in the United States increased at a rapid pace.
American inventors like Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas Alva Edison created a long list of new
technologies that improved communication, transportation, and industrial production. Edison made
2
improvements to existing technologies, including the telegraph while also creating revolutionary new
technologies such as the light bulb, the phonograph, the kinetograph, and the electric dynamo. Bell, meanwhile,
explored new speaking and hearing technologies, and became known as the inventor of the telephone.
Technological Developments: 1750-1860
1764
spinning jenny increased thread production
James Hargraves (Br)
1769
water frame increased thread production
Richard Arkwright (Br)
1769
first modern steam engine
James Watt (Br)
1785
power loom increased cloth production
Edmund Cartwright (Br)
1793
cotton gin
Eli Whitney (US)
1807
successful application of steamboat
Robert Fulton (US)
1814
perfected the locomotive engine
George Stephenson (Br)
1839
vulcanization of rubber
Charles Goodyear (US)
1853
Bessemer steel process
Henry Bessemer (Br) and William Kelly (US)
B. Natural Resources
Over the first half of the 19th century, the United States expanded west very quickly. Beginning with President
Thomas Jefferson’s Louisiana Purchase in 1803,
American presidents engaged in a series of
purchases and wars to spread the American
territory across the continent (see map at right).
This new territory was rich in natural resources
like fertile farmland, wood, metal ores, coal, oil,
and natural gas. These resources had many uses.
Farmland was important for feeding the growing
nation; metal ores, like iron, copper, and nickel,
were used to create newer, stronger materials for
construction, like steel; coal, oil, and natural gas
became new sources of energy used to power
machines and create electricity. Furthermore, the
first transcontinental railroad was completed in
1869. A major milestone, this made it easier to
transport people, raw materials, and products from west to east and east to west.
One of the most plentiful and valuable natural resources in the United States was iron ore. In 1853, William
Kelly imported the Bessemer Process to the United States (see chart above). The Bessemer Process was a new
way to make steel that was stronger and cheaper than before. Central to this process was the use of iron; so, by
the middle of the 20th century, America increased its iron production from 30,000 tons to 1.1 million tons. The
iron would be turned into steel beams, nails, screws, needles and other items. Not only would the sale of these
3
products boost the American economy, but steel would be used to build America's cities and skyscrapers as
well.
Interesting fact: Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania became the capital of steel production in the United States.
Ever wonder why the NFL team from Pittsburgh is called the Steelers?
C. Urbanization of the United States
Resulting from a plethora of natural resources as well as many new inventions, the United States began to mass
produce many types of goods for consumers to buy. Mass production is when a large amount of the same
type of good is produced very quickly. Mass production occurred in factories, where the expensive but
efficient machines needed many workers to keep them running. Factories were usually located in cities, which
became a destination for thousands Americans seeking work. The mass movement of people from rural
communities to cities is known as urbanization (see graph on next page).
For millions of working Americans, the industrial
revolution changed the very nature of their daily
work. Previously, they might have worked for
themselves at home, in a small shop, or outdoors,
crafting raw materials into products, or growing a
crop from seed to table. Now, when they took
factory jobs, they had to move to cities where they
worked for a large company. By 1910, more than
45% of the U.S. population lived in urban centers.
One of the major
destinations for factory
workers was New York
City. Due to the
urbanization of Americans
as well as a new wave of
immigrants arriving from
Europe and elsewhere (see
next section), New York
City experienced a
population boom during
this period.
II. Push and Pull
Factors of
Immigrants
An immigrant is someone who arrives in a new country from abroad to start a new life. In the late 1800s and
early 1900s, the United States saw a large number of immigrants arrive from Europe and Asia. On the other
hand, an emigrant is someone who leaves their home country to settle somewhere else. In other words, during
this period, Europe and Asia had many emigrants who left to settle in the United States.
4
During the period of immigration, historians often refer to push and pull factors. Push factors are reasons
why people leave a place. In this case, they are the problems in Europe and Asia that encouraged emigrants to
leave their country and find homes elsewhere. Push factors do not determine an emigrant’s destination, only
that they are leaving to go somewhere else. On the other hand, pull factors are reasons people come to a
certain place. In this case, they are positive characteristics or ideas that attracted immigrants to the United
States. Pull factors explain why an immigrant arrives in a new country, but do not explain why they left their
home in the first place. When examining push and pull factors together, historians can better explain why the
United States experienced a major influx of immigrants in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
A. Push Factors in the Late 19th and Early 20th Centuries
There are a wide variety of push factors that encourage people to leave their homes. Push factors vary by
country, and, quite often, emigrants from one country may have a variety of push factors encouraging them to
leave. Common push factors include: economic depression (poverty and lack of jobs), political instability (war,
rapid shifts in government), natural disaster (drought, failure of crops), or religious persecution. Between 1866
and 1915, more than 25 million immigrants poured into the United States.
First Wave of Immigrants (Old Immigrants)
There were two major waves of immigration to the
United States in the 19th and 20th centuries. The first
wave happened between 1840-1860. This first wave of
immigrants came from Northern and Western Europe
(Ireland and Germany). The Irish were pushed to the
United States because of a potato famine that caused a
terrible starvation throughout Ireland in the mid-19th
century. Germans arrived in the United States seeking
political stability. Their nation had been torn apart by
war for several decades. These immigrants had a much
easier time assimilating, or fitting into, American life.
Most had some experience with representative
democracy. With the exception of the Irish, most were
Protestant. Many were literate, and some possessed a bit
of wealth.
Second Wave of Immigrants (New Immigrants)
The second wave of immigrants began arriving in the
1880s. This second wave of immigrants would represent the largest group of immigrants to the United States in
all of America’s history. These immigrants came predominantly from Eastern and Southern Europe as well as
Asia. These immigrants were very different than the first wave of immigrants. Their nationalities included
Greek, Italian, Polish, Slovak, Serbian, Russian, Croatian, Japanese and Chinese. None of these groups were
predominantly Protestant. The vast majority were Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox or Jewish.
Political and religious persecution pushed Jewish and Armenian immigrants to America The Russian
government supported a program called the pogroms, or organized attacks on Jewish villages, shops, and
homes all over Eastern Europe. Persecution was also a push factor Armenian immigrants. The Armenians lived
5
in the Ottoman Empire (modern-day Turkey). Between 1890-1920 the Ottoman government killed over a
million Armenians in a planned genocide, or systematic murder of an entire group. Many who managed to
escape came to the U.S.
On the other hand, poverty and the lack of job opportunity pushed Italians, Greeks and Chinese to America.
Very few newcomers spoke any English, and large numbers were illiterate in their native tongues. None of
these groups came from democratic nations, and the American form of government was as foreign as its culture.
B. Pull Factors in the Late 19th and Early 20th Centuries
The United States was a popular destination for emigrants in Europe and Asia during this period. For one, the
United States was a democracy in which its citizens enjoyed many personal freedoms such as the freedom of
speech, the freedom to practice their own religion, and the right to vote. Furthermore, as a result of
industrialization, the United States had numerous job opportunities for immigrants to work in factories. These
factory jobs were often simple, repetitive, and required very little training or education. Thus, they were perfect
for immigrants, many of whom spoke no English and had little formal education.
At this time, the United States had a reputation for being the land of wealth and opportunity, where the “streets
were paved in gold.” The idea of rugged individualism said that with a little hard work and determination,
anyone could become rich. Immigrants flocked to the United States to achieve the “American Dream.”
Although a few immigrants, like Andrew Carnegie, succeeded in building huge fortunes, most immigrants did
not; typically, immigrants and their children were poor, lived and worked in awful conditions, and had little
opportunity for advancement. Nevertheless, America’s reputation continued to attract millions of immigrants
well into the 20th century.
In 1848, Andrew Carnegie came to America from Scotland at the age of 13. Upon arriving, he began a typical
job for immigrant children: working 12 hours a day, 6 days a week as a “bobbin boy” changing spools of
thread in a cotton mill. Through hard work, connections, and shrewd investments, he would eventually rise to
dominate America’s steel industry and become one of the richest men in America. He built Carnegie Hall in
New York City in 1891.
The Disney movie, An American Tail, tells the American immigrant story. One song in the movie, “There Are
No Cats in America,” parodies the push and pull factors of many American immigrants in the 19th century.
Click here to watch and listen to the song on YouTube - see how many push and pull factors you can recognize!
III. Arriving in America: Ellis Island and Angel Island
Whether leaving Europe or Asia, most emigrants traveled by steamship. Steamships were a new technological
advancement of the Industrial Revolution. They were a faster and cheaper way to travel across the Atlantic or
Pacific oceans. For example, before the steamship, traveling to the U.S. from Europe could take anywhere from
one to six months; with the new steamships, this journey was shortened to one to two weeks!. The wealthier
passengers traveled in 1st or 2nd class sections of the steamships, where they had many luxuries to make their
journey comfortable. Immigrants, however, were often poor and therefore could not afford the more expensive
tickets. Instead, they usually traveled in steerage, the large, open space on the bottom of the ship. Passage in
steerage was crowded, dirty, and uncomfortable.
6
A. Arriving at Ellis Island
Immigrants from Europe traveled across the Atlantic Ocean and arrived in New York Harbor. In the early 19th
century, immigrants were not processed at all - they were allowed to walk right off the ship! Beginning in
1855, New York State and New York City together established the nation’s first immigrant receiving depot.
Located on the southern tip of Manhattan in Battery Park, Castle Garden was the processing center for
immigrants from Europe from 1855-1890.
Beginning in 1886, the first sight immigrants saw upon entering New York Harbor was the Statue of Liberty, a
symbol of the American Dream and the land of opportunity. The intense emotions of relief, excitement, and
anticipation after the long, tiring journey inspired Emma Lazarus to write the following poem in 1883:
The New Colossus
Not like the brazen giant of Greek fame,
With conquering limbs astride from land to land;
Here at our sea-washed, sunset gates shall stand
A mighty woman with a torch, whose flame
Is the imprisoned lightning, and her name
Mother of Exiles. From her beacon-hand
Glows world-wide welcome; her mild eyes command
The air-bridged harbor that twin cities frame.
"Keep ancient lands, your storied pomp!" cries she
With silent lips. "Give me your tired, your poor,
Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free,
The wretched refuse of your teeming shore.
Send these, the homeless, tempest-tost to me,
I lift my lamp beside the golden door!"
Beginning in 1892, most immigrants arriving in New York Harbor were processed at Ellis Island. Shortly after
passing the Statue of Liberty, the first and second class passengers were inspected and allowed to enter New
York City. The steerage passengers, however, were forced to wait hours, and at times days, for a ferry to take
them to Ellis Island. Here, immigrants disembarked and took their first steps on the soil of America. At Ellis
Island, immigrants would register their names and countries of origin
with the government and would go through a medical and legal
inspection. During the medical inspection, immigrants were checked
for health issues. During the legal inspection, immigrants were
interrogated by officials to determine if they were criminals. Failing
the medical or legal inspection could mean an immigrant would be
detained, or held, on Ellis Island for days, weeks, or months. In the
worst cases, they were sent back to their home countries. Those who
passed the medical and legal inspections, however, were allowed to
leave Ellis Island. Now the next part of their journey began establishing a new life in America.
7
Ellis Island closed its doors in 1954. In its 62 year history, millions of immigrants passed through its walls.
During the peak of American immigration, it is estimated that between 5,000 and 10,000 people passed through
the immigration station on any given day. Eighty percent of those processed made it through to New York City.
It is estimated that 40% of American citizens can trace at least one ancestor to Ellis Island.
Ellis Island opened to the public as an historical site and museum in 1976. Today, visitors can tour the Ellis
Island Immigration Museum in the restored Main Arrivals Hall and trace their ancestors through millions of
immigrant arrival records made available to the public in 2001. In this way, Ellis Island remains a central
destination for millions of Americans seeking a glimpse into the history of their country, and in many cases,
into their own family’s story.
B. Arriving at Angel Island
Chinese immigrants flocked to the United States in the
mid-to-late 1800s, attracted by the discovery of gold.
Arriving during a time of intense racism in the United
States (this was the beginning of the Jim Crow Era in
the South), the Chinese were met with disdain and
disgust. They were forced into dangerous, menial
jobs, mainly working on the construction of railroads
connecting the West to the East. Forced to work in
appalling conditions, thousands of Chinese workers
died.
During the 1870s, the U.S. experienced an economic
decline that put many white Americans out of work
(this was one of the factors that led to the end of
Reconstruction in the South as well). Out west, many blamed the Chinese immigrants and believed they were
stealing American jobs. In 1882, the government passed the Chinese Exclusion Act, which prohibited new
Chinese immigrants from entering the country.
Compare the cartoon on the right to the one of the previous page. Notice in
the first cartoon the Chinese are being pulled to America to work on the
Transcontinental Railroad. In the second cartoon they are being kicked out
by Uncle Sam.
One group, however, that the United States could not keep out were the
sons and daughters of current male citizens. Legally, these children
had to be allowed into the country, even if they were of Chinese
heritage. In 1910, a new facility in San Francisco Bay, known as
Angel Island, opened to receive these immigrants. The immigrant
experience at Angel Island was much different from Ellis Island.
Although the immigrant experience at Ellis Island was not perfect,
8
most European immigrants were treated with respect and processed relatively quickly; at Angel Island, on the
other hand, immigrants typically encountered racism and humiliation.
Immigrants seeking entry to the United States through Angel Island had to show proof that they were the
children of American citizens. Paper documentation, like birth certificates, was required. In addition, they
were forced to go through intense interrogation sessions to determine if they were truly the children of
American citizens or if the documentation was false. Often witnesses were necessary to prove the immigrants’
lineage. As a result, immigrants at Angel Island were often detained for weeks, months, and times years before
being allowed to enter the U.S.
During their time on Angel Island, many Chinese immigrants wrote poetry. They carved their poems on the
walls at the Angel Island detention center, and these poems are still legible today. The poems describe the
hope, pain, sorrow, and humiliation experienced by the immigrants awaiting permission to enter the country.
** This poem was written on the walls at Angel Island. Read the English
translation.
Instead of remaining a citizen of China, I willingly became an ox.
I intended to come to America to earn a living.
The Western styled buildings are lofty; but I have not the luck to live in
them.
How was anyone to know that my dwelling place would be a prison?
IV. Cultural Change in the United States
Most immigrants stayed in the cities where they arrived. The cities were unprepared for the rapid population
boom. Immigrants found safety and comfort by living with their own ethnic group, or those who shared their
heritage and culture. Once this trend was established, letters from former neighbors and family urged those
seeking a future in America to settle ethnic neighborhoods such as Chinatown, Greektown and Little Italy.
This led to an urban ethnic patchwork, with little integration of ethnicities. Within these ethnic neighborhoods,
people found comfort in speaking their own language, celebrating traditional holidays, and preparing ethnic
cuisine.
Assimilation
Assimilation is the process of becoming part of another culture. The idea is that while immigrants may retain a
few cultural or traditional aspects of their native culture, they eventually adopt predominantly American culture.
They become recognizable as “Americanized.”
Historians have identified a few major theories on how newly arrived immigrants integrate themselves into
American society. Over time all new immigrants adopt some aspects of American culture and add something
new.
“Melting Pot" Theory
According to the Melting Pot Theory peoples from different cultures come to
America and contribute aspects of their culture to create a new, unique American
9
culture. The result is that contributions from many cultures are unrecognizable from one another and are
effectively "melted" together. Under this theory, by adopting American customs and the English language,
immigrants “melt” into the American culture. Along the way, many foreign customs become part of American
life, as seen in some of the foods we eat, our music, and some of the expressions in our
language.
Salad Bowl Theory
According to the Salad Bowl Theory, newly arrived immigrants do not lose the
unique aspects of their cultures like in the melting pot model. Instead, the unique
culture of each group is still identifiable within the larger American society, much like
the ingredients in a salad are still identifiable, yet contribute to the overall make up of
the salad. This theory is also referred to as cultural pluralism. With this theory many
diverse people live side by side rather than “melting together.”
V. Urbanization and Immigration Leads to Social Conflict
Not all Americans welcomed the new immigrants with open arms. While factory owners greeted the rush of
cheap labor with zeal, laborers often treated their new competition with hostility. Many religious leaders were
awestruck at the increase of non-Protestant believers, like Catholics and Jews. In addition, Racial purists, those
who wanted to keep white Protestants from marrying and having children with immigrants, feared the genetic
“inferiority” of the newly arrived immigrant population. Many Americans became xenophobic, or someone
who has an intense or irrational fear of those from other countries.
Nativism
With these irrational fears came the rise of a group known as the Nativists. Nativists wanted to limit
immigration and preserve the country for the “native-born” white Protestants. Nineteenth-century Nativism in
the United States contained a strong anti-Catholic strain, since many of the newly arrived immigrants hailed
from predominantly Roman Catholic countries like Italy and Ireland. Although Nativists often focused on
religion and ethnicity of immigrants, economic issues also caused Nativists concern. The large waves of
immigrants provided a large pool of inexpensive labor that threatened the well-being of “native” workers.
The most prominent American Nativist
organization of the 19th century was the KnowNothing Party, a political party, which
flourished originally in the 1840s and
experienced a revival in the 1880s. The Ku Klux
Klan was also notable for its Nativist sentiment.
In the late 1800s, Nativist fears reach a new peak
with the massive influx of Eastern and Southern
European immigrants. Nativists targeted
whatever group settled in their region; in the
Northeast they targeted Italians and Jews, in the
10
Southwest it was Mexicans and on the West Coast it was the Chinese.
Social Darwinism
A popular belief emerged in the late 19th century that would help bring validity to the Nativist cause. This idea
was first promoted by Herbert Spencer. Spencer based Social Darwinism on Charles Darwin's philosophy of
"survival of the fittest.” According to Darwin’s theory of natural selection, only the most “fit” animals evolved
over time; those too weak to survive in nature died off. Herbert Spencer (NOT Darwin) applied this idea to
human society. Spencer believed that only the most deserving and strongest humans would become wealthy
and those that were poor were obviously not fit enough. According to Spencer, the population of unfit people
would slowly weaken. They would eventually become extinct because of their failure to compete.
Eugenics
The word "eugenics" was coined in 1883 by the English scientist Francis Galton, a cousin of Charles Darwin,
to promote the idea of perfecting the human race by getting rid of its "undesirables" while encouraging the
“desirables” to reproduce. Galton knew that farmers did this with plants and animals. Using Darwin’s theory of
natural selection as inspiration, Galton wondered, "Could not the race of men be similarly improved?"
Eugenics deals with the hereditary improvement of a race through breeding. Eugenics is a pseudoscience, or
fake science. One of the early eugenicists, Samuel Morton, conducted a study using human skulls to determine
the intelligence of each race. His study was flawed and, in modern times would not be credible; however, to
those in the 19th century, it made sense. His conclusions supported the idea that certain racial groups were
inherently inferior to others.
The Eugenics Movement became popular in the United States in the mid 1900s and was led by Charles
Davenport (1866-1944), a prominent biologist, and Harry Laughlin, a former teacher and principal. They
believed, that through science, they could ensure genetic improvement by restricting marriage and the
reproduction of specific groups. Combine with a belief in nativism, Davenport and Laughlin began to target
the large numbers of immigrants “invading” their nation. Thus, they used biological reasoning to limit
immigration to the United States to support the general nativist attitude.
Laws to Limit Immigration
Nativism, Social Darwinism, and the pseudoscience known as Eugenics had support throughout the nation. In
1894, Eugenicist Harry Laughlin founded the Immigration Restriction League. Along with fellow Harvard
graduates, Laughlin wanted to petition Congress to limit the number of immigrants entering the United States
from certain countries. By 1900, the group had over 1 million members.
Goals of the Immigration Restriction League
“The matter of social and cultural assimilation of immigrants has just come to a heightened state
in the United States. The formation of isolated alien centers, which maintain their alien
languages and cultures, is a dangerous thing for the American people…
If the American nation decides that it is still unmade as a people, then it might as well throw
open the doors and admit all corners, but if it decides we have national ideals worth saving, not
only in national tradition and individual quality but also racial ingredients, the nation must
exercise stricter control over immigration.”
11
Congress responded by passing a series of bills between 1907-1924 that would limit the number of immigrants
accepted into the United States based on nation of origin and other factors. These laws were passed in a 20 year
period when immigrants were villainized by Nativist fears.
In 1907 two laws were passed. The Gentleman’s Agreement was reached between the Japanese and American
governments. Fearing that the Japanese would overwhelm the West Coast as the Chinese had twenty years
earlier, this deal encouraged the Japanese government to limit the number of immigrants to the United States.
In exchange, the Japanese would gain trading privileges. The Japanese government willingly accepted the deal
and this curbed Japanese immigrants from getting to America. While not a formal law, the agreement did slow
Japanese immigration into the US.
Another law from 1907, the Expatriation Act, stated “that any American woman who marries a foreigner shall
take the nationality of her husband.” This law was designed to prevent American women from marrying
foreigners. If an American woman married a foreigner, she would lose her American citizenship.
In 1917, the Immigration Act was passed. It was an act to “regulate the immigration of aliens, and the
residence of aliens in, the United States”. The purpose of this act was to restrict immigration of “undesirables”.
According to the law, those deemed to be, “idiots, imbeciles, epileptics, alcoholics, poor, criminal-like, beggars,
those who had attacks of insanity, those suffering tuberculosis, those who were illiterate and those with any
physical disability” were deemed “unfit” for immigration to the United States. The law required that
immigrants over the age of 16 pass a literacy test. The immigrants were required to read 30-40 words in
English. In addition, the law barred all persons from Asia and the Pacific The restrictions from this law were
founded in the theory of Social Darwinism and pseudoscience of Eugenics. By preventing illiterate and those
with disabilities, the nation believed they would improve their genetic pool.
In 1914, Europe entered into the First World War. Although the United States did not enter the war until 1917,
the nation still came away from the war with a desire to isolate the US from involvement or association with
foreign governments. Part of this reaction was also a renewed call to limit immigration. In May of 1921, the
Emergency Quota Act was passed. The Emergency Quota Act limited the number of immigrants allowed into
the US to 350,000 per year. A quota system limits immigration by allowing only a certain number of people
from each country to immigrate to the United States. Of that number, just over half was set aside for northern
and western Europeans, and the remainder for eastern and southern Europeans. This led to a 75% reduction in
European immigrants from prior years.
In 1924, the National Origins Act,
also known as the Johnson-Reed Act,
further restricted immigration by
basing the numbers of immigrants
allowed from a specific region of the
world. The effect was a severe bias
against immigrants from southern and
eastern Europe as well as Asia. The
Immigration Act of 1924 limited the
12
number of immigrants allowed entry into the United States through a national origins quota.
Countries most favored according to this formula were Great Britain (43 %), Germany (17 %), and Ireland
(12%). Countries whose immigration had increased dramatically after 1890—including Italy, Poland, Russia,
and Greece—had their quotas drastically slashed.
The Johnson-Reed Act also included a point excluding from entry any foreigner who by virtue of race or
nationality was ineligible for citizenship. Existing nationality laws dating from 1790 and 1870 excluded people
of Asian lineage from naturalizing (becoming a citizen after living the US for several years). As a result, the
1924 Act meant that even Asians not previously prevented from immigrating – the Japanese in particular would
no longer be admitted to the United States.
The Japanese government protested, but the law remained, resulting in an increase in existing tensions between
the two nations. But it appeared that the U.S. Congress had decided that preserving the racial composition of the
country was more important than promoting good ties with the Japanese empire.
By 1929, as the Stock Market Crash and the Great Depression loomed, the immigration restriction laws
finalized. With isolationism taking further hold during the 1920's, many critics called for greater and greater
restrictions on the number of immigrants.The National Origins Act of 1929 further reduced the number of
immigrants allowed into the US to 150,000 per year.
VII. Urbanization and Industrialization Lead to Political Corruption
As immigrants arrived in the U.S., cities grew at an unexpected rate. The growth of cities such as New York
and Chicago led to new challenges for city governments. New demands were placed on city services such as
fire, police, sewage, transportation, and water. In order to expand services, cities increased taxes and set up new
offices to provide help. In this context, political machines arose. Political machines were groups that were
designed to keep a particular political party or group of people in power. Political machines controlled the
activities of a political party in a city and offered services to voters and businesses in exchange for political or
financial support. In the decades after the Civil War, political machines gained control of local governments in
New York, Chicago, Boston and other major cities.
Organization of Political Machines
Political machines were organized like a four level pyramid. At the
bottom were local precinct workers (a precinct is a city
neighborhood). Precinct workers reported to captains, who tried to
City
gain voters' support on a city block or in a neighborhood. Captains
reported to a ward boss, who was in charge of several
Ward
neighborhoods. At the top of the pyramid was the city boss. At
election time, the ward boss worked to secure the vote in all the
precincts in the ward, or electoral district. Ward bosses helped the
Captai
poor and gained their votes by doing favors or providing services
such as food, clothing, and temporary housing when needed. They
Precinct
helped immigrants to gain citizenship. They also used their power
to expand public-works projects such as building bridges, parks,
and waterworks. Many precinct captains and political bosses were first-generation or second-generation
13
immigrants. They could speak to immigrants in their own language and understood the challenges that
newcomers faced. Political machines provided immigrants with support that city governments and private
businesses did not provide. In return, the immigrants provided the votes political bosses needed.
Political Corruption
Political machines could be greedy and vindictive, seeking revenge against disloyal voters. They often stole
millions from the taxpayers in the form of graft, or gaining
money or power through illegal or dishonest means (like bribes
or kickbacks). In New York City, the political machine known
as Tammany Hall was run by Boss Tweed. An estimated 65%
of public funds in the 1860s ended up in the pockets of Boss
Tweed and his cronies, as they padded bills for construction
projects and projects with fake expenses. Historians estimate
that the Tweed Ring collected $200 million in graft between
1865 and 1871. Political machines also were involved in voting
fraud. Stories abound of instances where individuals voted more
than once in elections through the support of political machines.
In one election in Philadelphia, a district with less than 100
registered voters returned 252 votes. Due to obvious corruption
and election fraud some citizens began to demand reform or
improvements to the political system in their city and state.
Boss Tweed and Tammany Hall
In the late 1860s, William M. Tweed was New York City's political
boss; he was the most important political figure in NYC. His
headquarters, located on East 14th Street, was known as Tammany
Hall. Boss Tweed rigged elections, controlled the city's mayor, and
rewarded political supporters. His primary source of funds came from
the bribes and kickbacks that he demanded in exchange for city
contracts.
The most notorious example of urban corruption was the construction
of the New York County Courthouse. Officially, the city wound up
spending nearly $13 million--roughly $178 million in today's dollars-on a building that should have cost several times less. Its construction
cost nearly twice as much as the purchase of Alaska in 1867.
The corruption during this construction project was breathtaking. A carpenter was paid $360,751 (roughly $4.9
million today) for one month's labor in a building with very little woodwork. A furniture contractor received
$179,729 ($2.5 million today) for three tables and 40 chairs. And the plasterer, a friend of Tweeds, Andrew J.
Garvey, got $133,187 ($1.82 million today) for two days' work. Tweed personally profited because he
controlled a Massachusetts quarry (mine) that provided the courthouse's marble. When a committee investigated
why it took so long to build the courthouse, it spent $7,718 ($105,000 today) to print its report. The printing
company was owned by Tweed.
14
Looking Ahead...
Political corruption was not the only problem that arose during this period. Living and working conditions
within cities were horrid as well. Problems like child labor, long hours, low pay, dangerous machinery, and
crowded, unsanitary apartments plagued the working class, made up of mostly immigrants. The government
turned a blind eye to these problems, choosing instead to allow business owners to run their businesses and pay
and treat their workers how they saw fit. The American nation was waiting for a group of upstanders to speak
for decent housing and pay for workers and consumers; these people would become known as Progressives.
15