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1st& 2ndStudy Guide
1st Nine weeks
INQUIRY UNIT:
Quantitative observation: observation using measurements or numbers
Ex. The bowling ball has a mass of 24 grams.(n=numbers)
Qualitative observation: observation that describes items using words
Ex. The bowling ball is purple. (l=letters)
PERIODIC TABLE UNIT:
Bonds: Ionic (nonmetal bonds with metal-metals gives up an electron,
nonmetal gains one-ELECTRONS ARE TRANSFERRED) Covalent
(nonmetal bonds with nonmetal-ELECTRONS are SHARED)
Elements at the top of a group are the least reactive!!!
GROUPS (families) are the COLUMNS of elements on the periodic table
(increase in reactivity as go down)
PERIODS are the ROWS of elements on the periodic table (less reactive as
go across)
*Elements in the same group share similar properties
*zig zag line (metalloids) on the periodic table divides nonmetals (right side)
from the metals (left side)-starts at Boron (#5) and goes diagonally down
Periodic Table Unit:
Groups on the periodic table:
Group 1- highly reactive, 1 electron in outer shell
Group 2-2 electrons in their outer shell
Groups 3-12 –Transition elements, good conductors
Groups 13-15-not very reactive
Group 14-Carbon group, can gain, lose or share electrons
Group 15-Nitrogen group, can gain or share 3 electrons
Group 16-can gain or share 2 electrons
Group 17-can gain or share 1 electron, very reactive
Group 18 (noble gases)-full valence shell, don’t want to bond with any other elements
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Properties of Metals:
1. Malleable: a material that can be hammered or rolled, (ex. Gold,
magnesium, aluminum)
2. Ductile: a material that can be pulled out, like wire (copper)
3. Conductive: ability to transfer heat or electricity (all metals on the Per.
Table)
4. Luster: the state or quality of shining by reflecting light
Properties of Nonmetals:
1. Insulator: holds in heat (all nonmetals), Not good conductors-do not
transfer heat or electricity
2. Brittle: breaks easily
Acids- chemicals that taste sour, have a pH of 1-6.9 on the pH scale (the
stronger the acid, the LOWER the # on the scale), release hydrogen (H) ions
when mixed with water
Bases- chemicals that taste bitter, have a pH of 7.1-14 on the pH scale (the
HIGHER the # on the scale, the stronger the base), release hydroxide (OH)
ions when mixed with water
Neutral- 7 is neutral
CHEMISTRY UNIT:
Law of the conservation of mass: mass is not created or destroyed but is
changed from one form to another (conserved)
If mass is conserved, the chemical equation will be balanced on both sides
(same number of atoms for each element and the mass will be the same)
Reactants-the substances that exist BEFORE the reaction
Products-the substances that exist AFTER the reaction
Balance the following equations:
1. ______ Na + ____Cl2  __2__NaCl
2. ______ SiO2 + _____ HF  _____ SiF4 + _2_H2O
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Balanced Chemical equation for photosynthesis:
REACTANTS
PRODUCTS
6 CO2 + 6 H2O -------------------C6H12O6 + 6 O2
6 molecules of carbon dioxide react with 6 molecules of water to yield or
produce 1 molecule of sugar AND 6 molecules of oxygen
Balanced Chemical equation for cellular respiration:
REACTANTS
PRODUCTS
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 --------------------- 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy (heat is released)
1 molecule Sugar reacts with 6 molecules of oxygen to yield 6 molecules of
carbon dioxide and 6 molecules of water and energy
In order for something to burn (combustion), there has to be oxygen present.
MOTION UNIT:
Formula for calculating average speed: Distance divided by time S=d/t
Formula for calculating distance: Speed times the time d= s x t
Formula for calculating time: Distance divided by speed t=d/s
Formula for calculating acceleration: Final speed minus the Initial
(beginning) speed divided by time a=(Sf – SI) / t
CONSTANT
SPEED GRAPH: Measuring Distance and Time
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Horizontal, straight line means object is at Rest.
time
A Constant
Speed/ zero
acceleration
Negative
acceleration
Positive
acceleration
Time
Accleration (speed vs. time) velocity graph
Horizontal, straight line means object is at constant speed or zero
acceleration.
Displacement Graphing
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Displacement:
Curved line means object is changing direction; therefore, accelerating
`Acceleration:
1. Change in direction- turning
2. Speeding up
3. Slowing Down
Momentum: amount of energy that a moving object has- mass in motion!
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NEWTON’S 3 LAWS OF MOTION UNIT:
1st law-law of inertia (resisting a change in motion)
-An object at rest will stay at rest unless an unbalanced force acts on it.
-An object in motion will stay in motion unless an unbalanced force acts on it.
-More mass=more inertia
-friction-a force that acts to resist sliding between 2 touching surfaces
2nd law-mass and acceleration
-A net force will cause an object to change velocity and accelerate.
More mass = less acceleration (throwing a pencil vs. throwing a bowling ball)
Formula: Force = mass x acceleration
3rd law-action/reaction forces
-For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
-Example: If you push on a wall with 100N of force, the wall pushes back on
you with 100N of force.
-Example: a person jumping on a trampoline (they are pushing down on the
tramp. With their feet and this moves them up
Example: a balloon’s air is released from the bottom and this causes the
balloon to move up
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ELECTRICITY UNIT
Electrical power grids- way that electricity travels from a power plant
throughout an area (city, neighborhood). For power to be useful in a home or
business, it comes off the transmission grid and is stepped-down to the
distribution grid in a power substation.
Transformer- transfers electricity from one voltage to another. Transformer
(substations) can step up voltages to travel long distances and step down to a
lower voltage (transformer drums) to go into homes, businesses, etc. The
transformer's (drum) job is to reduce the 7,200 volts down to the 240 volts that
makes up normal household electrical service.
Electric circuits-a pathway for electricity to move (Remember: a circuit is in
a circle)
 series circuit is one which provides a single pathway for the current to
flow. If the circuit breaks, all devices using the circuit will fail.
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

parallel circuit has multiple pathways for the current to flow. If the
circuit is broken the current may pass through other pathways and other
devices will continue to work.
Resistance (R)-the opposition to the flow of an electric current, causing the
electrical energy to be converted to thermal energy (heat) or light.
Generator: power source that uses mechanical energy (from gasoline) to
make electrical energy when something is plugged into
The resistance of a short, thick piece of wire is less than the resistance of a
long thin piece of wire.
AC vs DC :
Direct current (DC)-. Batteries, fuel cells and solar cells all produce direct
current (DC). Current always flows in the one direction between the negative
and positive terminals. (DC- Duracell battery)
Alternating current (AC) - The power that comes from a power plant. The
direction of the current reverses, or alternates, 60 times per second (in the U.S.)
instead of the constant flow in the direct current. (think AC-air condition-wall
plug)
An alternating current is more beneficial for long distance travel because the
current has to follow a shorter path and AC can be transferred from high
voltage to lower voltage.
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ENERGY CONSERVATION UNIT:
Renewable resources- any natural resource that provides energy and can be
used over and over.
Examples: sun, wind, water (hydroelectricity), trees, and tidal
Nonrenewable resources- any natural resource from the Earth that cannot be
renewed in a short period of time once it is used up
Examples: Oil, coal, natural gas (fossil fuels), and nuclear energy
Global Warming- an increase in the earth's average atmospheric temperature
that causes corresponding changes in climate and may result from the
greenhouse effect. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) emissions are thought to contribute
Greenhouse gases- include methane, chlorofluorocarbons and carbon dioxide
(CO2). These gases act as a shield that traps heat in the earth’s atmosphere.
Contributes to global warming (burning fossil fuels increases level of CO2 in
air).
Ways to conserve energy: recycle, cut off lights, car pool
The Oxygen Cycle
Plants give off oxygen as a result of photosynthesis and animals/humans
breathe it in and then give off CO2 through respiration.
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Water cycle: evaporation, condensation,
precipitation
Carbon Cycle: CO2 is absorbed by plants
photosynthesis (oxygen and sugar is released)  O2 and sugar is absorbed
by animals/plants respiration (CO2 is released)
Carbon is returned to the soil through decomposition
Nitrogen Cycle- nitrogen gas is “fixed” by
bacteria and sometimes lighteningturned into nitrogen
compoundsabsorbed by plants & animalsreturned back to the
atmosphere as a gas by bacteria
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2nd Nine weeks
CELLS UNIT:
Parts of animal AND plant cells (study Cell diagrams too):
1. Cell Membrane-decides what enters and leaves the cell (surrounds the
cell)
2. Nucleus-controls ALL cell activities, where DNA is located (close to the
center of the cell)
3. Cytoplasm-jelly like fluid throughout the cell
4. Vacuole-Storage area, stores food, waste and nutrients
5. Ribosomes-where PROTEINS are made
6. Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum- collects, maintains & transports
things for the cell
7. Rough Endoplasmic reticulum- collects proteins made by ribosomes
8. Golgi Bodies (apparatus)- changes, sorts & packages proteins from the
ER
9. Mitochondria-releases ENERGY from food for the cell. Cellular
respiration takes place here (powerhouse of cell)-looks like a canoe
10.Lysosome-breaks down food particles and gets rid of waste for the cell
(digestive system of the cell)
Plant cell ONLY parts:
1. Cell wall- gives protection & shape to the plant cell, outermost covering
of the cell
2. chloroplast- where food is made in the cell
3. LARGER central vacuole
4 Types of Tissue (groups of cells that work together to do a certain job)
1. Connective: provides support for the body & connects the parts
EX. bone cells and blood cells
2. Nervous: transmits messages from the BRAIN through the rest of the
body
3. Muscular-provides movement for the body EX. Heart muscle, body
muscle
4. Epithelial- covers organ surfaces and provides protection from the
outside environment. May be covered with many tiny little hairs called
cilia EX. Esophagus, stomach, or skin cells,
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Blood cells
Neurons
Muscle Cells
Epithelial
MICROBE UNIT
4 Microbes:
1. Bacteria-One celled Living organism, can be treated with ANTIBIOTICS
(these attack the cell membrane)
*comes in 3 shapes: sphere shaped (cocci), rod shaped (bacillus) & spiral
(spirillium)
*used to make cheese, yogurt & buttermilk
*CAN be GOOD for you or BAD for you
2. Virus-Not a living organism, but has genetic material & has to have a host
cell to attach to and replicate (reproduce)
Bacteriophage (Virus that attacks bacteria)
Virus attacking a cell and replicating
3. Fungi: living organisms that can cause skin infections by absorbing the
spores through the skin Ex. mushrooms, mold, yeast
4. Protista (protozoans)-living organisms that feed on body cells and bodily
fluid EX. Amoeba & paramecium
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DISEASES UNIT
1. Flu- caused by a VIRUS
2. Strep throat-caused by BACTERIA
3. Food Poisoning- caused by BACTERIA
4. Ringworm- caused by FUNGUS (on the surface of the skin)
5. Athlete’s Foot- caused by FUNGUS (on the surface of the skin)
6. HIV & AIDS- caused by VIRUS
7. Malaria- caused by PROTIST
GENETICS & HEREDITY UNIT
Dominant gene-gene that prevents the recessive from showing up
Recessive gene-gene that is PREVENTED from showing up if a dominant one
is there
Homozygous (purebred)- when an organism has the SAME IDENTICAL
genes for a trait EX. BB (dominant homozygous) or bb (dominant
recessive).
Heterozygous (hybrid)-when an organism has DIFFERENT genes for a trait
Ex. Bb
Genotype- genes in an organism Ex. Bb or BB or bb
Phenotype-visible traits that can be seen Ex. brown eyes
Punnet square practice: Cross a brown rabbit (Bb) with a white rabbit (bb).
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Pedigree Chart
*remember to find the genotypes of a particular generation, you have to look at
the PARENTS AND COMPLETE A PUNNET SQUARE!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
*to determine whether gene is dominant or recessive, D= one or more of the
parents ARE AFFECTED (circle or square is colored in)
R=neither of parents are affected
ECOLOGY UNIT:
Levels of organization in an ecosystem:
1. organism
2. population-organisms of the same species living together in the same
area at the same time Ex. all of the catfish living in the Mississippi
River
3. community-organisms of different species that interact in some way Ex.
catfish, brim, bass, worms, water plants all living in the Mississippi
River
4. ecosystem- all of the communities that live in an area & the abiotic
factors that affect them Ex. pond, lake, forest
5. Biome- a large area where plants and animals are adapted to living in
that area Ex. tundra, rainforest, savannah
6. Biosphere-part of Earth that supports life, all of the ecosystems, biomes
on Earth
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Autotrophs (producers)-organisms that take in energy from the sun to
produce food Ex. Plants, algae
Heterotrophs (consumers): eat producers
1st level consumer-eat the producers Ex. grasshopper
2nd level consumer-eats the consumer that eats the producers Ex. frog
Decomposer-gets its energy from breaking down the remains of dead
organisms and returning those nutrients to the soil Ex. mushroom
Niche-a species’ specific role in its community Ex. a fox is a predator that
eats small mammals
Food web: Identify a 1st level consumer AND a 2nd level
consumer. Arrow points to where the energy is going
Example: grass--grasshopperfrog->snake
Energy is moving from the grass to the grasshopper to the frog to the snake.
Grasshopper eats the grass. Frog eats the grasshopper and snake eats the
frog.
energy pyramid- shows the energy available at each level of the food
chain. As the pyramid moves up, energy DECREASES. Energy is LOST
as HEAT!! Primary- 1st level, Secondary- 2nd level, Tiertiary-3rd level
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3rd NINE WEEKS:
Genetic Engineering
Genetic Engineering: the process of manually adding new DNA to an
organism that doesn’t already have that DNA (cloning-parent and offspring
will be genetically the SAME)
*Examples of things that are genetically engineered:
1. plants (ex. Sweet corn) that are resistant to certain insects
2. livestock to have leaner meat, faster growth, more milk production
Pros (Advantages) to Genetic Engineering: It CAN lead to a greater quality
of traits in an organism, food that has been GE tastes better, longer shelf life,
crops that are resistant to pests
Cons (Disadvantages) to Genetic Engineering: can cause defects in
organisms(humans, animals), expensive
Selective Breeding: Breeding plants & animals for a particular trait.
• Ex. Thoroughbred horses are bred for sped in racing
• Ex. Labrador retrievers are bred for their hunting skills.
Adaptations and Evolution Unit:
Adaptation: is a body part or behavior that helps an animal or plant survive
and reproduce in a particular environment
 Examples: chemical defenses (poisons), claws, hibernation, mimicry,
camouflage, smells, thorns, bright colors, broad shaped leaves
 Sexual Reproduction: 2 parents, more genetic diversity (plants &
animals)
 Asexual Reproduction : 1 parent, no genetic diversity (some plants &
some animals)
Adaptations for certain biomes:
1. Desert: ability to store water (cactus, camel), deep roots (plants)
2. Aquatic: floating seeds (plants), animals have to be adapted to high
pressure under water, webbed feet
3. High Altitude (mountains): larger lungs, organisms carry more
oxygen in their red blood cells
4. Rainforest: larger leaves
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Evolution: gradual change in a species over time
Natural Selection: process by which individuals that are better adapted to their
environment are more likely to survive & reproduce successfully (giraffe’s
long necks) Involves MATING!!!!!
Overproduction: species produce way more offspring than can survive
Ex. Sea turtles, fish
Variation: any difference between individuals of the same species
Ex. White rabbit/brown rabbit
Competition (Survival of the fittest)-members of a species compete for: food,
water, space, ability to get away from predators
Ex. Lions attacking certain zebras
Animals and Plants that cannot adapt will become EXTINCT!!!
Layers of the Earth Unit:
•
•
•
•
Inner Core: Solid, dense, made of solid iron
4300 degrees Celsius (about 7500 degrees Fahrenheit)
Hottest part of Earth’s interior
Under pressure from above layers
• Outer Core: Liquid, made of iron, sulfur, oxygen
• 3700 degrees C (6700 degrees F)
Mantle: Plastic, made of iron, oxygen, aluminum, silicon, magnesium
Largest layer
2 parts: lithosphere & asthenosphere
1000 Degrees Celsius
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Lithosphere: Rigid (hard), upper portion of Earth’s mantle &
crust
• broken into tectonic plates
• Plates move around on the
Asthenosphere b/c of CONVECTION
Asthenosphere:
 Lies right below the lithosphere
 Layer of rock that is under heat & pressure so it “flows” like a
liquid
 Less dense than the lithosphere
•
•
•
•
•
Crust: Outermost layer of Earth (rocky)
Thin compared to other layers
Thinnest under the oceans
Thickest under the continents
2 kinds: continental & oceanic
Continental Crust
 Made of granite rock
 LESS dense than oceanic
 Found under continents
 Thick
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Oceanic Crust
 Made of basalt rock
 MORE dense than continental
 Found under oceans
 Thin
Plate Tectonics/Earthquakes/Volcanoes Unit
Plate boundaries: places where tectonic plates (in the lithosphere) meet
3 Ways plates move:
 Slide past (faults form-earthquakes can happen here)
 Diverging- plates move apart
 Forms new crust on ocean floor (sea floor spreading), midocean ridges (Mid-Atlantic Ridge)and rift valleys (on
continents)

 Converging- plates colliding, things that are formed depends on
DENSITIES of plates colliding
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 Continental-Continental Collision-mountain ranges are
formed
Oceanic-Continental Collision- forms trenches (on ocean floor) & volcanic
arcs (mountains with volcanoes)
 Oceanic-Oceanic Collision- forms island arcs (islands that
can have volcanoes)
Subduction Zone: When one plate plate sinks underneath another plate.
 The denser plate sinks underneath & into the mantle
Folding: when rocks bend due to FORCE, can bend up or down
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Faulting: when rocks break due to FORCE from plates sliding past each other
*Volcanoes are located along plate boundaries (Ring of Fire-around the Pacific
Ocean)
Seismic waves: vibrations that travel through Earth’s interior carrying energy
released during an earthquake. Carry ENERGY.
*Scientists study seismic waves to determine how large the earthquake is.
*P waves- first waves released during earthquakes, travel through SOLIDS &
LIQUIDS (mantle, inner core & outer core)
S waves- second waves released and ONLY travel through solids (absorbed at
the outer core b/c it’s liquid)
*By studying seismic waves, scientists have been able to determine the phase
of matter of Earth’s interior.
Continental Drift Theory-theory that said at one time the continents were
joined together but began to drift apart
Pangaea-super continent when the continents were joined
Evidence supporting continental drift:
 Continents look like they fit together (puzzle pieces)
 Same fossils found in Africa and South America
Weather Unit
Temperature: how hot or cold something is
*created from molecules in the air –Warm air=molecules moving quickly
Cool air=molecules moving SLLOOOWWWLY
Convection: transfer of heat by the movement of a fluid (happens within the
troposphere-most of trop is heated this way)
Wind: air moving in a specific direction. Moves from areas of high pressure
to areas of low pressure
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Anemometer: measures wind speed
Wind vane: measures wind direction
Sea breeze: wind that blows from a body of water to the land (beach) Happens
during the DAY
Land breeze: wind that blows from the land to a body of water
Happens during at NIGHT
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Coriolis Effect: the way Earth’s rotation makes winds curve
• Northern Hemisphere= winds turn right
• Southern Hemisphere=winds turn left
Types of global (winds that move over long distances) winds:
• Doldrums: areas near the equator with little or no wind b/c warm air is
always in place
• Horse latitudes: calm areas of falling air at 30 degrees N & S
• Trade Winds (EASTERLY WINDS): winds that blow steady from the
horse latitudes TOWARD the equator. BLOW FROM THE EAST.
• Prevailing Westerlie Winds: blow north & south AWAY from the
equator (blow from west to east)
• Polar Easterlies: blow cold air away from the North Pole & South Pole
• Jet Streams: bands of high speed winds that move from west to east.
Located 10 km above Earth’s surface.
•
•
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Jet Streams
• Air Pressure (barometric pressure): weight of a column of air pushing
down on an area
• Changes in Air Pressure:
• 1. High Pressure System= clear weather b/c the sinking air prevents
upward movement that forms clouds (precipitation)
• Symbol is H
• 2. Low Pressure System= brings rainy or stormy weather b/c the rising
air encourages cloud development
• Symbol is L
Barometer: measures air pressure
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Higher altitudes (mountainous areas) have less air pressure AND the air is
LESS dense.
Remember: Warm air is LESS dense (rises in the atmosphere) and has LOW
atmospheric presure.
Cooler air is MORE dense (sinks in the atmosphere) and has HIGH
atmospheric pressure.
Wind cools us off=moves from H to L pressure
Humidity: the amount of water vapor in the air.
– Cooler air = less water vapor
– Warmer air= more water vapor
Relative humidity : the percent of water vapor that air is currently holding.
– If the air is holding all of the water vapor it can, the relative
humidity is 100%.
Dew point: the point at which air is saturated with water vapor & condensation
forms.
– For condesation (clouds)to occur, the air must be cool (remember:
warm air rises and cools off)
*Condensation (cloud formation) can lead to precipitation.
Precipitation: any form of water that falls to Earth from clouds (condensationwater vapor clumps together)
Ex. Sleet, freezing rain, snow, rain
Air Mass: a large body of air that has properties that are similar to the area it
forms over.
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•
•
•
•
Maritime Tropic (2 on each coast): warm, moist air
Maritime Polar (2 on each coast): cool, moist air
Continental Polar: cold, dry air
Continental Tropic: hot, dry air
Front: the boundary that forms when 2 air masses having different densities,
moisture or temperature touch.
Clouds, precipitation, & storms can form at frontal boundaries.
The 4 types of fronts include:
• 1. Warm front: warm air moves up and over cold air. Warm air is in
place. Symbolized with a red line with semicircles.
• 2. Cold front: cold air moves UNDER warm air. Cold air is in place.
Symbolized with a blue line with triangles.
• 3. Stationary front: when a cold front and a warm front meet & neither
one moves the other. Symbolized with an alternating red and blue line
• 4. Occluded front: when 3 different air masses meet. Symbolized with a
purple line with triangles and semicircles.
Westerly winds and jet streams move air masses across the United States
(from west to east).
Hurricanes: a large, swirling low pressure system that forms over the warm
Atlantic Ocean.
*HAS TO HAVE WARMTH & MOISTURE FOR ENERGY
*WHEN IT HITS LAND, LOSES ENERGY
*Easterly winds (trade winds) blow it towards land and westerly winds blow
back out to sea.
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Fourth Nine Weeks
Seasons Unit
 TILT and Revolution of Earth around the sun causes seasons.
 When Earth is tilted TOWARDS sun, the Northern Hemisphere is
having SUMMER. When Earth is tilted AWAY, Northern Hemipshere
is having WINTER.
 The Southern Hemisphere has opposite seasons: Our summer is their
winter (they are tilted away from sun). Our winter is their summer (they
are tilted toward the sun).
 Fall/Spring=earth is sideways (NOT tilted toward or away from the sun)
 Summer= long days, short nights
 Winter=short days, long nights
 Earth rotates and REVOLVES COUNTERCLOCKWISE.

Electromagnetic Spectrum Unit:
 Wavelength: the distance between the crest of one wave to the crest of
the next one

 Frequency: the number of times a wave repeats during a period of time

 As wavelength decreases, the frequency INCREASES.
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• Waves with longest wavelengths = lowest frequency AND have less
energy
• Waves with shortest wavelengths=highest frequency AND more energy
Wavelength DECREASES 
Frequency INCREASES 
Energy INCREASES 
Infrared= HEAT
UV light= Skin cancer
Stars, Galaxies, Universe:
 Stars moving AWAY from Earth show RED wavelengths.
 Stars moving TOWARDS Earth show BLUE wavelengths.
 Solar systemGalaxyUNIVERSE
 Solar eclipse= moon gets between Earth and Sun (SME), moon casts a
shadow on the sun
 Lunar eclipse=Earth gets between the moon and Sun (SEM), Earth casts
a shadow on the moon
Good luck and Don’t disappoint me!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
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Periodic Table Unit:
Groups on the periodic table:
Group 1- highly reactive, 1 electron in outer shell
Group 2-2 electrons in their outer shell
Groups 3-12 –Transition elements, good conductors
Groups 13-15-not very reactive
Group 14-Carbon group, can gain, lose or share electrons
Group 15-Nitrogen group, can gain or share 3 electrons
Group 16-can gain or share 2 electrons
Group 17-can gain or share 1 electron, very reactive
Group 18 (noble gases)-full valence shell, don’t want to bond with any other
elements
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