Download The United States and the Problem of Neutrality, 1800-1807

American Diplomacy in the Early Republic, 1793-1808
Lesson #3: Britain, Napoleon, and the American Embargo, 1803-1808
I. Introduction
Foreign policy continued to dominate American political concerns between 1800 and 1807. In
1803 war once again broke out between France and Great Britain, and American commercial
interests once more became a target for both countries. This lesson will examine the ways in
which these countries challenged American neutrality during the Thomas Jefferson
administration. By looking at government documents, civic toasts, and newspaper reports
students will explore American interpretations of European actions, as well as the logic behind
the decision to employ a retaliatory embargo.
II. Guiding Question
Was the embargo the best means of addressing European depredations on American shipping?
III. Learning Objectives
Upon completion of this lesson, student should be able to . . .
 Identify European attacks on American neutral rights
 Articulate the logic behind the Embargo Act of 1807
 Assess the arguments for and against the application of the embargo
IV. Background Information for Teachers
To understand American diplomacy after 1800 one must put it in an Atlantic context. After a
brief interlude, Britain and France once again moved towards war by the end of 1803. The
United States initially profited from these Napoleonic Wars, but by 1805 they began to pose
significant challenges to American neutrality. The problem initially revolved around the “reexport” trade with French West Indies ports. The British Royal Navy had bottled French
commerce, but French Caribbean merchants got around the problem by using neutral American
vessels to carry their goods. Americans would take the cargo to their home ports. Merchants
would subsequently re-export the goods to France, passing them off as American. In 1805
Britain became more than a little displeased with this trade. They declared that merely landing
goods in the United States no longer proved that they had been imported and become
“American.” Merchants would have to show additional, unspecified proof that vessels actually
carried U.S. goods. The Royal Navy subsequently began seizing American vessels engaged in
re-exportation.
This violation of neutral rights frustrated Americans, as did the continuing problem of
impressment. As the Napoleonic Wars engulfed Europe, Royal Naval press gangs periodically
boarded American vessels to reclaim British subjects. At times American citizens were pressed
into service. Perhaps the most egregious example occurred in the summer of 1807, when sailors
were removed from the American naval frigate U.S.S. Chesapeake. British officials had learned
that at least four deserters from the Royal Navy were serving on the Chesapeake, but they had
been unable to procure them through diplomatic channels. Thus in June 1807 the more heavily
armed frigate H.M.S. Leopard (it was rated for fifty guns, as opposed to the Chesapeake’s thirty
eight) approached the Chesapeake and demanded that a search party be allowed to board. The
American commander refused and the British opened fire, killing three and wounding eighteen.
Unable to defend itself, the Chesapeake struck its colors and the British impressed four sailors.
As it turned out, three of the four were Americans; the fourth was hanged by the British for
desertion.
There were still other issues complicating the Anglo-American relationship (particularly British
violations of American territorial water, and conflicting definitions of blockades and
contraband), but shifting French policy made the situation even worse for the United States. In
an effort to get around British naval supremacy, Napoleon embarked on a policy of commercial
warfare. His plan, known as the continental system, intended to destroy British prosperity by
cutting off her trade with Europe. The first continental decree—the Berlin Decree of 1806—
proclaimed a blockade of the British Isles, excluded from French occupied harbors all neutral
vessels that had touched a British port, and declared all British-made goods lawful prize even
when owned by neutral countries. Britain responded by proclaiming a blockade of all ports from
which British goods were excluded. They also required neutral vessels wishing to trade in
Europe to stop in Britain and pay transit duties. Napoleon responded to this law with the Milan
Decree, which proclaimed that any neutral vessel submitting to British trade regulations was
subject to seizure in French ports.
British and French declarations appeared to render trade with Europe virtually impossible. If
American ships complied with French decrees, they would be seized by the British; if they
submitted to the British, then the French would seize their goods. Making it worse was the fact
that the United States Navy could do little to protect the American merchant fleet. At this time it
had thirteen frigates, of which only seven were fit for duty. It did maintain a gunboat fleet for
harbor defense, but these could do little actually to engage foreign enemies. The British Navy,
by contrast, stood at approximately six hundred vessels, of which one hundred twenty were ships
of the line and one hundred sixteen were frigates. Approximately one hundred British vessels
patrolled the Western Atlantic alone. Although the French navy was less consequential after its
defeat at Trafalgar, Napoleon’s control of Continental Europe meant that American vessels faced
regular seizure in European ports.
The British reduced the scope of their blockades and transit duties in 1809, but losses under the
French and British regulations were heavy. In late 1807 the Thomas Jefferson administration
decided to retaliate with trade sanctions. Republican Party leaders were convinced that
America’s greatest weapon was her economic power. They reasoned that if the United States
could successfully remove its goods from international markets, the resulting economic
downturn would force Britain and France to alter their diplomatic policy. Thus in December of
1807 Jefferson asked for and Congress passed an embargo act, which prohibited American ships
and goods from leaving port at all. To enforce it (smuggling initially was rampant), Jefferson
received increasingly broad powers, climaxing in the enforcement act of 1809, which gave
customs officials sweeping power to use the army and navy to suppress smuggling. Enforcement
was successful, but many people became disillusioned with the embargo because of its economic
effect on the country. Exports, which had peaked at $108,000,000 in 1807, plummeted to
$22,000,000 in 1808. The resulting economic crisis hit New England particularly hard, and
allowed the Federalist Party to re-emerge as a viable political force.
Yet for all this domestic unrest the embargo had very little effect on England or France. The
British simply found other sources to provide them with food and raw material, and readily
expanded their own exports into South American markets. For his part, Napoleon had already
lost much of his maritime trade and hardly noticed any economic impact. He even used the
embargo as a pretext for stepping up the seizure of American ships—since they were supposed to
be at home, these ships surely were British vessels in disguise.
V. Preparing to Teach this Lesson
Review the lesson plan. Locate and bookmark suggested materials and links from EDSITEmentreviewed websites used in this lesson. Download and print out selected documents and duplicate
copies as necessary for student viewing. Alternatively, excerpted versions of these documents are
available as part of the downloadable PDF file.
Download the Text Document for this lesson, available here as a PDF file. This file contains
excerpted versions of the documents used in the first and second activities, as well as questions
for students to answer. Print out and make an appropriate number of copies of the handouts you
plan to use in class.
Analyzing primary sources
If your students lack experience in dealing with primary sources, you might use one or more
preliminary exercises to help them develop these skills. The Learning Page at the American
Memory Project of the Library of Congress includes a set of such activities. Another useful
resource is the Digital Classroom of the National Archives, which features a set of Document
Analysis Worksheets.
VI. Suggested Activities
Activity 1: European Turmoil
The resumption of war in Europe in 1803 posed significant challenges to American neutrality.
The French and the British had put policies in place which made it illegal for the U.S. to trade
with both countries at the same time. American merchants risked inspection of ships, seizure of
goods and impressments by trying to continue business as usual with Europe. In late 1807 the
Thomas Jefferson administration decided to retaliate with trade sanctions, reasoning that the
removal of American goods from international markets would force Britain and France to alter
their diplomatic policy. Thus in December of 1807 Jefferson asked for and Congress passed an
embargo act.
In this activity students will read documents and answer questions that describe British and
French trade policies, and the U.S. response to them. Divide students into groups of three. Group
one will read and answer the documents for Great Britain. Group two will read the documents
for France and Group three will read those for the United States. These documents are available
in their entirety at the EDSITEment-reviewed sites the American Memory Project
(http://memory.loc.gov), Teaching American History (http://www.teachingamericanhistory.org),
and the Avalon Project (http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon), but excerpts of each may be found
on pages 1-8 of the Text Document.
Group #1: Great Britain
British Orders in Council November 1807: http://memory.loc.gov/cgibin/ampage?collId=llsp&fileName=003/llsp003.db&recNum=276 (pages 1-2 of the Text
Document)
 To what French action(s) is the British Council reacting?
 List some of the steps the British will take in retaliation for French actions.
 What fraudulent activity is described?
 How do these orders impact the United States as it tries to trade freely and with
neutrality wherever customers can be found?
Group #2: France
The Berlin Decree, November 21, 1806:
http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=1901 (pages 4-5 of the Text
Document)
 List some of the ways that Napoleon suggests that the British have prevented neutral
nations from trading with the continent.
 List several orders that describe how France and its allies will deal with British
encroachment.
The Milan Decree, February 16, 1808:
http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=1902 (page 6 of the Text
Document)
 According to this document, how will the French deal with all ships stopped by the
British?
Group #3: United States
Jefferson’s Third Annual Message to Congress, October 7, 1803:
http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/sou/jeffmes3.htm (pages 7-8 of the Text
Document)
 What steps does the document state will be taken to ensure the neutrality of the
United States?
 What steps will be taken if the neutrality of the United States is abused?

By what authority does Jefferson make these claims on behalf of the United States?
After completing the answers to the above questions, the teacher will lead a class discussion to
produce a list of issues that divided the United States and the European belligerents. Students
should write their list on the worksheet on page 9 of the Text Document. After discussing these
lists, students (either for homework or in class if time permits) should imagine that they have
been assigned the job of advising the President on a course of action in dealing with this
situation. They should cite specific evidence from the documents in their responses. Letters
should be at least 250 words.
Before they write their memos students should be reminded that the United States Navy was not
in a position to protect the American merchant fleet. At this time it had thirteen frigates, of
which only seven were fit for duty. It did maintain a gunboat fleet for harbor defense, but these
could do little actually to engage foreign enemies. The British Navy, by contrast, stood at
approximately six hundred vessels, of which one hundred twenty were ships of the line and one
hundred sixteen were frigates. Approximately one hundred British vessels patrolled the Western
Atlantic alone. Although the French navy was less consequential after its defeat at Trafalgar,
Napoleon’s control of Continental Europe meant that American vessels faced regular seizure in
European ports.
Activity 2: A Side of Toast
The Embargo Act of 1807 forbade all international trade to and from American ports. President
Jefferson hoped that Britain and France would be persuaded of the value and the rights of neutral
commerce. In January, 1808, the prohibition was extended to inland waters and land commerce
to halt the skyrocketing trade with Canada. Merchants, sea captains, and sailors were naturally
unhappy to find themselves without income and to see the ships rotting at the wharves. All sorts
of tricks were used to circumvent the law. Enforcement powers were gradually expanded in 1808
and 1809, and this particularly frustrated New Englanders who looked on the scheme as an
attempt to defraud them of a livelihood. Ultimately, the daring attempt to use economic pressure
in a world at war was not successful. Britain and France stood firm.
This activity will investigate American discontent and support for the embargo. First, each
student should read the excerpted section of the Embargo (available in its entirety at the
EDSITEment-reviewed American Memory Project, and in excerpted form on page 10 of the Text
Document) and complete the questions that follow.
Embargo Act of 1807: http://memory.loc.gov/cgibin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=002/llsl002.db&recNum=488
 List the methods of conveyance, products or cargo, and places affected by the
embargo.
 What two things are necessary before loading cargo on a boat or ship plying United
States’ waters?
 What is the method of enforcement for the embargo?
After discussing the answers as a whole class, students should then be divided into pairs to
review the next documents, located at the EDSITEment-reviewed site Teaching American
History. These documents show the differences in regional and political reaction to the embargo.
One student will read the Republican documents and answer their corresponding questions and
the other student will investigate the Federalist documents. Groups will review the answers to
their documents with each. The teacher will then use the following questions to lead a whole
class discussion.


How did views of the embargo differ in different regions of the United States? Differ
because of political affiliation?
What reasons can you give to explain these differences in opinion?
Republican
Editorial from the Richmond Enquirer, December 10, 1808:
http://www.teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=1625 (page 12 of the
Text Document)
 Why are the Americans from this region “sick” of the embargo?
 What impact has the embargo had on agricultural production?
Editorial from the Carthage (Tennessee) Gazette, March 6, 1809:
http://www.teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=1632 (pages 12-13 of
the Text Document)
 Are the authors of this article for or against the embargo?
 What type of financial problems are the people of Tennessee experiencing?
Editorial from the Boston Independent Chronicle, 4 January 1808:
http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=1903 (pages 13-15 of the
Text Document)
 Are the authors of this article for or against the embargo?
 Who is the “contemptible minority?”
 How has the “contemptible minority” portrayed America to the British?
 What is the author’s answer to “why is the embargo laid?”
 Describe the larger political conspiracy presented by this author.
Federalist
Editorial from the Baltimore Federal Republican, July 6, 1808:
http://www.teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=1627 (page 16 of the
Text Document)
 Is the author of this article for or against the embargo?
 What impact will the embargo have on the nation’s future prosperity?
Editorial from the New York Evening Post, 2 February 1808:
http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=1904 (pages 16-17 of the
Text Document)
 Is the author of this article for or against the embargo?

How does the author suggest that President Jefferson is a hypocrite?
Editorial from the Boston Gazette, 18 January 1808: (pages 17-18 of the Text Document)
 Is the author of this article for or against the embargo?
 State some of the reasons that the author suggests embargoes have been issued in the
past. How is this one different?
 What points does the author make to show that this embargo is premature?
 Who would the author like to see America trade with? Why?
The second part of this activity asks students to become familiar with the concept of a toast.
Toasts were delivered at formal gatherings such as civic dinners, Fourth of July celebrations, or
militia musters. Prearranged, they were offered by community leaders and would reflect both the
toasters’ and the crowd’s political inclinations. The crowds would often register their
enthusiasm for various toasts through “huzzahs,” cannon fire, or other outbursts, and at times
were given the opportunity to offer spontaneous toasts. These public rituals, along with the full
list of toasts, would subsequently be published in local newspapers. Editors often would
disseminate these reports widely as a means of bringing together like-minded citizens into a
broad, partisan political network.
This activity will ask students to utilize and apply understanding of this facet of the era. Have all
students read the two toast documents provided in this activity. They are posted in their entirety
at the EDSITEment-reviewed sites Teaching American History and American Centuries: View
from New England (http://memorialhall.mass.edu).
Fourth of July Toasts, published in the Richmond (Virginia) Enquirer July 5, 1808:
http://www.teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=1631 (page 19 of the Text
Document)
 Are the authors of this toast for or against the embargo?
 What historical event is being spoken of in points one through nine?
 How do points ten through seventeen address the current crisis with France and Great
Britain?
Toasts for Independence, Massachusetts 1808:
http://memorialhall.mass.edu/collection/itempage.jsp?itemid=17744&img=0&level=advanced&t
ranscription=1 (page 20 of the Text Document)
 Are the authors of these toasts for or against the embargo?
 Which specific points can show the authors support or contempt for the embargo?
Toast from New York Evening Post, 6 July 1808:
http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=1905 (page 21 of the Text
Document)
 Why would the author of this toast wish “long life” to President Jefferson?
As a whole class, create a list of common characteristics that can be found in these toasts.
Students will divide themselves into a group of Republicans and a group of Federalists then
create a “toast” that reflects the viewpoint of their party. Students should write their toast on the
worksheet provided on page 22 of the text document. Students will present their toast in the
original spirit by asking one member deliver the first couple of points and then using the other
members to add points to the toast delivered to the class. After the entire toast is delivered any
other member of the class may add their own points to the toast if the “spirit” moves them.
VII. Assessment
All questions for each set of documents can be graded, as well as the group questions from
activity one. Participation in group discussion can also serve as a grade.
A final essay prompt to tie this lesson together might be given to students upon completion of
activity two.
 Explain why the Jefferson administration resorted to an embargo in dealing with Great
Britain and France. Was this an effective way of dealing with this crisis? Justify your
answer with specific points from the documents.
The responses to this prompt could be up to 250 words.
VIII. Extending the Lesson
One way that this lesson could be extended would be to ask students to review the document
Impressment of American Seamen, 5 December 1803
(http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsp&fileName=002/llsp002.db&recNum=598),
located at the American Memory Project. Using this document they could be asked to create a
pie graph or other graphic that visibly shows the complexities of race, citizenship, nationalism,
and British Imperial action. Students could also write a short 250 word analysis of their findings.
IX. EDSITEment-reviewed Web Resources in this Lesson:
The Avalon Project at Yale Law School: http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/avalon.htm
Jefferson’s 3rd Annual Message to Congress:
http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/sou/jeffmes3.htm
Library of Congress: American Memory: http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/index.html
British Orders in Council November 1807:
http://memory.loc.gov/cgibin/ampage?collId=llsp&fileName=003/llsp003.db&rec
Num=276
Embargo Act of 1807:
http://memory.loc.gov/cgibin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=002/llsl002.db&rec
Num=488
Impressment of American Seamen, 5 Dec. 1803: http://memory.loc.gov/cgibin/ampage?collId=llsp&fileName=002/llsp002.db&recNum=598
Teaching American History: http://www.teachingamericanhistory.org
4th of July Toasts, published in the Richmond (Virginia) Enquirer July 5, 1808
http://www.teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=1631
Richmond Enquirer, December 10, 1808
http://www.teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=1625
Carthage (Tennessee) Gazette, March 6, 1809
http://www.teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=1632
Baltimore Federal Republican, July 6, 1808
http://www.teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=1627
“Toasts for Independence, Massachusetts 1808”:
http://memorialhall.mass.edu/collection/itempage.jsp?itemid=17744&img=0&lev
el=advanced&transcription=1
American Centuries: View from New England: http://www.memorialhall.mass.edu/
Toasts for Independence, Massachusetts 1808:
http://memorialhall.mass.edu/collection/itempage.jsp?itemid=17744&img=0&lev
el=advanced&transcription=1
X. Additional Information:
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Grade levels (9-12)
Subject areas
o U.S. History - Colonial America and the New Nation
Time required (2-3 classroom periods)
Skills
o analyzing primary source documents
o interpreting written information
o making inferences and drawing conclusions
o role playing
Standards Alignment
o People, Places, and Environments
o Individuals, groups, and institutions
o Power, authority, and governance
o Global connections
o Civic Ideals and Practices
Lesson Writers
o Kris Ray, Ashland University
o Tucker Bacquet, Lexington High School. Lexington, Ohio
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