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WORLD WAR I
CAUSES
COURSE
CONSEQUENCE
Causes of World War I”
All wars have two types of “Causes”
Proximate & Remote
 Proximate= Immediate trigger of the war
 Usually a single event. The one most often remembered after
the war.
Proximate Cause of World War I
The Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife
Sophie by the Serbian nationalist Gavrillo Princep on June
28, 1914 in the city of Sarajevo, the capital of the AustroHungarian province of Bosnia-Herzegovina.
Causes of the First World War
 Remote=Causes which may date back years, decades, even
centuries.
 Usually there are a number of remote causes for any war.
 Ultimately these remote causes are more important than the
proximate cause which actually triggers the war and most
often are neither understood or remembered by most people
after the war.
Remote Causes of World War I
 Nationalism: The increasing sense of competition between
the nations of Europe, all of which were convinced of their
own national superiority.
Remote Causes of World War I
 Imperialism: Driven by nationalist sentiments the western
nations competed for the decreasing territory still available
for colonies.
Militarism
Militarism: The increasing emphasis, reliance upon and
glorification of the possession and application of military
force to achieve the goals of nationalism and imperialism.
Militarism went far beyond the military forces themselves to
include such diverse areas as:
Children’s Toys and Clothing
Toy Soldiers
Model Warships
Board Games
Toy Guns
Sailor Suits and Army Uniforms
Music
Military Marches
Patriotic Songs
Operettas
Plays
Literature
Novels
Magazine Articles
Penny Press
Conscription
In the 19th Century, every European nation, with the exception
of Great Britain, established some form of mandatory
military conscription—what we refer to as “the draft.”
Young men at the age of 18 were subject to military service for
a period of 1 to 3 years of training and active duty, depending
on the nation the circumstances of the times.
This created large, standing armies of in some instances several
million men, ready to fight.
Reserve Forces
When conscripted troops were released from active duty, they
remained liable to additional mandatory time in the reserve
forces—in some cases for as long as 20 years.
In the event of war, the reservists could be called up on short
notice and used to expand the standing army to several times
its normal size. With reserves a nation might be able to field
an army of 6, 7, or even 8 million men within a matter of a
few months of the call up.
War Planning
As armies grew in size, all nations began to prepare systematic
plans for how to mobilize, deploy and utilize these enormous
armies. The Art of War became the Science of War.
A Prussian Officer, Karl von Clausewitz, wrote a book on
military strategy that was widely read and its lessons applied
throughout Europe.
General Staffs were created to create detailed war plans to
prepare for possible future wars.
War Planning
The Most famous war plan to be devised prior to World War I
was Imperial Germany’s Schleiffen Plan.
Under constant development from the 1880’s to 1914, it was
designed to allow Germany to defeat France in the space of 6
weeks, in the event of any war involving Germany with any
other enemy—France was assumed to be the ultimate enemy
once war began and the one that must be dealt with first.
The Schlieffen Plan
War Planning
The French had a war plan too.
Plan 17
Military Technology
The Industrial and Scientific Revolutions had brought about
radical advances in weaponry.
High Explosives, especially Alfred Nobel’s dynamite and its
military counterpart, cordite, increased the effect of artillery
fire. It was believed that such powerful weapons would make
war “ too horrible” to fight.
Nobel eventually funded the “Peace Prize” when this
supposition proved to be false.
Military Technology
Breech loading, multiple shot rifles increased the effectiveness
of the infantry. A well trained rifleman could fire ten to
twelve rounds per minute and hit.
Military Technology
Improved Artillery: Breech loading, rifled field artillery and
long range cannons and heavy mortars increased both the
range and effectiveness of artillery fire against both fixed
positions and personnel in the field.
Military Technology
The Machine Gun: The Gatling Guns and the Maxim Guns of
the late 19th century were perfected in the early 20th century
as heavy caliber, crew serviced weapons. The could sustain
fire over long ranges for extended periods of time at the rate
of several hundred rounds per minute.
Military Technology
Armored, Steam Propelled Warships: Regarded as the
essential weapon of any nation seeking first-class status as a
military or imperial power, these ships were expensive to
build and maintain.
Competition among nations to match or surpass the fleet
constructed by Great Britain led eventually to the
“Dreadnought Race” of the early 20th century, which many at
the time expected would have triggered a Great War
sometime after 1916.
Military Technology
Aircraft: Although men had dreamed of flight for thousands of
years, the first balloon flights had begun less than 150 years
before the outbreak of the first world war. During the
American Civil War, balloons had been used for military
observation by the Union Army.
A Prussian noble, Graf von Zeppelin, serving as
a military observer, brought the idea of powered
Balloon flight back to Germany and by 1901
Launched his first Airship.
Military Technology
The Zeppelin Airship, a lighter-than-air craft, first flown in
commercial service was quickly adopted by the German
Military. Other nations followed quickly.
Military Technology
In 1903, the Wright brothers made their first “heavier than air’
flight. By 1908, The U.S. Army purchased a Wright Flyer
for military evaluation. By 1914, every nation in Europe had
some sort of military aircraft, although none of them were
actually sure if they had any real value over the battlefield.
The Alliance System
An outgrowth of the increasing importance of militarism in
19th century Europe was the construction of military
alliances to counter-balance the growing strength of any
nations potential enemies.
Otto von Bismarck began the process in 1871, as he sought to
counter the likelihood of an eventual French attack against
Germany in “revanche” for the Franco-Prussian War.
The Alliance System
Bismarck formed an alliance among the 3 great empires of
central and eastern Europe.
Germany
Austria-Hungary
Russia
The Drei-Kaiser Bund or 3 Emperor League was a defensive
alliance. Each was pledged to defend the other two if they
were attacked.
This despite the fact that Austria and Russia regarded Germany
and each other as a potential threats.
Alliance System
Despite Bismarck’s protests, the German Kaiser eventually
ordered that the alliance with Russia be abandoned.
Bismarck, next sought to find a new ally to replace them.
A country which bordered on France, and was itself looking for
allies to increase its world standing, filled the bill—Italy.
These 3 nations: Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy formed
the Triple Alliance.
Alliance System
Following their defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, France
quickly began to plot its revenge. Recognizing what
Bismarck was up to, the French began shopping for allies as
well.
In 1894, they concluded an Alliance with Imperial Russia. The
most liberal republic in Europe was now an ally of the most
autocratic monarchy in the western world.
Alliance System
By 1904 the French had maneuvered the British, their
traditional enemy, into the Entente Cordiale, a kind of
gentlemen’s agreement between the two countries to work
together to defend against growing German power.
Great Britain had previously arrived at a naval agreement with
the Empire of Japan, in which the Japanese pledged to
safeguard British Interests in the Pacific against possible
German threats and allowing the British to more ships back
into their home waters.
France, Great Britain and Russia formed the Triple Entente.
Alliance System
Anti-War Sentiments
Ironically, an additional remote cause of World War I was a
widely held belief that a major war, involving all the powers
of Europe, was an impossibility in the 20th century.
 No major war had been fought since 1815.
 All minor wars had been limited, brief and decisive. Total
damages and casualties had been limited as well.
 The aspects of militarism already cited would ensure that
future wars, if fought at all would be even more quickly
resolved.
Some believed that technology had made all wars unwinnable.
Anti-War Sentiment
An international peace movement was developing calling for
international diplomatic negotiations to resolve differences
between nations.
The Berlin Congresses of 1878 and 1884 had helped prevent
wars between European Powers in the Balkans and in Africa.
The Russo-Japanese War had ended in a Peace Settlement
negotiated by President Theodore Roosevelt who was
awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.
A series of International meetings in Switzerland led to the
Geneva Conventions establishing “rules” to limit warfare.
Countdown to Disaster
 June 28: Archduke Franz Ferdinand assassinated.
 July 6: Germany offers the “blank-check” to Austria
guaranteeing military support in the event Austria punishes
Serbia and Russia threatens intervention.
 July 23: Austria presents “ultimatum” to Serbia demanding
Serbian cooperation in finding and punishing all responsible
for the assassination. Serbs agree to some of the demands
and also petition Russia to act as their Protector.
 July 28: Austria rejects Serbian offer and declares war.
 July 29: Austrians shell Belgrade, capital of Serbia.
Countdown to Disaster
 July 30: Russia and Austria-Hungary mobilize against each
other.
 July 31: Germany demands Russia demobilize and France
declare neutrality in the matter within 12 hours. The Kaiser
and the Tsar exchange the “Willie-Nickie” telegrams trying to
defuse the situation without success.
 August 1: Germany and France mobilize. Kaiser Wilhelm
tries to stop the planned attack on France, through Belgium,
and is told it cannot be stopped. Germany then declares War
on Russia.
Countdown to Disaster
 August 2: Germany sends ultimatum to Belgium demanding
that they remain neutral while German forces transit through
the country en route to France.
 August 3: British state that they will fight to defend Belgian
neutrality as required by Treaty of 1831. German’s dismiss
the treaty as a “scrape of paper.” Belgium rejects German
demands. Germany declares war on France.
 August 4: German troops enter Belgium, British demand
that Germans retreat and when their demand goes
unanswered, Britain declares war on Germany.
The War of Mobility
The War of Mobility
August-September 1914
 In the opening days of the war, every country sought to carry
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out their war plans.
German forces entered Belgium to swing around the heavily
fortified frontier with France.
British troops, most of their army were ferried across the
English Channel to reinforce the Belgians.
The French Army drove into the “lost” provinces of Alsace
and Lorraine to regain what had been taken in 1870.
Austria overran Serbia.
Even the Russian steamroller began moving into East Prussia.
The War of Mobility
August-September 1914
No battle plan survives contact with the enemy.
General H. von Moltke
 The Belgians put up a much more determined resistance than
the Germans thought possible.
 Aided by the British they slowed the German advance.
 Cities were defended by civilians, who in turn where shot as
terrorists by the Germans and the cities shelled into ruins.
 The Belgian and British forces were driven back towards
France and the German advance slowed to a crawl.
The War of Mobility
August-September 1914
 French forces were driven back out of Alsace and Lorraine.
 By August 25, the German Army had taken control of most
of Belgium and had entered France at several points but they
were still far short of Paris.
 The Russian Army had mobilized far more quickly than
anyone, including the Russians thought possible, their forces
entered East Prussia and the German General Staff diverted
troops from the advance into France to defeat the Russian
invaders. The Russians were defeated but the advance into
France was further weakened.
War of Mobility
August-September 1914
 On September 4, a French observation plane flying above the
advancing German army detected that it was turning and in
doing so exposing its flank to a French counterattack.
 This led to the First Battle of the Marne.
 French and British troops stopped the German advance 20
miles from Paris. General Petain, commander of the Paris
garrison moved every soldier in the city up to reinforce the
allied attack. The troops were moved by buses and taxicabs.
After the war the taxi companies were paid their metered
fares plus a tip!
Battle of the Marne
September 1914
The War of Position
September 1914-March 1918
 The German advance on Paris was stopped on the Marne.
 Their troops were too exhausted to renew the attack.
 The British and the French were also worn out after a month
of constant retreat under fire.
 Both sides stalled and began to “dig in.” The war of
movement ended, the war of position began. The positions
began as little more than “fox holes” facing each other.
 Soon they became elaborate systems of trenches running for
400 miles from the English Channel to the Swiss Alps.
Trench Warfare
The Trenches
 The System of trenches that rapidly developed led to a
complex series of defensive positions on both sides facing
each other over a barren wasteland of blasted earth called
“No Man’s Land.”
 For most of the next 4 years, both sides would attempt,
without success, to carry the battle beyond this area into the
rear area’s of the enemy.
 Here the absolute effectiveness of the machine gun as a
defensive weapon overcame every attempt to employ
infantry to achieve the “breakout.”
The Trenches
 Behind the system of trenches were the rear areas, where
headquarters (HQ’s) were located, surrounded by supply
dumps, artillery batteries, hospitals and cemeteries.
 Moving forward, the reserve trenches formed the ultimate
fall back positions to defend the HQ’s as well as a position
into which troops be cycled back for some rest after service
on the front lines.
 The reserve trenches were linked by communications
trenches with the support trench. Here the immediate
reserves were maintained, ready to move forward if
necessary. Here an enemy breakthrough would be held.
The Trenches
 More communication trenches linked the suppport trenches
to the “front-lines.” Here troops faced their opponents
across “no man’s land” who existed in a parallel world of
trenches.
 It has been estimated that altogether, the Allies and the
Central Powers dug more than 10,000 miles of trenches
along the 400 mile Western Front.
The Trenches
 In the “front line” soldiers dug “bunkers” into the reverse
face of the trench to provide them with shelter from both the
weather and enemy shell fire. On the front face they built
“firing steps” and sand bag revetments to allow them to
take aim across the field of fire. Machine gun posts were
also constructed.
 Barbed wire, invented in the U.S. to keep cattle from
straying on the open range, now was used to create
entanglements in front of the trenches.
 Some troops would move out past the wire to occupy
“listening posts” to provide extra warning of an enemy
attack.
The Trenches
 In order to gain intelligence regarding the strength of the
enemy facing them both sides would conduct “trench
raids”.
 Small units would cross no man’s land at night, maneuver
around the listening posts, cut their way through the wire
and slip into the enemies front line.
 Armed with knives, blackjacks, entrenching shovels, pistols
and shotguns, they would attempt to take prisoners and grab
documents before returning, under fire to their own lines.
The Trenches
 When sufficient intelligence had been gathered, the General
Staff would prepare and mount an “Offensive”
 The object would be to overwhelm the enemy in the frontline, drive through the secondary and reserve lines, and push
through the rear areas until the enemy surrendered.
 When an Offensive was launched, the opposing forces would
launch a “Counter-Offensive” to blunt the enemy attack
and perhaps breakthrough in the ensuing chaos.
 From 1915 until 1918 both sides replayed this same pattern
repeatedly without success.
War of Attrition
1915-1918
 The repeated attempts of Both Allies and Central Powers to
breach their enemies defensive lines led to a continuing
stalemate and a War of Attrition, the constant increase in
casualties as frontal assaults against fixed positions failed over
and over again.
 1915 French Champagne Offensives Spring and Fall
German Offensive at Ypres (1st use of gas)
 1916 German Verdun Offensive (bleed them white)
Br. Somme Offensive (massed artillery)
 1917 Fr. Nivelle Offensive
War of Attrition
1915-1918
 1917 Br. Arras Offensive
Br. Messines Offensive ( Use of Mines)
Br. Cambrai Offensive ( 1st Use of Tanks)
Br. Passchendaele Offensive
German Withdrawal to Hindenburg Line
All of these offensives resulted in casualties that ran
into the hundreds of thousands for gains or losses of
territory measured sometimes in yards.
Both sides were slowly loosing all of their available
manpower.
War of Attrition
1915-1918
 By 1917 French forces began to refuse orders to attack. This
mutiny led to court martial's and executions of French
soldiers.
 The British instituted conscription in 1916 when voluntary
enlistments failed to meet demands for replacements on the
western front. This in turn led to an Irish rebellion at
Easter which the British put down by force of arms and the
hanging of Irish “traitors.”
 German troops, though still occupying most of the territory
taken in 1914 were running short of food, ammunition and
reinforcements.
 Both sides feared that they were in danger of collapse.
Other Fronts
1914-1918
 Japan declared war on Germany in 1914, in support of its
British ally and promptly drove the Germans out of their
Pacific Island possessions in the Caroline and Marshall and
Mariana Islands and seized the German treaty port of
Tsingtao in China.
 British , French, Belgian and German colonial forces battled
from 1914-1918 in both West and East Africa.
 In 1915, the British launched an invasion of the
Dardanelles at Gallipoli. The plan was to capture
Constantinople then attack Vienna and Berlin from the
southeast. It failed.
Other Fronts
1914-1918
 Following a failed Turkish attempt to capture the Suez canal
in January of 1915, the British launched an invasion of
Mesopotamia which failed to achieve its goal of capturing
Baghdad. A trench war developed on the banks of the Tigris.
 A British intelligence officer in Cairo, T.E. Lawrence
conceived a plan to unite the tribes of Arabia in revolt against
the Ottoman Empire. Lawrence of Arabia promised the
Arabs independence after the war.
 The resulting revolt led to a full scale British Invasion which
ultimately ended in the capture of Jerusalem in December
of 1917 by General Allenby.
Other Fronts
`1914-1918
 Italy, having withdrawn from the Triple Alliance in 1914,
joined the Entente in 1915. Italian forces went on the
offensive against Austrian troops in the Alps separating the
two countries. The opposing armies fought a war “above the
clouds” in subzero temperatures.
 Other troops fought along the boundaries of the Empire east
of Venice.
 In October of 1917, the battle of Caporetto saw Austrian
forces break the stalemate and drive towards Venice and the
Po River Valley, the industrial heartland of Italy.
The War at Sea
1914-1918
 As expected, the British Navy, already mobilized by the First
Lord of Admiralty, Winston Churchill, quickly seized
control of the English Channel and the North Sea.
 German warships at sea at the outbreak of the war were
hunted down and destroyed in the Mediterranean, Atlantic
and Pacific, although they inflicted some damage to the
British in the process.
 The German High Seas Fleet remained safely quartered in
its Baltic Sea base at Kiel. The British Home Fleet was
stationed at Scapa Flow north of Scotland, waiting for the
German Fleet to sail so that it could be destroyed.
The War at Sea
1914-1918
 In 1915 and 1916, the Germans launched occasional raids
against the east coast of Britain, shelling military facilities and
civilian seaside resorts. This enraged the British who
responded by sending a fleet of Battle-cruisers to draw the
Germans out of Kiel.
 In 1915, a few battle-cruisers engaged in a clash off the
Dogger Bank. It decided nothing, but led the Germans to
modify the design of their gun turrets.
 In 1916, two major fleets collided at the Battle of
Jutland, the only great dreadnought fight of WWI.
Dogger Bank and
Jutland
The War at Sea
Jutland
 In the battle which raged over the course of one day, May 31,
1916, both navies achieved an accuracy rate of only 3%. 97
of every 100 shells, fell into the sea.
 German fire did manage to damage and destroy more British
ships because of a design flaw, the lack of flash doors between
turret and magazine in British ships which the Germans had
provided for after Dogger Bank. 14 British ships and 6100
men were lost.
 The German’s lost 11 ships and 2500 men. This led the
German commander to retreat under cover of darkness. The
German fleet would never sail into battle again.
The War at Sea
1914-1918
 British supremacy before and after Jutland was based on their
overwhelming superiority in surface vessels. The Germans
had to find a means of overcoming this advantage without
risking their costly dreadnoughts. The solution proved to be
one of the most important innovations in naval history:
The U Boat or Unterseeboot
 Like the airplane, the submarine was regarded as a useless toy
by the military experts of the time. It was too small, too
slow, had too limited a range and, it did not cost enough!
 But, it could slip under the British blockade and it could
attack British vessels without much risk and be lost at little
cost, other than the lives of its crew.
U Boats at War
U boats at War
 Under the Geneva Conventions rules of naval warfare,
submarines, like surface cruisers, could scout for the fleets
and attack enemy commerce. But, like cruisers, they had to
identify themselves, remove all passengers and crew
members, search the vessel and then either claim it as a prize
or sink it.
 When the German’s played by these rules in 1914, the British
promptly equipped their merchant ships with guns and sank
any U boat that surfaced near them.
 The Germans protested and then announced a new policy of
unrestricted warfare—attack without warning using
torpedoes.
U boats at war
 The Germans were promptly accused of more “hunnish”
behavior. But the British began to loose large number of ships
in the seas off of Britain and Ireland which was about as far as
a U boat could safely travel.
 The Germans began mass producing U boats and improving
their range and weaponry. The U boat attacks began to
impact on the British economy.
 But U boats began taking the lives of men, women and
children and not all of them were British.
 In May of 1915, the RMS Lusitania was torpedoed and sunk
off of Ireland with over 1200 dead, including 128 Americans,
mostly women and children.
U Boats at War
 Following the sinking of the Lusitania and another liner the
Sussex, President Wilson who had proclaimed neutrality for
the U.S. in 1914, threatened to declare war on Germany if
they did not abandon the policy of unrestricted U boat
warfare. The Germans, not wishing to face another enemy,
agreed and from 1915 until 1917 their use of the U boat was
restricted to purely military vessels.
 President Woodrow Wilson was re-elected to a second
term in 1917 based on the slogan “He Kept Us Out of
War.”
Woodrow Wilson
1913-1919
The U.S. Enters the War
1917
 The desperate position of both the Allies and Central Powers
by 1917 led to desperate measures by both sides.
 The Allies launched a series of offensives, all of which failed.
 The Germans planned to knock Russia out of the war by
fomenting a revolution led by V.I. Lenin, a Bolshevik leader
exiled to Switzerland.
 They also planned to unleash a major offensive on the
Western Front—The Friedenkampf or Peace Offensive
which they hoped would break the stalemate on the western
front, capture Paris and lead to a peace settlement.
The U.S. enters the War
1917
 In order to gain victory, the Germans were determined to
weaken the allied armies on the western front by every
means possible including the reduction of supplies reaching
the front from Britain and from overseas.
 Since the Battle of Jutland had determined that the surface of
the Atlantic Ocean was controlled by Britain, Germany’s only
chance was to deploy fleets of submarines to sink every
transport sailing for British and French ports that they could.
 This meant not only British and French ships, but neutral
shipping as well and this, in turn, meant American vessels
would be targets.
The U.S. Enters the War
1917
 The U.S. had become a primary source of raw materials,
munitions and food supplies for the allies. American banks
had loaned billions of dollars to the allied governments to
finance the war. The Germans felt justified in attacking
American ships if it was necessary.
 The Germans also were convinced that should the Americans
choose to join the fight, they would be of little use. Their
army was small, and apparently, inept. In 1916, they had
been unable to stop the Mexican revolutionary, Pancho
Villa, from raiding U.S. towns and had failed to track him
down in Mexico during the ensuing “Intervention.”
The U.S. Enters the War
1917
 The American public was divided on the issue of the war.
German-Americans had donated several million dollars for
war relief in Germany. Irish-Americans increasingly
regarded Britain as a greater tyranny than the Kaiser’s
Germany.
 The Germans decided to announce the revocation of the
“Sussex Pledge” in February, 1917. Germany would
resume unrestricted submarine warfare against all shipping in
the war zone, regardless of any claim of neutrality.
 President Wilson’s immediate response was to arm all U.S.
merchant vessels but did not declare war.
The U.S. Enters the War
1917
 To further divert American attention from the war in
Europe, the German Foreign Office sent a top-secret
message, The Zimmerman Telegram, to their ambassador
in Mexico City. This was an offer for Mexico to declare war
on the U.S., tie up U.S. forces along the border and, when
Germany emerged victorious in Europe, receive back the
lands of the Southwest taken from Mexico in 1848!
 The telegram was intercepted by the British Secret Service,
decoded and “leaked” to American newspapers, enraging
American public opinion against the Germans.
The U.S. Enters the War
1917
 In March, German submarines sank several U.S. merchant
ships in what proved to be a very successful campaign to
reduce shipments to the allies.
 President Wilson responded by diplomatic protest and the
withdrawal of the American ambassador from Berlin. Teddy
Roosevelt blasted Wilson as being “too proud to fight.”
 The U-boat attacks continued and Wilson severed diplomatic
ties with Germany. The German Ambassador was expelled.
Evidence was found linking the Germans to acts of sabotage
at American explosive factories. Public opinion was
increasingly favoring a declaration of war.
The U.S. Enters the War
1917
 On April 2, 1917, President Wilson went before Congress
and asked that the vote a declaration of War against Germany.
On April 6, the Congress voted to declare war. It quickly
authorized the establishment of a Selective Service system
to impose conscription on the male population 18 and older,
the 1st military draft in the U.S. since the Civil War.
 Wilson quickly developed a policy of “Peace without
Victory” based on “14 Points” which would ensure basic
rights for all nations, enforced by the “League of Nations”,
an international body designed to guarantee that this would
be the “War to end all Wars.”
The U.S. Enters the War
1917
 Wilson called for the creation of a multi-million man army,
at a time when the standing force was 100,000. He named
General John J. Pershing, “Black Jack,” as commander
of the A.E.F. ( American Expeditionary Force) and
ordered him to move to France with a token force by July,
1917—they arrived on Bastille Day and Col. William R.
Stanton, Pershing’s Chief of Staff proclaimed “Lafayette,
we are here!”
 The U.S. Navy, began convoying supply and troop ships
across the Atlantic in co-operation with the Royal Navy.
Together they began to lay mines to stop the U-boats.
The U.S. Enters the War
1917
 The U.S. economy quickly geared up for even more war
production. Both industrial and agricultural production and
profits soared.
 Liberty Bonds and increased income taxes raised the funds
needed to “win the war.”
 Americans voluntarily reduced consumption of meat, grain,
gasoline and coal to support the “war effort.”
 The U.S. government began to extend massive loans to the
Allies to stave off their economic collapse. American troops
would provide an immense loan of blood to prevent military
collapse.
The Collapse
1918
 Although American forces arrived in small numbers in 1917,
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a few divisions by the fall of 1917, their arrival gave the allies
hope.
The much vaunted Friedenkampf failed to achieve the
necessary breakthrough of the allied lines.
The Mexican government declined to accept the German
proposal for an alliance against the U.S.
The naval forces of the U.S. and Britain gradually wore down
the “German Submarine Menace”
Only in Russia, had the Germans succeeded in establishing a
Bolshevik Government pledged to peace with Germany.
The Collapse
1918
 In early 1918,`the German General Staff , led by Field
Marshalls Paul von Hindenburg and Eric von
Ludendorff began preparations for a last-ditch effort to win
the war in the west. Tens of thousands of troops were
transferred from the Russian Front to the Western Front.
Young boys and old men were pressed into military service as
well.
 The Ludendorff Offensive, sometimes called the
“Gambler’s Throw” was seen as the last roll of the dice to
end the war by capturing Paris before the Americans were
fully ready to fight.
 Would fortune favor the bold?
The Collapse
1918
 From March 21 to April 29, 1918, the German army made
enormous gains first at St. Quentin and then at Lys. The
British were driven back as much as 40 miles creating a huge
salient in the allied lines. The Germans were not able to
achieve a total breakthrough however.
 On May 27, Ludendorff launched an attack on the French
portion of the lines at The Aisne and drove the French back
towards Paris, coming to within 37 miles of the city and
allowing the city to be shelled by long range artillery.
 On June 4, the Germans launched an attack against the
2nd American Division, brought up to reinforce the
French. American Marines stopped the Germans at
Chateau-Thierry.
The Collapse
1918
 All further German attempts to advance were turned back,
and every week brought more American divisions into the
line of battle.
 On July, 18, 1918, Marshall Ferdinand Foch, the Supreme
Allied Commander, launched a counteroffensive built around
9 American Divisions. From this date on, the tide of victory
turned to favor the allies, who, despite heavy casualties,
continuously drove the German forces back from Paris and
North towards Germany.
 By September 29, Marshall Ludendorff was convinced that
Germany’s only hope was to seek an armistice.
The Collapse
1918
 In short order the government of Germany resigned and a new
government appealed to President Wilson for an armistice based
on the 14 Points. As negotiations dragged on over several weeks,
the German army continued to be driven back through France
and Belgium by the Allied forces.
 On October 27, Ludendorff resigned his position as field
commander. On October 28, the German fleet still based in
Kiel mutinied when ordered to put to sea and forces through out
northern Germany quickly joined them.
 By November 8, a revolution in Bavaria led to the decision to
force the Kaiser to abdicate on November 9 and to establish a
German Republic. Wilhelm II sought asylum in the Netherlands.
The Collapse
1918
 On November 8, Matthias Erzberger, a leader of the German
Reichstag, met with Marshall Foch in a railway dining car at
Compiegne just behind the front lines. He was given the
terms for an armistice approved by the allied leaders and was
told that they were non-negotiable:
Germany withdraws from all occupied territories.
German troops withdraw from all areas in central and
eastern Europe where they were supporting Austria,
from Turkey and from occupied Russia.
Germany surrenders her submarine and surface fleet.
The Allies occupy the Rhineland of Germany.
Armistice
11/11/11/1918
 The terms of the Armistice, took effect at 11:00 AM on
November 11, 1918. The guns of the Western Front fell
silent for the first time since 1914.
 German troops withdrew from France and Belgium. When
they crossed the Rhine into Germany, they continued to
march an additional 30 miles into the Fatherland and then,
most of them simply laid down their arms and went home.
 Allied armies marched `into Germany as the Germans
retreated. The French reclaimed Alsace-Lorraine. British
and American troops occupied the Rhineland itself.
 At the same time the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian
Empires collapsed.
World War I
The Cost
 Although the exact numbers are unknown, it is estimated
that 10,000,000 men were killed and 20,000,000 were
wounded during WW I.
 The financial price of the war is estimated at a direct cost of
$180,500,000,000 and an indirect cost of $151,612,500,000
for a total of $332,112,500,000. In today’s currency this would
be as much as 300 trillion dollars.
 4 Empires were obliterated: Germany, Austria-
Hungary, Ottoman and Russian.
 1 new great power emerged: the United States of
America.
World War I
The Consequences
 America’s entry into the war, with the rapid development of
its enormous industrial and military resources and the
expansion of its economic power left the nation ideally
situated to lead the quest for a just and lasting peace.
 Woodrow Wilson, having promoted the 14 Points both at
home and in Europe, was regarded by both victor and
vanquished alike as the most likely “savior” of western
civilization. Wilson agreed to join the leaders of Great
Britain, France and Italy at the Paris Peace Conference of
1919 to bring about a just and lasting peace. He would
become the 1st President to travel to Europe while in office.
Paris Peace Conference
1919
 Wilson was greeted by cheering crowds in Paris, London and
Rome. Even newspapers in Germany, Austria, Hungary and
Turkey proclaimed that Wilson would protect them from the
vicious allies. Even Wilson came to believe that he could do
no wrong.
 From January to June, delegates of the Allies and Associated
Powers hammered out the future of post war Europe, Africa
and the Middle East. The map of the world was redrawn.
The fate of the Central Powers was determined. Delegates
of the defeated nations were denied admission to the
Conference. This was not a negotiation it was a Diktat.
Paris Peace Conference
1919
 Despite Wilson’s best intentions, Peace without Victory
would become a Victor’s Peace.
 Wilson’s primary partners had a different views as to the
nature of the peace:
David Lloyd George, Prime Minister of Great
Britain realized that his chances for re-election hinged
convincing the British public that he was not “soft on
the Huns.” He proposed that the war costs of Britain be
reimbursed by the Germans.
Paris Peace Conference
1919
Georges Clemenceau, Premier of France, had
himself been a German prisoner of war in 1870, and
now sought to savage France’s greatest enemy in the
hour of defeat. His nickname was “the tiger.” He held
that Germany must be held accountable for the war and
its entire cost. It must surrender territory, treasure and
its military system. It must never be able to threaten
France again.
Paris Peace Conference
1919
Vittorio Orlando, Prime Minister of Italy, was
fourth and least important member of the “Big 4.”
Italy had delayed its entry into the war and then
suffered the catastrophic defeat of Caporetto. He
was regarded as the “beggar at the feast.” Although
Wilson tried to include him the proceedings, Lloyd
George and Clemenceau treated him with disdain. Italy
came to regard itself as a victor treated like one of the
vanquished. Orlando eventually said that Wilson, like
Christ, was hung between “two thieves.”
The Big Four
Paris Peace Conference
1919
 Despite his best intentions, Wilson compromised away his
14 Points, one by one, to placate his “partners.”
 Ultimately only 1 “point” remained, the creation of the
League of Nations which would have the power of
redefining the terms of the treaties to maintain a just peace.
Wilson came to rely entirely on the League to save what had
become a “bad” peace. Ironically, when Wilson brought the
treaty home to the U.S. in June, 1919, the U.S. Senate
refused to ratify the treaty precisely because it required
American membership in the League, which the Senate
objected to as violating Washington’s warnings on entangling
alliances.
Paris Peace Conference
1919
 Woodrow Wilson refused to negotiate with his own Senate
and attempted to take the issue to the American public. The
public was tired of the European’s constant bickering and
back stabbing, believed Washington had been right and so
rejected the President’s appeal. Wilson collapsed from a
stroke and remained bed-ridden in the White House for most
of the rest of his term. His Vice President refused to take on
any Presidential duties for fear of his own impeachment and
as a result Wilson’s wife, Edith Galt Wilson, functioned as
President. Wilson would die in 1923, a broken man, killed
by the failure of the Peace he had sponsored.
Wilson 1918 & 1920
The Treaty of Versailles
Fatal Peace
 The Paris Peace Conference consisted of 4 separate
treaties with the 4 major belligerent powers at wars end. The
Austro-Hungarian Empire had fragmented in November
1918 and Hungary had declared its independence, so
Hungary was treated with separately from Austria. The
Ottoman Empire was collapsing.
 Germany now governed as a Republic from a temporary
capital at Weimar was the central focus of the process and
was subject to a treaty worked out by the allies, but not the
Germans, at the Palace of Versailles—hence the Treaty of
Versailles.
Treaty of Versailles
Flawed Peace
 Germany was determined in the treaty to be entirely and
solely responsible for the outbreak and course of WW I.
Article 231—The War Guilt Clause—Stated That
Germany was responsible and that Germany must
pay for the entire cost of the war to every nation
which had incurred any war expense. The total
amount had not been determined so they were responsible
for an indeterminate amount. Failure to pay this amount,
however great would result in military action against
Germany.
Treaty of Versailles
Flawed Peace
 Germany was stripped of virtually all of its military
establishment. The Army was to be reduced to a maximum
of 100,000 men. They would have only rifles, side-arms and
a limited number of machine guns. They would be allowed
no artillery or tanks.
 The German’s would be allowed no military aircraft of
any sort. They would be allowed no Zeppelin airships.
They would be allowed no aircraft factories.
 The German’s would surrender all naval vessels to the Allies.
They would be allowed no capital ship of more than
12,000 tons. They would be allowed no submarines.
They would not be allowed to build submarines.
Treat of Versailles
The Flawed Peace
 Germany would be forced to Demilitarize the
Rhineland, a strip of Germany 30 miles wide along the
Rhine frontier between Germany and France. In this area
they could base no troops and raise no fortifications. They
would do the same in the Ruhr Valley, their primary center
of steel production.
 Germany would surrender portions of East Prussia to the
newly recreated nation of Poland.
 Germany would give up all overseas colonies.
 Germany would never be allowed to join any military
alliance and would never be allowed to restore its
Empire.
Treaty of Versailles
Flawed Peace
 Germany was utterly defeated. When the German
delegation was called into the Palace of Versailles to sign the
treaty, they were aghast. When they questioned the
document they were told either sign or the war will be
renewed. The Germans had already suffered from the effects
of 8 more months of British blockade, which continued on
after the Armistice. They had seen their Army and Navy melt
away, while British, French and American troops occupied
German cities. They had no choice but to sign. They had
signed their own death warrants and had signed a guarantee
that the Great War would lead to an even Greater one.