Download Patricia Gibson, The Hypertext Author

MSC in Digital Education
IDEL: Assignment
Website: www.patriciamcallen.com
Patricia Gibson, The Hypertext Author: Tracing current web standards to digital
hypertext writing
Assessment Criteria:
Structure: Valid semantic code
Online Validation Tools:
http://validator.w3.org/
http://html5.validator.nu/
Visual Communication: Valid CSS
Online Validation Tools:
http://jigsaw.w3.org/css-validator/
Introduction
This web essay considers how adhering to current web standards might impact on the author
of academic hypertext in the digital environment. It explores the relationship between
humans and technology in terms of generational divide, creative expression, identity,
embodiment, presence, authorship, flow and authenticity.
Many universities and colleges run Web Publishing courses for teachers and students. Dr
Melissa Terras runs a Web Publishing course in University College London(UCL). The course
teaches HTML markup, Cascading Stylesheets (CSS), Imaging, Site Structure, Visual Design,
Usability and Accessibility. Julianne Nyhan runs a similar course in UCL, entitled Internet
Technologies, that also includes HTML5.
By tracing these new HTML5 and CSS3 web standards to academic hypertext writing, this web
essay will explore the suggestion that learning these Web Publishing skills will help students
and teachers improve their hypertext writing.
Digital hypertext writing is often posed as either a challenge or an alternative to the
conventional essay. I propose that hypertext complement and exist alongside the traditional
text, and the design and development of this web essay will seek to reflect this.
Finally, technology tools will be used to evaluate and assess the web essay in terms of current
web standards, and the implications of self-assessment on the author will be explored.
HTML Coding
Mitch Resnick, in his Teach Kids to Code TED talk, argues that young students must be able to
write their own computer code in order to become fluent with new technologies. He draws the
following analogy between reading and writing to further demonstrate his point:
"Young people today have lots of experience … interacting with new technologies, but a lot less
so of creating [or] expressing themselves with new technologies. It's almost as if they can read
but not write.”
Resnick observed how 'Kids learn it more deeply, and learn it better' when they figure it out
themselves, rather than observe and imitate. He argues that 'in the classroom when kids learn
about variables they don't know why they're learning it'. Resnick believes that writing code
enables the student to become more creative in their learning.
Fitzpatrick, K. (2011) looked at the transaction of 'putting pixels onto a screen'. She identifies
the computer as the 'co-writer' in a sense which leads us to consider its 'codes as another
mode of writing'. Fitzpatrick further reiterates this point by urging us to become literate in
markup/computer languages as well as human languages.'
Students who code can create their own space for self-publishing without the need for
'prescriptive interfaces,' as outlined by McKenna and McAvinia, (2011). They explore the
notion that learning to write code is necessary to become 'fluent' in digital writing, and that
writing a blog and engaging in social networking are separate skills to writing hypertext.
Prensky (2001) has long argued, in his contentious ‘digital natives’ debate, that these young
students are competent in the use of digital tools. Many of this generation may have grown up
using Web 2. Technologies and social media but are they competent in using digital
technologies to construct knowledge and make meaning?
Goodfellow, R. (2011) makes the distinction between digital literacy and digital literacies: the
former suggests the technical skills required to function in the digital domain whilst the latter
becomes an expansive metaphor to include cultural and social aspects.
I do not believe that this generational divide exists to the extent put forward by (Prensky,
2001) and I certainly don’t believe that this exclusivity exists in that the immigrant cannot
crossover to the digital native. Indeed Helsper and Enynon (2010) conducted a study into the
evidence of the existence of digital natives, the results of which provide evidence that
suggested ‘it is possible’ for adults to become as technically competent as their younger
counterparts.
One might conclude that everyone can learn these new technologies and indeed most
technologies are very user friendly and designed so – it is important to dispel the notion that
people who use these technologies are highly skilled beyond the reach of those that are
relatively new to these technologies.
Site Structure
HTML is an acronym for Hypertext markup language and it is the language used to code the
semantic structure of hypertext documents. The language has continued to evolve since its
inception in the 1990s. HTML5 is the most current version, and it is currently being
developed by the Web Hypertext Application Technology Working Group, or WHATWG, in
conjunction with the World Wide Web Consortium, or W3C. The capabilities of hypertext
have expanded with the new HTML5 standard providing native support for multimodal
forms: text, graphics, Scalable Vector Graphics, sound and movies.
Before creating well designed hypertext documents it is important to understand how users
interact with hypertext. Hypertext, by its very nature, is based on connectivity and the making
of connections between texts, which is the very basis of critical thinking. In creating these
hypertexts, viewers engage in multi-sequential reading. They read in a non-linear mode and
this further encourages the linking of information to become much broader as it relates to
external sources.
But just how effectively do students use hypertext to make meaning in the digital realm?
There are many ‘doubters’ identified by Landlow, G. (2006) who ‘envisaged students
wandering aimlessly about enormous information spaces’. On the contrary, Lea and Jones
(cited in Goodfellow, R. 2011) stated that students ‘were adept at drawing on complex, hybrid,
textual genres, using a range of technologies and applications and integrating these into both
their assessed an un-assessed work.’
Landlow, G (2006) indicates the importance of 'well-designed hypertext' in encouraging
critical thinking and establishing identity. In the second week of his course he teaches the
students HTML and redefines their identity as 'student-authors'. In turn, the author
establishes a virtual presence due to the public nature of the work through its very existence
in a networked structure. We could add that hand-coding enables a projective identity to
develop as the author creates their own learning path.
Landlow, G. (2006) argues that students use hypertext effectively in the preparation of
assignments: students use the internet to find the information they need and the nature of
hypertext encourages them to explore further. His paper, however, really brings to the fore the
positive effects of creating well designed hypertext in digital writing.
"A reasonably well-organized website will permit students to find that they need in short
order" Landlow, G. (2006 p. 278). This indicates the responsibility of the hypertext author in
designing an intuitive interface, consistent navigation structure, and hyperlinks that are
relevant to the topic at hand.
Visual Design
Cascading Style Sheets, or CSS, is used to define how the related hypertext is presented. It
dictates fonts, layout and color in hypertext design. The real power of CSS lies in the
separation of presentation from the structured HTML document. It allows for greater
consistency and repetition across the hypertext in terms of the placement and formatting of
elements on the page.
The new CSS3 incorporates sophisticated visual effects such as drop shadows, rounded
corners and gradients. It is largely responsible for the overall visual design of the hypertext
document and contributes to the way that users interact with the web document.
McKenna and McAvinia, (2011) identify design as 'critical to the overall effect' of her students’
hypertext projects. Visual communication is important in this new organisational structure;
image, structure, repetition and colour.
When the Internet is viewed as 'a zone of enormous creativity and experimentation' then the
issues surrounding the absence of embodied human interaction are 'alleviated'. We can apply
this theory to authors of CSS3 in that they are experimenting creatively in the presentation of
hypertext. Furthermore, it enables the exploration of 'identities, perspectives and modes of
interaction' free from the restraint of their bodily selves. Burbules, M (2002).
Jacob Nielsen conducted a study of college students using hypertext and he concluded that
students prefer ‘clean and simple’ websites to ‘flashy and busy’. Visuals and graphics can be
used to create a hierarchy of information in a more engaging and playful way rather than the
conventional table of contents in the printed book.
An aesthetically pleasing interface can encourage the reader or viewer to explore further.
Dexter et al (2011, p. 16) believes that ‘beauty is not just a characteristic of an object; it is a felt
experience drawn from ‘embodied human experience’.
‘The graphic environment of the web is often a scene of infinite distractions, unless we are
inside a controlled environment’ Drucker, J. (2011). We can use theoretical features from
graphic design such as consistency, proximity and hierarchy to create order and make
meaning in a fixed environment. Drucker however, conceives the interface as much more than
a static presentation of text but as an interactive space. She reframes the ‘reader’ as an
independent ‘viewer’ who will make meaning in a non-linear and dynamic way. Drucker, J.
(2011).
Landlow, G. (2006) defines hypermedia as ‘an enabling technology rather than a directive
one’ suggesting that students using hypertext are no longer passive recipients of knowledge,
instead they are active learners. It is important to be aware of this in the interface design to
allow the user feel a sense of presence.
Taylor, T. L. (2002) implies the need for authors to design their hypertext well arguing that in
an online environment '… poor design only served to disrupt presence' and thus erode online
identity. Presence is the study of how humans interact with media and technology.
Lee (2004: 32) defined presence in the online environment as "A psychological state in which
the virtuality of experience is unnoticed."
Clark, A. (2003) argues that computers do not need to access our conscious awareness for a
'human-machine merger to have a profound impact on how and what we are'.
This hypertext seeks to display visually how the old traditional text can exist in harmony with
the new digital text exploring the idea around typography that “type can itself be the message”
Garfield, S. (2010, p. 67). It reflects how hypertext can complement and create an added
dimension: you can select an alternative font if the handwriting is too difficult to read. The
integration of the authors’ handwriting into the digital hypertext personalises the work as the
physical and virtual identity come together.
Web Standards
Web standards are flexible guidelines originally created by the World Wide Web Consortium,
or W3C, the governing body of web standards. The standards are constantly evolving and the
W3C are currently working in conjunction with the Web Hypertext Application Technology
Working Group, or WHATWG, to develop the HTML5 specifications.
Accessibility and usability looks at the relationship between humans and technology:
"Usability is about people's behaviour after they arrive on your site..." Jakob Nielsen's
Alertbox: August 13, 2012
Web standards ensure that your hypertext is accessible and usable to all: it can be read by
everyone including the physically and visually impaired, and it can be used on any device.
Indeed Jeffrey Zeldman (2010) stated that ‘accessibility is at the core of standards-based
design.’
But do we need a governing body imposing these standards? Are they restricting the creativity
of hypertext authors? Do they bind the hypertext author inside a closed space?
If we map the field of web design from the 1990s to the present day we can look at hypertext
writing prior to the introduction of web standards:
In the early 1990s web designers were free to do pretty much whatever they pleased. They
were unconstrained by rules or regulations and worked for clients who had no knowledge of
the subject at hand and thus accepted whatever was sold to them. The designers let
technology lead the way regardless of human needs. There were no regressive metaphors to
contend with and no teacher-student learning, just student-student learning via online
discussion boards and websites.
One might conclude that this would result in a smooth, creative mode of learning where
designers could create their learning space along a wide trajectory and across a large network.
The result however was very different. These designers created websites that were closed,
striated, spaces heavily bound by rules and regulations dictated by the technology.
To further explain this point the websites of the 1990s often consisted of a front page that
required the user to adapt to the new technology: the visitor to the website must download not
only the correct browser, but the correct version of the browser, adjust their screen resolution,
download software such as Flash to view the animated movie and a whole host of other
requirements. Furthermore, the industry was dominated by browser wars between Netscape
and Microsoft who refused to conform to a standardised mode of practice.
Visitors to the website were faced with restricted mobility – it was difficult to get past the first
page and actually enter the website – similar to children’s restricted mobility in the physical
classroom. This only serves to hinder and restrict access to the hypertext and in turn it
prevents learning.
Web Design ignored what the user wanted and focused on what they thought the user needed.
In education today it is argued that adults’ perception of what the younger generation want
and need are misguided, just like web designers ignored what their users wanted and needed.
For example, adults hoped that their children would establish global relationships in their
online activities but instead children persisted in maintaining existing relationships.
Similar to problems with assessment in the new mode of digital learning, web design was
faced with the problem of how to effectively measure what makes a good and a bad website.
More research into user practices was required and this was being undertaken by Jacob
Neilsen and Tim Berners Lee amongst others. This indicates an example, similar to digital
education today, of research struggling to keep up with technology.
Moreover, consumers of the aforementioned websites were static recipients of knowledge with
no control over their new environment (the website). Also the notion of equity was a
prominent one, as it is today in digital education, how to ensure that everyone could access
and use these websites.
Then along came The World Wide Web Consortium who standardised the industry with
flexible rules and guidelines entitled the Web Content Accessibility Guidelines, or WCAG. As a
result, and after many years of research and testing, websites are now designed and created in
a way that is accessible and usable to all. The benefits of web standards have enormous
implications for preservation in that they support forward compatibility. That is to say that
hypertext documents will be supported in the future by new and emerging technologies: in
different browsers along different platforms and devices.
The Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) is a standardising body providing for the future
preservation of digital text. These standards cannot be transferred comprehensively to
hypertext and HTML5 as the TEI is largely concerned with the logical structure of the digital
text to the exclusion of physical appearance.
Fitzpatrick (2009) argues that the TEI guidelines are best suited to the digitisation of static
text documents rather then ‘born-digital’ text because they do not support the dynamic and
interactive nature of hypertext and it’s supporting multimedia elements.
Evaluation
Hypertext by its very nature is based on connectivity through its use of hyperlinks to make
connections to other documents. It does not exist alone or in its entirety, but rather in
collaboration with all linked, external, hypertext documents. This process forces us to rethink
conventional claims of sole authorship, which in turn poses problems in the assessment and
evaluation of such writing. Furthermore, the validity of hypertext questions the very authority
of the academic institution.
In order to ensure the preservation of the hypertext document, and the longevity of its
accessibility, Fitzpatrick (2009) emphasised the importance of conformance to standards.
Adherence to a standardised set of flexible guidelines will ensure that all conforming browsers
will parse and thus render the document correctly well into the future.
The JISC, in its report on Effective Assessment in a Digital Age, advocates the use of
technology for self-assessment. Using technology as an assessment tool has enormous
benefits in its speed, efficiency, authenticity and immediacy of results. The benefits of
encouraging learners to self-assess are positive in that it “can generate ownership of learning
and promote higher-order thinking.”
Fitzpatrick (2009) advises using an online validating service, such as the W3C online
validating service , to check that the hypertext document conforms to current web standards.
If students were to evaluate their hypertext code they can subsequently correct their own work
and this in turn ‘brings about positive change.’ This self-directed learning process using the
'amplification of input principle' proves 'highly motivating' for the hypertext author. Gee, J.
2003. Furthermore, the hypertext writer redefines their identity to become learner-evaluator.
Is the authority of the institution under threat? On the contrary, recent research brings to
light evidence to suggest that knowledge construction in the digital domain continues to be
framed by the academic institution. Lea and Jones, (2011) in their exploration of digital
literacies concluded that ‘what remains constant is students’ reliance on the authority of the
institution.’
Can technology entirely replace humans in the assessment of digital text? The Web
Accerssibility Initiative lists a range of online web accessibility evaluation tools. It is worth
remembering that these are primarily heuristic evaluation tools, and it is important to
maintain a holistic approach to evaluation. Implementation of these guidelines is heavily
reliant on human judgement.
The JISC in its Inclusion Technology Advice report stated that technology cannot replace
human judgement in the development of an accessible website with the suggestion that all
websites are tested by a diverse group of users, including those with impairments.
Conclusion
One of the problems that arose in my research, as identified by teachers, was the notion that
HTML coding is difficult and time consuming to learn, and it impinges on the students’ time
to work on their assignments with priority being given over to technical issues. Perhaps it is
worth considering the idea that web publishing courses run independently of specific modules
and not as part of a module. It may even become as common place as conventional courses in
academic writing.
The handwriting font in this hypertext document was created from my own handwriting to
explore notions of authorship and ownership: if the hypertext document was created from my
handwriting and hand-coded does that not allow me to lay claim as the principal author?
There are many unanswered questions but overall one might conclude that the adoption of
web standards as an integral part of hypertext writing in the digital realm has many positive
benefits for the author.
Perhaps then, one might surmise that it is worth considering the inclusion of web standards,
hand-coding HTML5 and visual awareness through the use of CSS3, as part of the hypertext
writing process in traditional academic institutions. If academic institutions adopted new
flexible guidelines to incorporate hypertext writing then perhaps the students could embrace
it more confidently. This in turn could help alleviate the current problems of elusiveness
relating to evaluation and assessment.
Furthermore, it may be worth considering the value of creative design and the production
process thus enabling these learning processes to sit alongside traditional values of critical
analysis and the finished product. We should begin to see '"academic" critical literacy as an
essential complement to digital media practices in our colleges and universities.' Goodfellow,
R. (2011)
About This Hypertext Essay
This essay sits within the traditional institutional framework. It has a beginning, middle and
end. It is presented in a linear format that can be read from top to bottom with headings for
each section. It introduces an argument, explores that argument and then analyses and draws
conclusions. It was typed on a computer using standardised grammar, spelling and
punctuation and is displayed in the author’s handwriting. One could surmise that, so far,
notions of authorship are not disrupted.
The essay also retains the advantages of digital hypertext and the non-conventional. It was
hand-coded by the author in a text-editor to create the semantic structure. The essay can be
accessed in a non-linear way and the primary navigation is presented as such. There are
hyperlinks throughout the text to encourage the reader to make connections and explore, and
ultimately to create their own learning path. There are also images and videos to demonstrate
a point where appropriate.
The hypertext was hand-coded in a text-editor using HTML5 to create a standardised
semantic structure. The visual design was created using standardised CSS3. The website is
accessible to all including people with physical disabilities and visual impairment, and follows
a set of standardised flexible guidelines. Notions of authorship are disrupted in the traditional
sense with external hyperlinks rendering the document collaborative.
Most of the graphics were created in Adobe Photoshop, using various brushes and effects,
except as noted in Bibliography. The handwriting font was created from my own handwriting
using MyScriptFont.com.
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