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AP Human Geography Review
Theories and Models
The Demographic Transition Model
Stage One



High birth rates
High death rates
Slow population growth
Stage Two



Falling death rates
Continuing high birth rates
Population increases rapidly
Stage Three


Birth rates
slow
Population
growth rate
slows down
Stage Four



Low birth rates
Low death rates
Low rate of natural increase.
Stage Five?


Population
decrease?
Such low birth
rates that there are
actually negative
population growth
rates in countries
that have fallen
below replacement
TFR.
World Population Growth Through History
Billions
12
11
2100
10
9
Old
Stone
7 Age
8
New Stone Age
Bronze
Age
Iron
Age
6
Modern
Age
Middle
Ages
2000
Future
5
4
1975
3
1950
2
1
Black Death —The Plague
1900
1800
1+ million 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 A.D. A.D. A.D. A.D. A.D. A.D.
years B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. 1 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Source: Population Reference Bureau; and United Nations, World Population Projections to 2100 (1998).
© 2003 Population Reference Bureau
Ravenstein's Laws of Migration


Ravenstein came up with his "laws" of migration in the 1880s based
on studies carried out in the UK.
The laws are as follows
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

The greatest body of migrants travel short distances.
This produces currents directed towards large commercial centres.
Each current has an off-setting counter-current in the opposite direction.
Both currents display similar characteristics
Long distance movements are directed towards large commercial centres.
People in urban areas migrate less than people in rural areas.
Males migrate more over long distances and females migrate more over
short distances.
Additions to These Laws
• Most migrants are between 20-34 years of age.
• People mainly move for economic reasons.
• Urban housing development is inadequate for the influx of migrants so
ghettoes/shanties are formed.
Agriculture Theory
• With increased
food supply and
increased
population,
speakers from
the hearth of
Indo-European
languages
migrated into
Europe.
Gravity Model

This theory states that larger towns are more
attractive to immigrants than smaller towns.
Push-Pull Theory

Any migration is as a result of push forces at the
origin and pull forces at the destination.
• Examples of push forces are famine, war and poverty.
• Examples of pull forces are availability of food, peace
and wealth.
Consequences of Migration

Demographic Consequences:
• Changes in the numbers and distribution of people within a region
are changed.
• Intermarriages are created, leading to a new group of people.

Social Consequences:
• Migration brings different people together leading to conflicts.
• Migration however also creates understanding between different
groups of people.
• Rural-Urban migration creates ghettoes in cities.

Economic Consequences:
• This depends on the "quality" of the migrants and the economic
needs of the origin and destination. Quality refers to skills, age,
educational attainment, health etc.
• In overpopulated areas, emigration is beneficial because it reduces
the pressure on the land.
• In under-populated areas, emigration may slow down
development.
Dispersal Hypothesis
Indo-European languages first moved from the hearth
eastward into present-day Iran and then around the Caspian
and into Europe.
Renfrew Hypothesis:
Proto-Indo-European began in the Fertile Crescent, and then:
From Anatolia diffused Europe’s languages
From the Western Arc of Fertile Crescent diffused North
Africa and Arabia’s languages
From the Eastern Arc of Fertile Crescent diffused Southwest
Asia and South Asia’s languages.
Development Models
Modernization Model

Walt Rostow’s model assumes all countries
follow a similar path to development or
modernization, advancing through five stages
of development, climbing a ladder of
development.
- traditional
- preconditions of takeoff
- takeoff
- drive to maturity
- high mass consumption
Rostow’s Ladder of Development
Dependency Theory
The political and economic relationships between
countries and regions of the world control and
limit the economic development possibilities of
poorer areas.
-Economic structures make poorer
countries dependent on wealthier
countries.
-Little hope for economic prosperity in
poorer countries.
-Relates to neocolonialism
Von Thünen Model
Von Thűnen Model
Von Thunen’s model is the beginning of
location economics and analysis (1826)
World-Systems Theory
Immanuel Wallerstein’s World-Systems Theory
states:
1. The world economy has one market and a global
division of labour.
2. Although the world has multiple states, almost
everything takes place within the context of the
world economy.
3. The world economy has a three-tier structure.
Construction of the World Economy



Capitalism – people, corporations, and
states produce goods and services and
exchange them in the world market, with
the goal of achieving profit.
Commodification – the process of placing a
price on a good and then buying, selling,
and trading the good.
Colonialism – brought the world into the
world economy, setting up an
interdependent global economy.
The Three Tier Structure
Core


Periphery
Processes that incorporate higher
levels of education, higher salaries,
and more technology.
Generate more wealth in the world
economy


Processes that incorporate lower
levels of education, lower salaries,
and less technology
Generate less wealth in the world
economy
Semi-periphery


Places where core and periphery
processes are both occurring. Places
that are exploited by the core but
then exploit the periphery.
Serves as a buffer between core and
periphery
World Systems Theory
Ratzel’s organic theory of the state



The Germans were instrumental in developing
the field of Geopolitics (Geopolitk).
In 1897, the German geographer Friedrich Ratzel
developed his "organic theory". This theory
contend that the state is like an organism
attached to the earth that competes with other
states to thrive.
Like all living organisms, the state needs
lebensraum - living space.
Mackinder’s Heartland Theory


Sir Halford John Mackinder was a British
geographer who wrote a paper in 1904 called "The
Geographical Pivot of History." He suggested that
control of Eastern Europe was vital to control of the
world. He formulated his hypothesis as:
• Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland
• Who rules the Heartland commands the WorldIsland
• Who rules the World-Island commands the world
Mackinder's Heartland the Pivot Area) is the core
area of Eurasia, and the World-Island is all of
Eurasia (both Europe and Asia).
Mackinder’s Heartland Theory
Location Theory

Location Theory – seeks to predict where
businesses or industries will or should be
located.
Considers:
- Variable costs
- Friction of distance
Location Models
Weber’s Model
Manufacturing plants
will locate where costs
are the least (least cost
theory)
Theory:
Least Cost Theory
Costs: Transportation,
Labour, Agglomeration
Hotelling’s Model
Location of an industry
cannot be understood
without reference to
other industries of the
same kind.
Theory:
Locational
interdependence
Losch’s Model
Manufacturing plants
choose locations where
they can maximize
profit.
Theory:
Zone of Profitability
Losch’s
Model
Central Place Theory
Walter Christaller developed a model to predict
how and where central places in the urban
hierarchy (hamlets, villages, towns, and cities)
would be functionally and spatially distributed.
Christaller assumed that:
• surface is flat with no physical barriers
• soil fertility is the same everywhere
• population and purchasing power are evenly
distributed
• region has uniform transportation network
• from any given place, a good or service could be sold
in all directions out to a certain distance
Hexagonal Hinterlands
C = city
T = town
V = village
H = hamlet
Modelling the North American City



Concentric zone model (Ernest Burgess)
Sector model (Homer Hoyt)
Multiple Nuclei Model (Chauncy Harris
and Edward Ullman)
Three Classical Models of Urban Structure
Urban Realms Model
Each realm is a
separate
economic, social
and political
entity that is
linked together to
form a larger
metro framework.
Latin
American
City
(GriffinFord
model)
The African City
(de Blij model)
Southeast
Asian City
(McGee
model)