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Indian Dance
India is a peninsula; it is surrounded by water on three sides. The Bay of Bengal is east, the Arabian Sea
is west, and the Indian Ocean is south. To its north the Himalayan mountains separate India from Asia.
As the seventh largest country in the world, India is characterized by geographic areas such as the
Himalayas, the Great Indian Desert, the Peninsular Plateau, coastal plains, and islands.
History of India
In the Indus Valley one of the earliest civilizations existed from 2600 BCE to ca. 2000 BCE. Pre–IndoEuropean excavation sites revealed evidence of dance. When the Indo-Europeans entered India BCE
from the northwest around 1500, they found an advanced civilization. The Indo-Europeans introduced
Sanskrit and the Vedic religion, a forerunner of Hinduism. Founded in the 6th century BCE, Buddhism
spread through northern India. During the 3rd century BCE, ancient king Asoka unified most of the
subcontinent.
In 1498, Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama visited India and began trade with the West. In the 16th
century Muslim invaders founded the great Mogul Empire, which lasted into the 18th century. In 1612,
the British started the East India Company and set up a factory in India. Fighting European traders and
Indian rulers, the British took Bombay in 1687 and made it the seat of British rule in India. The defeat of
Mogul armies in the mid-18th century led to the foundation of British rule; a century later, India was
under British rule.
In World War I, over 6 million Indian troops fought beside the Allies. After the war, Indian nationalist
unrest continued under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, who advocated for nonviolent civil
disobedience against British authority, leading to a revolt in 1919. During the 1930s, India came under a
government with a measure of self-rule. In 1947, India gained independence, but Lord Mountbatten, as
viceroy, partitioned India along religious lines. This partition of Pakistan and India led to the largest
migration in human history; 17 million people fled across the borders to escape riots among sectarian
groups and armed conflict. Jawaharlal Nehru became prime minister, and in 1949 India became a
sovereign republic restructured along linguistic lines. In the second half of the 20th century, India went
through many political and economic changes. Today India retains tradition while continuing to grow as
an industrial world power.
History of Indian Dance
The art of dance has existed in India for nearly 3,000 years. Mythology claims dance as divine creation,
which makes it a significant aspect in Indian culture. In Hindu religion, gods and goddesses are idealized
as men and women. Their myths are allegorical to show humans how the gods achieved divinity,
symbolized by physical perfection. In Hinduism, Shiva—the creator, preserver, and destroyer—is the
Lord of the Dance. Chidambaram was the most famous temple dedicated to Shiva. A large number of
dancing girls are attached to the temple. Ornately-designed temples contain ancient depictions of the
dance poses through sculpture and paintings.
Ancient Indian dance portrayed the activity of a god with dances classified as margi or desi. Margi is
danced for the gods as a religious activity. Desi is danced for the entertainment of humans. Hindu dance
came from the four main holy Vedas, or religious scriptures that depicted rhythm, music and song,
gesture and rites. A fifth Veda evolved from the oral tradition of drama and dance knowledge. Hindu
drama included acting, dance, and music.
The Natya Shastra explains all aspects of drama production and includes instructions for acting and
dancing. The date and author of the book, titled Bharata Natya Shastra, remains in dispute. It is believed
the book was written between the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE. The word bharata means dancer-actor, but
it can also be a person’s name, referring to the author of the work. For centuries, dance gurus (teachers)
handed this treatise down from one generation to the next through their disciples (called chelas) as a
legacy that continues to be used today.
Classical Indian dance has its deepest roots in Hinduism. Major dance forms in India have different
geographic centers: The Bharata Natyam, Kathakali, Manpuri, Orissi, and Kathak.
Bharata Natyam
Bharata natyam is one of the oldest dance forms in Indian dance. The word bharata has three syllables:
bha (or bhaba) is mood or expression; ra (or raga) is melody or music; ta (or tala) is rhythm.
Southern India encountered the least foreign influences with few wars and invasions. During the 12th
century, Vaishnavism (a major branch of Hinduism) spread from northern India through the south,
enriching the poetry, music, and dance of the southern region.
In southern India the bharata natyam is a solo female performance. However, the ancient teachers of
the bharata natyam were men to preserve the purity of the dance form in translation from the ancient
text. Students inherited their profession as children of dancers, musicians, and teachers. They often
began their training at age 7. Predominately, dance artists continue to be females.
The three main components of classical Indian dance include: natya, nritta, and nritya. Natya is the
dramatic element of performance on stage. Nritta is the rhythmic movement of the body in dance. This
aspect of the dance reproduces music and rhythm through bodily movement and gestures with the
hands, and precise footwork. Nritya is the aspect of the dance that shows mood or sentiment that is
conveyed through facial expression and hand gestures. While nritta portrays pure dance or abstract
dance that presents a collage of rhythmic lines, forms, and shapes, natya and nritya present ideas,
themes, and moods communicated to the audience.
In the bharata natyam the dances use movement and gesture to express the qualities and feelings of the
heroine’s circumstance. In the dance, the dancer is the devotee; the hero, the god, never appears. The
bharata natyam includes both masculine strength and feminine grace. The right side of the body
represents the masculine; the left side the feminine. Every action on the right is mirrored on the left.
Gestures (called mudras) are used for expression. Mudras are divided as follows:
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Hasta (hand) mudras
Anga (body) mudras
Pada (foot) mudras
Mukha (face) mudras
Together they combine to become abhinaya (complete body movement).
DID YOU KNOW?
MUDRAS
Mudras are the gestures in classical Indian Dance. Although mudras are similar across Indian classical
dance forms, their names and uses may vary. The root mudras provide a basic vocabulary of single- or
two-hand gestures. The root mudras combined in various ways and with the arm and body movements
and facial expression to create a vocabulary of movements with hundreds of variations.
In the bharata natyam, about 120 different adavus (dance steps) are categorized into groups. Adavus
are combined to create various tala (tempos) that, in combinations of slow and fast, become more
intricate patterns.
Jati are complex rhythmic patterns that are combinations of long and short syllables. Jati are vocal
sounds the dancer makes and repeats with her ankle bells as a result of striking her full foot, heel, or toe
on the stage. There are five types of rhythmic patterns based on 3, 4, 5, 7, and 9 beats. The dancer may
interpret the lyrics of a song either word for word or an entire line of the song into these rhythmic
patterns.
A bharata natyam recital includes short dances of about 5 minutes to long dances of half an hour or
longer. A solo concert usually lasts 2 to 2 1/2 hours. Accompanying the dances are drums (called
mridang), flutes, and cymbals with sometimes the veena (a plucked stringed instrument) and violin. The
order of the concert is as follows:
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It begins with the alarippu (an invocation piece).
The jatiswaram (pure dance) focuses on jatis (complex rhythm patterns).
The shabdam is a performance of music with lyrics in which the dancer uses mime.
The varnam is the high point of the performance; the dancer shows her virtuosity as a performer
in dance and mime using intricate techniques in the choreography. The varnam includes
cadences where the dancer does interpretive movement.
The padams is a portrayal of a dramatic heroine dramatically expressing a mood or emotion.
The thillana (final dance) is made up of brilliant, complicated rhythmic movement integrated
with sculptural poses.
Kathakali
Kathakali is a traditional dance art from Kerala, which is located on the west coast of India. It is
somewhat isolated from much of the mainland. Kerala was a trading center for spices, which grew in the
region and attracted the ancient Greeks, Phoenicians, Romans, and later Vasco de Gama when he
navigated a direct route to India.
Kathakali is a product of two great cultures, Hindu and Indo-European. Kathakali drama is thought to be
from the 15th century, but its roots extend back even further. Kathakali’s long evolution is based in
Dravidian and invading Indo-European cultures, martial arts (kalaris) and folk traditions from Kerala. The
martial arts influence integrated into body training and body massage techniques that are part of dancer
training.
Kathakali technique uses leaps, jumps, and high leg extensions, which require first-class body
conditioning.
Kathakali is a pantomime dance-drama (also called a story-play or danced play). Katha is a story. Kali is
acting the story through mine and movement. A kathalali performance is akin to a ritual; all aspects are
associated with religious significance. In the 17th century Zamorin, ruler of Calicut, wrote plays about
Lord Krishna, a deity of the Hindu faith, and developed a presentational style called Krishnattam. This
cycle of plays about the life of Krishna lasted eight evening performances. The king of Kottarakara
wanted the troupe to perform the cycle. Zamorin refused. So the king of Kottarakara wrote his own
series of plays, called Ramanattan, which used elaborate mime and dance.
Dance training in Kathakali is rigorous and takes 8 to 10 years. The dancer must master knowledge of
the vocabulary of movements and their technique, gestures, and expression of a wide range of moods.
The technique is elaborate and stylized. After dance training, the dancer graduates as an actor, but it
may take many years before he is given an important role in a play. Kathakali remains a maledominated art with females becoming dancers during the last quarter of the 20th century.
Pure dance parts are exacting; the legs are in a turned-out position, and the foot movements are done
on the outsides of the feet. Dramatic leaps, kicks, jumps, and leg extensions are in the repertory of
movements. Spatial patterns are squares, circles, or rectangles set to rhythmic phrases.
In acting roles, the eyes and hands are the focus of the character. The hand gestures express a language
with nouns, verbs, even full sentences that communicate moods and states of being. There are 24 basic
gestures, similar to an alphabet. From these gestures, the actor-dancer can create approximately 600 or
more combinations and variations. The actor-dancer tells the story through lyrics to the music. The
dancer can interpret word by word, a full line of the story, or an idea through gestures. The dancer can
improvise to express performance artistry.
Costumes and makeup relate to character types. They are elaborate and highly stylized, using colors
symbolically to denote certain characteristics. Main character types include these:
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Valiant and good roles. This dancer has a green face, known as pacha type.
Kings and heroes with a villainous streak. The dancer has a green face with a red streak on the
upper lip, known as the kathi type.
Villains and demons. The dancer wears a red or black beard, known as the thadi type.
Orissi
In eastern India, the state of Orissi is the home of the dance style by the same name. This ancient
classical dance has both sculptural and written evidence that the dance was in existence since the 2nd
century BCE. Even earlier evidence from around the 8th century BCE, devadasi or female temple dancers
were part of the temples in this region of India. Orissi dancing is the history of this dance form. In the
16th century CE, foreign rule led to the decline of the arts. In the 20th century, with India’s
independence came resurgence through the work of dancers and dance scholars.
Orissi has flowing movement and sculpturesque poses. Many of the poses came from the carvings on
the Hindu temple walls. The poses replicate the sculpture and have three distinctive features not often
seen in other Indian dance forms: The dancer bends at the neck, the waist, and the knee.
Manipuri
The state of Manipuri is located in northeast India. The dances and music of Manipuri relate to the long
history of ritual and folklore, mythology, and legends of the region. Manipuri dances have various
themes. Ritual dances use myths presented through movement and gesture. Pure dances are the
predominate type.
Group dances have a variety of dynamics. The dance technique is simple compared to the other stylized
and highly detailed Indian classical dances. The movement qualities include gentle swaying, sinuous,
fluid movement. Or, they can be intense and rhythmically driven. Raas dances are the most technically
difficult. Raas dances relate to Krishna and depict scenes from his life. They are performed at different
seasons and can be pas de deux, group dances, or some solo dances.
Some dances are for only males or for only females. In some dances, the kolhams and the kartalis (group
dances performed by women to rhythmic hand clapping while they move), the dancers perform with
small cymbals representing femininity and are accompanied by larger cymbals representing masculinity.
In the pung cholam dance, men perform intense leaps, spins, jumps, and turns while playing the drum at
the same time. This dance can be performed as a solo or by a large group of men.
Kathak
Kathak is the dance from the northern part of India. This region had frequent invasions and migration
and an influx of different religions that resulted in the fusion of dance styles over time. The moguls had
the greatest influence upon kathak dance. They instituted a state religion, and dance moved from the
temple to the court. In the court, the dance technique expanded on complicated footwork, and use of
intricate rhythms became the focus. Pure dance became mode, and expression was downplayed. By the
mid-20th century, kathak was not the vital dance form it had once been. During the second half of the
20th century, the tradition of kathak was restored and developed as an art form. The original expressive
side of kathak has been expanded.
Today the traditional first part of the performance has been restored. The performance begins with an
invocation and a court salutation. The next dances are a series of pure dances. The dancer and the
percussionist together create varying complexity of rhythmic patterns. In the parhat, the dancer recites
sounds replicated by footwork in dialogue with the drummer.
The traditional kathak costume was a huge gathered skirt, a tight blouse, and a scarf. Dancers wore tight
trousers, gathered at the ankles, and a high-waisted tunic with a waistcoat worn over it. Today, kathak
dancers select their style of costume.
Kathak dance technique radiates grace with an air of courtliness that contrasts with fast footwork, and it
includes swift, flowing movements in contrast to stillness.
Rasa (Flavor) of Aesthetic Experience
Indian dance aesthetics considers the human body as a vehicle of artistic expression. The dancer
synthesizes the content and form of dance and other arts into a complete, beautiful whole. The dancer
as artist is a way for experiencing bliss or a divine truth. Likewise the spectator must be prepared to
receive this vision. For the Indian artist, art is a discipline.
SPOTLIGHT
UDAY SHANKAR (1900-1977)
Uday Shankar initiated the 20th-century revival of classical dances in India. Born in Udaipur, Rajasthan,
Shankar went to England to continue his studies in painting at the Royal College of Art. He was an
excellent dancer, but he had no formal training in classical dance. In England, he created two dance
works based on the stories of Radha and Krishna and “A Hindu Wedding,” which premiered at Covent
Garden. He returned to India in 1929 and founded a dance company that toured the world until 1960. In
1938 he started a dance school in India, which continues to provide folk and classical dance training. His
dance works blended the essence of various Indian dance techniques and traditions with his own
creativity, becoming popular with audiences in the West and in India. The Indian government awarded
Uday Shankar the Padma Vibhushan (a prestigious award consisting of a medal and a citation from the
president) for his contributions.
Bibliography
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the Dance in India. Bombay: Taraporevala’s Treasure House of Books.
Bowers, Faubion. 1953. The Dance in India. New York: Columbia University Press.
Gopal, Ram.1983, Classical Dance in India. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Iyer, Bharatha, K. 1955. Kathakali: The Sacred Dance of Malabar. London: Luzas & Co. Ltd.
Jones, Clifford Reis. 1998. India: History of Indian Dance. International Encyclopedia of Dance, vol. 3. pp.
451-461. New York: Oxford University Press.
Jones, Betty True. (ed.) 1983. Dance as Cultural Heritage, Dance Research Annual X1V, vol. 1. New York:
Congress on the Research in Dance.
Massey, Reginald and Jamila. 1989. The Dances of India. London: Tricolour Books.
Singha, Rina, Massy, Reginald, and Brazillan, George. 1967. Indian Dances: Their History and Growth.
New York: George Brazillan.
Sarabhai, Mrinalini. 1965. The Eight Nayikas, Heroines of the Classic Dance of India. Dance Perspectives,
vol. 24. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Vatsyayn, Kapila. 1968. Classical Indian Dance in Literature and the Arts. New Delhi: Caxton Press,
Private Limited.
Uday Shankar: www.culturalindia.net/indian-dance/dancers/uday-shankar.html.