Download Referencing of the timeline

Historical Timeline of the English Language
Isabelle Palad*
Analyst, Department of Justice Canada
Francophonie, Justice in Official Languages and Legal Dualism
Original version: December 12, 2012 – Revised version: January 17, 2013
Table of Contents
I.
The Pre-English Era: Celtic Languages and the Roman Latin Influence ................................ 2
a.
Celtic Invasion and Settlement – 800 BCE to 100 CE ........................................................ 2
b.
Roman Invasions of the British Isles – 55-54 BCE and 43 CE ........................................... 3
II.
The Latin-Celtic Backdrop and Incoming Germanic Languages ............................................ 4
a.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire – 410 CE ..................................................................... 4
b.
Germanic Invasions in the British Isles – 300-500 CE ....................................................... 5
III. The Emergence of Old English (Anglo-Saxon) ...................................................................... 6
a.
Formation of Germanic Kingdoms in Britain – 600-800 CE .............................................. 6
b.
Christianity and the Rise of Wessex in England – 5th to 9th centuries ................................. 8
c.
Viking Incursions in the Kingdom of England – 8th to 11th centuries ............................... 11
IV. Invasion of Romance Languages and the Emergence of Middle English ............................. 13
a.
V.
Norman Conquest of England – 1066 CE ......................................................................... 13
Declining Status of French and Assertion of the English Language in England ................... 16
a.
Magna Carta and the Barons‟ Wars – 12th and 13th centuries............................................ 16
b.
Hundred Years‟ War – 1337 to 1453................................................................................. 18
c.
Black Death – 1348 to 1350 .............................................................................................. 20
VI. Standardization and Diffusion of the Language: The Early Modern English Era ................. 21
a.
b.
First Printing Press – 1476 ................................................................................................ 21
Rise of Protestantism and the Pivotal Reign of Henry VIII – 16th century ....................... 22
c.
Bible Literacy in the English Vernacular – 16th and 17th centuries ................................... 24
VII. Establishment and Internationalization of the Late Modern English Standard ..................... 26
a.
Samuel Johnson‟s Dictionary – 1755 ................................................................................ 26
b.
The English Language in North America – 16th and 17th centuries ................................... 27
VIII. The Differentiation of English in North America and Contemporary English...................... 28
a.
American Revolutionary War: American and Canadian English – 18th Century .............. 28
b.
Emergence of Contemporary English – 18th Century Onward .......................................... 30
*
The views expressed in this paper are those of the author and do not necessarily represent the views of the
Department of Justice Canada. The author would like to thank Chantal-Marie Brière for revising the
English version of this text.
1
I.
The Pre-English Era: Celtic Languages and the Roman Latin Influence
a.
Celtic Invasion and Settlement – 800 BCE to 100 CE
The Celtic peoples were “warrior tribes” whose origins likely stemmed from the Danube
region. These tribes, who wielded the best iron weaponry and engaged in widespread
trade along the Atlantic coast, had expanded their occupation of Western Europe –
settling as far as Spain (northern Iberia) and northern Italy – between the 5th century BCE
and the Roman conquests.1 As a result, a substantial part of Europe spoke varieties of
Celtic language.2
Celtic peoples lacked political unification. However, they commonly spoke varieties of
Celtic language which are categorized as a group under the Indo-European language
family. Although Celtic invasion and settlement in modern-day France started around
1500 BCE during the Bronze Age,3 settlement in the British Isles took place between the
8th and 6th centuries BCE, during the earliest part of the Iron Age.4 The settlement
patterns of Celtic peoples throughout Europe produced marked divisions among the
languages they spoke. These languages can be divided into Continental Celtic languages
and Insular Celtic languages. Lepontic, Celto-Iberian and Gaulish are classified as
Continental Celtic languages, whereas Goidelic (i.e. Irish, Manx, and Scottish Gaelic)
and Brythonic (Welsh, Cornish, and Breton) languages fall under the Insular Celtic
languages group – which all surviving modern Celtic languages stem from.5
Many Celtic language varieties disappeared over time with the Roman occupation and, in
a more pronounced manner, with the subsequent Germanic invasions of the British Isles
during the 5th century.6 Segments of the Celtic population were displaced across the
Channel and settled in a region within north-western France, known today as the Britanny
peninsula.7 Although they brought Celtic and Latin language varieties to this region,
Britanny is associated with one of the surviving modern Celtic languages: Breton.8
1
History of the French Language, Site for language management in Canada, [online],
[http://www.slmc.uottawa.ca/?q=french_history] (December 28, 2011).
2
OSTLER, Nicholas. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World, New York, HarperCollins,
2005, pp. 274-276.
3
LECOMTE, Louis (ed.), “Gaule”, Encyclopædia Universalis, corpus 10, 5th ed., Paris, Encyclopædia
Universalis, 2002, p. 5.
4
History of the English Language, Site for language management in Canada, [online],
[http://www.slmc.uottawa.ca/?q=english_history] (December 28, 2011). See also: HEIBERG, D. (ed.),
“United Kingdom”, The New Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th ed., Macropædia, Chicago, Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 2002, p. 21.
5
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Celtic languages”, The New Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th ed., Micropædia,
Chicago, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2002, p. 17.
6
SOLODOW, Joseph B. Latin Alive: The Survival of Latin in English and the Romance Languages, New
York, Cambridge University Press, 2010, p. 45.
7
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Celtic languages”, 2002, p. 17.
8
SOLODOW, Joseph B., 2010, p. 45.
2
b.
Roman Invasions of the British Isles – 55-54 BCE and 43 CE
As a general and a statesman, Julius Caesar played a central role in the transition of the
Roman Republic into a vast European empire. Caesar expanded the Roman presence
across Europe after acquiring the provinces of Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul (“south”
of the Alps9 and “beyond” or “across” the Alps).10 From both provinces, Caesar gathered
the necessary resources to pursue his campaign across northwestern Europe, beginning
with the rest of Atlantic Gaul which was conquered between 58 and 50 BCE.11 His next
objective was the conquest of the British Isles, for which he prepared two separate
invasions: the first in 55 BCE and the second in 54 BCE.12 The invasions did not result in
the full annexation of the British Isles given that Caesar‟s efforts were strained by a
number of revolts erupting throughout Gaul.13 It was only through the campaign of
Emperor Claudius in 43 CE, who was equipped with four legions of 10,000 men, that this
phase of the conquest was deemed complete.14
Strategically-speaking, this territorial occupation known as Britannia represented an
“imperial command of the first rank” which became “an important Roman governorship”
for the empire.15 Roman Britain or Britannia, which began with Emperor Claudius‟
invasion, lasted until 410 CE (see Fall of the Western Roman Empire).16
The impacts of this era fuelled the Romanization of the local languages, as well as the
adoption of Roman values. Romanization, in the context of languages, refers to the use of
Latin for official documents and literature. This process was mostly visible among the
elite in urban towns while Celtic language varieties endured in rural areas. Generally and
over time, Latin never became the common language in Britain;17 rather, Latin-Celtic
bilingualism was common during the Roman occupation – especially among the upper
classes.18
9
Oxford English Dictionary, [online], “Cisalpine (adj.)”, [http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/33451]
(September 26, 2012).
10
Oxford English Dictionary, [online], “Transalpine (adj.)”, [http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/204586]
(September 26, 2012).
11
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Cæsar”, The New Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th ed., Macropædia, Chicago,
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2002, p. 403.
12
LECOMTE, Louis (ed.), “César”, Encyclopædia Universalis, corpus 5, 5th ed., Paris, Encyclopædia
Universalis, 2002, p. 234.
13
Ibid.
14
History of the English Language, Site for language management in Canada, [online]. See also:
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “United Kingdom”, 2002, p. 21; LECOMTE, Louis (ed.), “Grande-Bretagne
(histoire)”, Encyclopædia Universalis, corpus 10, 5th ed., Paris, Encyclopædia Universalis, 2002, p. 572.
15
SHERMAN, C.P., “The Romanization of English Law”, (1914) 23-4 Yale L.J. 318.
16
BBC History – British History in Depth, BBC Online, [online],
[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/interactive/timelines/british/index_embed.shtml] (December 22, 2011).
17
OSTLER, Nicholas, 2005, p. 295.
18
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “United Kingdom”, 2002, p. 24. See also: History of the English Language, Site for
language management in Canada, [online].
3
II.
The Latin-Celtic Backdrop and Incoming Germanic Languages
a.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire – 410 CE
During the 4th century, the Roman Empire underwent important reforms under the
emperor Diocletian (284-305 CE). Following a period of civil war and economic
depression, these reforms occurred through the division of the empire under many
different rulers in order to stabilize the empire.19 Combined with the reign of Constantine
I (306-337 CE), who further entrenched such reforms while shifting the empire towards
Christianity and a tolerance for all religions,20 the empire gained a renewed foundation
upon which its two halves – the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire
– could thrive.21
Despite these reforms, the Western Empire eventually collapsed in the early 5th century
due to internal weaknesses – i.e. shortages of manpower and leadership, decline in social
order – aggravated by the numerous conflicts it encountered with Germanic tribes.22 The
Goths, Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Vandals, Lombards, Angles and Saxons tribes, among
others, were tribes that came from regions across northern Germany and Scandinavia and
settled along the empire‟s borders.23 The conflicts between the Germanic tribes and the
empire‟s armies began in the 1st century CE and increased in intensity and frequency over
time.24 A key reason for the growing hostilities was the emergence of the Huns, who
were an East Asian people that conquered vast stretches of land across Western Europe in
the 4th century.25 Fearing Hunnish assaults, Germanic tribes, including the Goths and
Visigoths, sought protection within the Roman Empire – which was granted by Emperor
Valens in 376 CE.
Capitalizing on the internal weaknesses of the Western Roman Empire, the Visigoths26
attacked and weakened the Roman armies and in 410 CE (see Germanic invasions) they
sacked the city of Rome under their leader Alaric I.27 Throughout the 5th century, the
19
FRASSETTO, M. Encyclopedia of Barbarian Europe: Society in Transformation, Santa Barbara, ABCCLIO, 2003, p. xiv.
20
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Constantine I”, [online],
[www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/133873/Constantine-I] (October 4, 2012).
21
FRASSETTO, M., 2003, p. xiv.
22
SOLODOW, Joseph B., 2010, p. 32.
23
FRASSETTO, M., 2003, pp. xv-xvi.
24
Ibid., p. xv.
25
Ibid., p. xvi.
26
The Visigoths, a Germanic people, were originally an agricultural society based in modern-day Romania.
Due to conflicts with nomadic tribes, notably the Huns in the 4th century, the Visigoths were driven south
into parts of the Roman Empire across the Danube River. A number of revolts against the empire‟s
presence in various Balkan regions led to the sack of Rome in 401. The Visigoths then successfully settled
and expanded in southern Gaul and Spain in the early 5th century, though eventually losing most their
possessions in Gaul to the Franks, and their remaining possessions to Muslim invaders later in the 7th
century (HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Visigoth”, The New Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th ed., Micropædia,
Chicago, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2002, p. 397).
27
FRASSETTO, M., 2003, p. xvi.
4
Visigoths and other Germanic tribes continued their campaigns towards Western Europe,
forcing a gradual breakdown of the Western Roman Empire with every attack.28
The collapse and breakdown of the Western Roman Empire greatly impacted the
language scenarios across Europe. The way in which Germanic tribes forged their paths
across imperial lands would ultimately have an “immense influence in determining the
boundaries of Roman speech we find today”29 – as well as impacting the degree to which
Germanic language varieties maintain their fundamental traits or become Latinized, and
vice versa.
b.
Germanic Invasions in the British Isles – 300-500 CE
Before the city of Rome was sacked by the Visigoths in 410 CE, Honorius (395-423 CE)
– the first emperor of the Western Roman Empire – recalled his legions from Britannia
between 407 and 410 CE, thus abandoning its inhabitants in the wake of incoming
Germanic tribes (see Fall of the Western Roman Empire).30
In the 4th and 5th centuries CE, Germanic peoples began settling in the southern coasts
and river valleys of Britain as foederati, or “allies of Roman and post-Roman
authorities.”31 These Roman mercenaries consisted of Angles, Saxons, Frisians, Jutes,
and Franks – most of whom originated from parts of Denmark. Despite their diverse
origins, they commonly identified themselves as Angles and Saxons.32 It is believed that
these mercenaries initiated the first significant revolts against the remaining Roman
authorities in Britain during the mid-5th century.33
From the mid-5th century onward, large numbers of Germanic peoples immigrated to the
British Isles. These people, including the mercenaries, were considered to be Germanic
as they were part of westbound-migrating populations whose cultural and linguistic
differences (apart from the local Celtic-Roman population) became obvious as they
neared the lower Rhine River region and moved further into Britannia.34 It became clear
that Germanic peoples spoke a distinguishable group of language varieties.35
Despite the ending of the Roman occupation, Latin would remain the language of
learning in Britain until the Renaissance during the 15th and 16th centuries, while Latin
speech would eventually fade out in the 5th century. 36 Latin speech was therefore being
28
Ibid.
SOLODOW, Joseph B., 2010, p. 32.
30
LECOMTE, Louis (ed.), “Grande-Bretagne (histoire)”, 2002, p. 572. See also: History of the English
Language, Site for language management in Canada, [online].
31
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “United Kingdom”, 2002, p. 25.
32
History of the English Language, Site for language management in Canada, [online].
33
THOMAS, C. Christianity in Roman Britain to CE 500, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1981,
p. 271.
34
LECOMTE, Louis (ed.), “Germains”, Encyclopædia Universalis, corpus 10, 5th ed., Paris, Encyclopædia
Universalis, 2002, p. 305.
35
Ibid.
36
OSTLER, Nicholas, 2005, p. 303.
29
5
gradually replaced with Germanic language varieties given that the ruling elites had fled
their domain. Also, this was due to the fact that the Romans in Britain were, in many
cases, “hunted down” during the Germanic invasions.37
Latin was revived in the late 6th century through the adoption of Christianity by the
Germanic peoples.38 Their abandonment of pagan faith was due to the efforts of
St. Augustine and his congregation of missionaries, who were sent to the British Isles by
Pope Gregory I in 596 CE in order to carry out the conversion of the region (see
Christianity and the Rise of Wessex).39
Alongside these impacts upon Latin, the “invading” Germanic languages also affected –
and were being affected by – Britain‟s Celtic presence. Even though Celtic languages
were mostly assimilated, or displaced towards modern-day Cornwall and Wales,
Germanic invaders would commonly borrow terms from Celtic vocabulary. 40
The Germanic languages that invaded Britain, notably those spoken by the Jutes, Angles,
and Saxons, were fore the most part kept in tact. Meanwhile, the Runic Alphabet was
often used for written language.41 Over time, the name “Engla land” (or “Angle-land”)
was given to the collective territory belonging to these three groups of Germanic peoples.
Furthermore, the name of “Englisc” was given to their speech, even though the various
tribes retained their respective language varieties.42 Overall, the phenomenon of language
replacement and displacement that took place in Britain was seen as unprecedented for
that particular time period. It was considered “the one and only time that Germanic
conquerors were able to hold on to their own language.”43
III.
The Emergence of Old English (Anglo-Saxon)
a.
Formation of Germanic Kingdoms in Britain – 600-800 CE
From the Germanic invasion and settlement emerged a heptarchy of “political units”
based on the various ships of peoples that landed in Britain and the allegiances of the
ships‟ captains to the monarchies of their homelands.44 By 600 CE, the seven Germanic
kingdoms of England consisted of Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Wessex,
Sussex, and Kent.45
Four different groups of “Anglo-Saxon” languages came to be associated with the main
regions of the heptarchy: Northumbrian for the language(s) spoken north of the Humber
37
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Languages of the World”, The New Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th ed.,
Macropædia, Chicago, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2002, p. 630.
38
SHERMAN, C. P., 1914, p. 318.
39
Ibid.
40
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Languages of the World”, 2002, p. 640.
41
History of the English Language, Site for language management in Canada, [online].
42
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Languages of the World”, 2002, p. 659.
43
OSTLER, Nicholas, 2005, p. 310.
44
PILKINGTON, C. Devolution in Britain Today, Manchester, Manchester University Press, 2002, p. 20.
45
Ibid.
6
River; Wessex for the language(s) spoken south of the Thames River; Mercian for the
language(s) spoken between the Humber and Thames rivers (the midlands); and Kentish
for the language(s) spoken within the kingdom of Kent itself.46 The language scenario
inevitably changed due to the Viking incursions which took place across the British Isles
during the 8th and 9th centuries: the first wave consisting of Danes, and the subsequent
wave consisting of Norwegians entering England from Ireland and the Western Isles (see
Viking Incursions).47
Over the year, regions of the heptarchy merged and took turns as the center of political
power in England. The first kingdoms to occupy this role were Northumbria during the
7th century under the rule of Æthelfrith (593-616 CE)48 and Mercia during the 8th century
under Æthelbald (716-757 CE), followed by his successor Offa (757-796 CE).49 Offa
achieved an important series of mergers to maintain the dominance of Mercia,
specifically “annexing the kingdoms of Kent, Sussex and Wessex and acquiring London
and Middlesex from Essex, while [he] completed the making of his kingdom with the
addition of East Anglia in 794.”50
As a result of the Viking incursions and subsequent establishment of a permanent army in
England during the 9th century, political leadership became increasingly concentrated
within Wessex under Egbert (802-839 CE), who had acquired the kingdoms of Kent and
Essex.51 The Kingdom of Wessex – under Egbert‟s successors, Æthelwulf (839-858 CE),
Æthelred I (865-871 CE), and Ælfred (871-899 CE) – withstood numerous Viking attacks
while gaining control of large portions of Mercian lands.52 The subsequent three
generations of successors to the House of Wessex were marked by a series of gains
across East Anglia and Northumbria as well as subsequent reversals at the hands of the
Viking armies.53
The central role of Wessex made it a unifying kingdom for the Anglo-Saxon landscape,
especially at the height of its power under Edgar (959-975 CE) – the “first English king
to open his reign with a coronation,” held at Bath in 973 CE.54 His son Æthelred II (9791016 CE), however, faced another aggressive wave of Viking incursions before the
“unified” English kingdom was eventually conquered by the Danish king Cnut (Canute or
Knut) in 1016 (see Viking incursions).55
46
SKEAT, W. W. English Dialects: From the Eighth Century to the Present Day, Teddington, Echo
Library, 2006, p. 5. Sources differ on the regional categorization of these language groups, see: HEIBERG,
D. (ed.), “Languages of the World”, 2002, p. 659.
47
LECOMTE, Louis (ed.), “Grande-Bretagne (histoire)”, 2002, p. 572.
48
PILKINGTON, C., 2002, p. 20.
49
HAIGH, C. (ed.). The Cambridge Historical Encyclopedia of Great Britain and Ireland, Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press, 1985, p. 60.
50
PILKINGTON, C., 2002, p. 20.
51
HAIGH, C. (ed.), 1985, p. 60.
52
Ibid. See also: HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Languages of the World”, 2002, p. 659.
53
HAIGH, C. (ed.), 1985, p. 60.
54
PILKINGTON, C., 2002, pp. 20-21.
55
HAIGH, C. (ed.), 1985, p. 60. See also: LECOMTE, Louis (ed.), “Grande-Bretagne (histoire)”, 2002,
p. 572.
7
Alongside the growing status of Wessex was the growing dominance of its West Saxon
language(s), which later became known as standard Old English.56 Sources refer to OLD
ENGLISH or (ANGLO-SAXON) as the earliest stage of the local vernacular which, for some
authors, also encompasses the language varieties associated with the different Germanic
kingdoms.57 This stage spans from approximately 450 CE to 1150 CE,58 thus beginning
with the invasion and settlement of Germanic peoples and ending with the Norman
Conquest of Britain in 1066 CE – as well as the first century of Norman rule.59 Despite
the political turmoil caused by the Viking threat, standard Old English was developed
into a literary language by the 9th century.60
b.
Christianity and the Rise of Wessex in England – 5th to 9th centuries
A key element underlying the growing status of the Wessex kingdom in England during
the 8th and 9th centuries was its alignment with Christianity. Such an alignment, in turn,
created important impacts upon the language scenario throughout Britain.
When the Western Roman Empire collapsed in Britain around 410 CE, Christianity was
gradually replaced by the pagan faith of the invading Germanic peoples.61 However, in
the late 6th century, Pope St. Gregory I sent St. Augustine to lead a mission to evangelize
England.62 He was able to convert the kingdom of Kent and its king, Æthelbert I (580590 CE), establishing the town of Canterbury as the primatial see of England – led by St.
Augustine himself as its first archbishop. He established the Episcopal sees of London in
604 CE, thus further contributing to the institutional foundations of Christianity in
southern England.63
St. Augustine, the apostle of England, had set off a gradual conversion towards
Christianity throughout Britain that was deemed complete by the late 7th century.64 The
56
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Languages of the World”, 2002, p. 659. Walter W. Skeat (2006) adds that textual
evidence of the languages of the different Germanic kingdoms was made available through a document
prepared for the Early English Text Society published in 1885, and that any textual evidence prior to this
date was mostly written in West Saxon (Wessex) (p. 5). The author, however, does not elaborate on the
nature or purpose of the textual evidence.
57
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “English language”, The New Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th ed., Micropædia,
Chicago, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2002, p. 501. Walter W. Skeat (2006) provides an interesting
discussion on the implications of conceptualizing this initial language stage as “Anglo-Saxon” or “Old
English” (p. 5).
58
History of the English Language, Site for language management in Canada, [online]. See also:
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Languages of the World”, 2002, p. 640.
59
DURKIN, P., “Old English – an overview”, Oxford English Dictionary, [online],
[http://www.oed.com/page/oldenglishintro/Old+English$an+overview] (November 13, 2011).
60
OSTLER, Nicholas, 2005, p. 457.
61
Les Anglo-Saxons à la conquête de la « Bretagne », Questmachine Encyclopédie, [online],
[www.questmachine.org/article/Conqu%C3%Aate_de_la_Bretagne_par_les_Anglo-Saxons] (April 2,
2012).
62
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Augustine”, The New Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th ed., Micropædia, Chicago,
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2002, p. 700.
63
Ibid.
64
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Languages of the World”, 2002, p. 658. According to Bentley and Ziegler (2011),
the spread of Christianity throughout Western Europe was also enabled by the absorption of Roman culture
8
kingdom of Wessex, which emerged as the unifying kingdom of England during the 9th
century, gained much of its status through the reign of Alfred the Great (849-899 CE) –
whose leadership was defined by his own ties to the Christian faith. Firstly, he
accompanied his father, Æthelwulf of Wessex (839-858 CE), to Rome in 853 to be
accepted as godson to Pope Leo IV (847-855 CE).65 He was also received into the
Carolingian court by Charles the Bald, Holy Roman Emperor (875-877 CE) and King of
the Franks (840-877 CE).66 The Franks were a group of Germanic tribes that founded
modern-day France. They originated from the east bank of the lower Rhine River area
and established a dominant stronghold which expanded east into modern-day Belgium by
the end of the 5th century.67
The Franks built this hegemony through the Merovingian dynasty (500-751 CE), which
was named after its founder Merovech (who died in 458 CE).68 Among the notable
monarchs of this Frankish dynasty was Clovis I (466-511 CE), who took advantage of the
collapsing Roman Empire by unifying the Frankish tribes under a single kingdom under
his rule.69 Part of the unification process was rooted in Clovis‟ conversion to Catholicism,
as symbolized by his baptism sometime in the late 5th century or early 6th century.70
The abandonment of pagan faith and the movement towards Christianity became a
widespread phenomenon throughout the kingdom during the succeeding Frankish
dynasty. They were the Carolingians (750-887 CE), named after the founder Charles
Martel (or Carolus Martellus in Latin).71 The Carolingian monarchs, Pépin (752-768 CE)
and Charlemagne (768-814 CE), ensured the growth of the Frankish kingdom by
fostering a relationship with the Roman papacy.72 Each monarch had turns at defending
Rome from siege and occupation by other Germanic tribes, notably the Lombards.73 The
symbolic moment of this relationship occurred in 800 CE when Charlemagne was
by the Germanic peoples. This absorption process is reflected in their conversion towards Christianity as
well as the adoption and adaptation, in some cases, of Roman law (p. 333).
65
BUNSON, M. Encyclopedia of Catholic History Revised, Huntington, OSV, 2004, p. 65.
66
Ibid.
67
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Frank”, The New Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th ed., Micropædia, Chicago,
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2002, p. 936.
68
ANDERSON, D., BINGHAM J., CHRISP, P., GAVETTE, C. Exploring the Middle Ages, Tarrytown,
Marshall Cavendish, 2006, p. 513. Merriam-Webster Dictionary, [online], “Merovingian”, [www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/merovingian] (October 2, 2012).
69
History of the French Language, Site for language management in Canada, [online]. See also:
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Gaul”, The New Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th ed., Micropædia, Chicago,
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2002, p. 149.
70
Cusack (1998) notes that the exact date of Clovis I‟s baptism varies between 496 and 508 CE depending
on the source (p. 72).
71
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Frank”, 2002, p. 936.
72
This dynasty takes its name from Carolus Martellus, the Latin name of Charles Martel who was the
founder (BENTLEY, J. and ZIEGLER, H. Traditions and Encounters, 5th ed., vol. 1, McGraw-Hill, 2011,
p. 333).
73
The Lombards were a Germanic tribe originally based in modern-day Austria, around the lower basin of
the Elbe River, who established small strongholds scattered throughout north and central Italy during the 7th
century (YUST, W. (ed.), “Lombards”, The Encyclopædia Brtiannica, 14th ed., Chicago, Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1958, p. 342). See also: OSTLER, Nicholas. Ad infinitum: A Biography of Latin, New
York, Walker & Company, 2007, p. 131.
9
crowned the first Holy Roman Emperor of the “revived medieval Roman Empire” in
Rome.74 Charlemagne therefore unified a western counterpart to the Byzantine Empire,
which was a “direct continuation of the Roman empire” in the regions east of the
Mediterranean basin that lasted until the mid-15th century.75
Through his contact with the Carolingian court and Charlemagne‟s grandson, Charles the
Bald, Alfred the Great of Wessex “cultivated a rule of artistic, legal, and intellectual
achievement”76 within England which followed the themes of the Carolingian renaissance
within the expansive Frankish kingdom. The renaissance, initiated by Charlemagne,
sought to elevate “religious observance, morality and the process of justice”77 by
emphasizing a return to classical Latin. This objective demanded the hired assistance of
scholars and grammarians, notably Alcuin of York, to guide the revival of a “purer”
Latin.78
The rise of Wessex as the dominant Anglo-Saxon presence in England was enabled by
Alfred‟s alignment with the key cultural and religious trends of the broader western
European context: the spread of Christianity as well as the restoration (and continuity) of
Roman classicism (see also Viking Incursions). On one level, such continuity ensured
that Latin would remain the dominant language, particularly in the spheres of religion,
governance, and academia.79 On another level, the revival of classical Latin contributed
to a marked divergence between vernacular speech and written language across Britain as
well as modern-day France and Spain. Texts written in the vernacular speech began to
emerge in the 8th and 9th centuries,80 and in the case of the English language, according to
Philip Durkin (2012): “[n]early all of our surviving documentary evidence for Old
English is mediated through the Church, and the impress of the literary culture of Latin
Christianity is deep on nearly everything that survives in Old English.”81
Another important manifestation of Wessex‟s emergence was the mobilization of 7thcentury Anglo-Saxon laws by Alfred. He compiled a code from these previous laws –
originating from Mercia, Kent, and Wessex itself – which was used as a pseudo-legal
74
SHERMAN, C. P., 1914, p. 319.
BENTLEY, J. and ZIEGLER, H. Traditions and Encounters, 2011, p. 328. See also: HEIBERG, D. (ed.),
“Frank”, 2002, p. 936. It is interesting to note that the term “Holy Roman Empire” is translated in French as
le Saint Empire Romain Germanique, thus emphasizing the Germanic and Christian character of the empire
as it stood at that particular point in history.
76
BUNSON, M., 2004, p. 65.
77
Ibid.
78
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Languages of the World”, 2002, pp. 630-631. For more on Alcuin‟s career, see:
Stenton (1971) at pp. 188-189.
79
McKITTERICK, R., “The Carolingian Renaissance of Culture and Learning” in STORY, J. (ed.),
Charlemagne: Empire and Society, Manchester, Manchester University Press, 2005, p. 154.
80
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Languages of the World”, 2002, pp. 630-631. See also: McKITTERICK, R., 2005,
p. 154.
81
DURKIN, P., “Old English – an overview”, Oxford English Dictionary, [online].
75
10
system for his subjects.82 Aspects of this consolidation survived into the Norman
occupation (11th and 12th centuries) and beyond.83
c.
Viking Incursions in the Kingdom of England – 8th to 11th centuries
Charlemagne‟s once powerful and expansive Frankish empire came to an end in 840 CE
due to quarrels over the division of inherited powers among his grandsons Charles the
Bald, Lothair I, and Ludwig the German. The weakened state of the Frankish kingdom
was such that Western Europe, as a whole, became more vulnerable to foreign invasion
and settlement.84 Three different waves of invasions attacked the Frankish realm to
acquire its wealth: Muslims (from the south) who raided Mediterranean Europe, modernday Sicily, southern Italy, and southern France; Magyars (from the east), originally from
modern-day Hungary, who raided regions in modern-day Germany, Italy, and southern
France; and the Vikings or Norsemen (from the north) who carried out the most
significant and widespread incursions throughout Western Europe during the 8th and 9th
centuries CE.85
The Viking incursions took place during the Viking Age (750-1050 CE), a period marked
by population expansion of the Nordic peoples throughout Europe.86 The term “Viking”
was originally reserved for a group of raiders from a region called “Vik” in southern
Norway who led incursions in the British Isles. Over time, this term was broadly applied
to seafarers from northern Europe (modern-day Norway, Sweden and Denmark) with
Germanic cultural roots, who invaded territories throughout Europe.87
The expansion was fuelled by different possible reasons, notably the search for
commercial trade opportunities and the search for new lands for cultivation, all of which
were enabled by the advanced shipbuilding and seafaring skills of the Nordic peoples.88
During the mid-9th century, Vikings raided settlements to the southeast of their Nordic
bases, all the way down to the Mediterranean Sea.89 Waves of Viking invasions
eventually veered towards Western Europe and, within the context of the British Isles,
historians commonly identify the Danes as the dominant contingent of invaders.90 The
first significant wave of isolated raids and colonizing attacks by large armies of Danes on
the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms started around 835 CE, following attacks on the Frisian and
Frankish kingdoms.91
82
BUNSON, M., 2004, p. 65.
HAIGH, C. (ed.), 1985, p. 62.
84
HORIZO, Histoire des Vikings, [online], [www.horizo.com/suede/suede_vikings.php] (April 11, 2012).
85
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “United Kingdom”, 2002, p. 28. See also: BENTLEY, J. and Ziegler, H., 2011,
p. 335.
86
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Languages of the World”, 2002, p. 650.
87
BENTLEY, J. and Ziegler, H., 2011, pp. 335-336.
88
Ibid., p. 335. See also: SHORT, W.R. Hurstwic: Norse Lands in the Viking Age, [online],
[www.valhs.org/history/articles/society/text/norse_lands.htm] (April 11, 2012). The author elaborates on
the importance of durable ship designs of Vikings for long-distance travel, alongside their capacity for
larger amounts of cargo.
89
BENTLEY, J. and Ziegler, H., 2011, pp. 335-336.
90
HORIZO, Histoire des Vikings, [online].
91
LOGAN, F. D., The Vikings in History, 3rd ed., New York, Routledge, 2005, p. 123.
83
11
Although this initial wave lasted until approximately 954 CE and inflicted widespread
damage across British landscapes, it did not result in a complete Danish takeover of the
Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.92 However, it led to the necessary “realignment of the power
structure” among the kingdoms, with the territories of Wessex becoming the center of
Anglo-Saxon rule.93 King Alfred (871-899 CE) managed to defend Wessex and maintain
some control over Mercia as well – however, the Danes won control over Northumbria,
East Anglia and parts of Mercia. Their campaigns also won them an implicit right to
settle in vast parts of England.94
A second series of incursions began in 980 CE, with attacks on the Anglo-Saxon
kingdoms growing in intensity and frequency over time.95 This wave ended around
1035 CE with the death of Cnut the Great (Canute or Knut), who had won the English
throne in 1016 through the conquest initiated by his father Swyen I Forkbeard, the king of
Denmark.96 By acquiring the Danish throne in 1018 and control over the Norwegians as
well as a portion of Swedes in 1027-1028,97 Cnut built an Anglo-Scandinavian empire
with England as its power-base and resorted to the aid of local Englishmen to control
these central territories.98 The Danish legacy faded alongside the deaths of Cnut and his
successors, with the return of the English crown to the House of Wessex under Edward
the Confessor in 1042. It was later won by the Normans in 1066 under William II of
Normandy in his conquest of England (see Norman Conquest).99
In terms of cultural impacts, it is known that the Nordic peoples brought their pagan faith,
the Old Norse language, and their phonetic writing system to Western Europe during the
invasion and settlement process.100 However, these aspects of Viking culture did not
thrive in the conquered lands. Beyond word borrowings and the preservation of certain
Norse place-names, Old Norse did not instil any significant changes within the local
vernacular.101 From generation to generation, Norse culture was increasingly integrated
and assimilated into Anglo-Saxon culture – a process similar to the experience of Norse
92
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “United Kingdom”, 2002, p. 28.
LOGAN, F. D., 2005, p. 130.
94
Ibid, p. 132.
95
Ibid, p. 153. See also: HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “United Kingdom”, 2002, p. 30.
96
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Canute (I)”, The New Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th ed., Micropædia, Chicago,
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2002, pp. 820-821.
97
HORIZO, Histoire des Vikings, [online].
98
LARSON, L.M., “The Political Policies of Cnut as King of England”, (1910) 15-4 The American
Historical Review 720.
99
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Canute (I)”, 2002, p. 821.See also: LOGAN, F. D., 2005, pp. 122-123; HORIZO,
Histoire des Vikings, [online]. Upon Cnut‟s death in 1035 CE, the English throne had descended to his two
sons Harthacnut and Harold I (Harefoot). Both sons died shortly after Cnut and the throne reverted to
Edward the Confessor in 1042 CE. Edward died without an heir, which left the duke of Normandy –
William II (Guillaume le Bâtard) – to claim the crown 1051 CE on the grounds that the Normans had
provided support in Edward‟s acquisition of the crown.
100
HORIZO, Histoire des Vikings, [online].
101
PINKER, S. The Language Instinct: How the Mind Creates Language, New York, HarperCollins, 1994,
pp. 250-251.
93
12
settlers amidst Frankish culture in Normandy.102 Simultaneously, written English –
presumably the dominant West Saxon language – was actively employed in official
documents within Anglo-Saxon government structures.103 Written English was fostered,
notably by King Alfred, as a necessary supplement to Latin due to the fact that its
teaching was stalled by Viking attacks upon English learning centers. Later, due to the
Norman Conquest of 1066, official documents were once again written in Latin.104
IV.
Invasion of Romance Languages and the Emergence of Middle English
a.
Norman Conquest of England – 1066 CE
During the 11th century, the powerful Scandinavian ruler Cnut became king of Denmark,
Norway, and England. Upon his death in 1035 CE, the English throne had passed to his
two sons Harthacnut and Harold I (Harefoot).105 Both sons died shortly after Cnut and the
throne reverted to the Old English (Anglo-Saxon) monarchical line in England; Edward
the Confessor succeeded to the throne in 1042 CE. Although Edward died without
children on January 5, 1066, it is claimed that he named the Duke of Normandy –
William II (Guillaume le Bâtard) – to be his successor in 1051 CE.106 This claim was
made on the grounds that the Normans had provided support to Edward‟s acquisition of
the crown.107
Resisting the outcome of a Norman king and a vassal of the French crown, the witan (a
council of English nobles and clergy) “elected and proclaimed” Harold II, son of Godwin
the Earl of Wessex, to be the king of England.108 In response, William II led an invasion
of England which resulted in his crucial victory at the Battle of Hastings on October 14,
1066. As a result of the campaign, Harold II and his brothers Tostig and Sweyn
Godwinson were killed, and William II was crowned king of England at Westminster
Abbey on Christmas Day in 1066.109 As William I of England (Guillaume le
Conquérant), he pursued his conquest of England by dispossessing the Old English
aristocracy and Christian clergy of their lands and archdioceses.110 The control over these
102
Peter Trudgill (2010) offers a possible explanation that Old English and Old Norse were too similar as
related Germanic languages to impact one another significantly. He clarifies that there might have been a
sufficient degree of “lexical similarity” between the two languages to enable communication – though their
morphology was different, specifically with regards to the use of inflexions in Old English. The author adds
that Anglo-Norse interaction would have contributed to the decreasing use of inflexions in English (p. 11).
103
THOMAS, H. M. The Norman Conquest: England after William the Conqueror, Lanham, Rowman &
Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2008, pp. 8-9. See also: SHORT, W.R. Hurstwic: Norse Lands in the Viking
Age, [online], [www.valhs.org/history/articles/society/text/norse_lands.htm] (April 11, 2012).
104
THOMAS, H. M., 2008, pp. 8-9.
105
BARBER, J. W. Elements of General History, New Haven, H.C. Peck, 1866, p. 146.
106
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Norman Conquest”, The New Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th ed., Micropædia,
Chicago, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2002, p. 766.
107
GASTLE, B., “Historical Context for Middle English Literature” in KLINE, D. T. (ed.), The Medieval
British Literature Handbook, London, Continuum, 2009, p. 25. See also: BRITANNIA, William I, the
Conqueror, [online], [www.britannia.com/history/monarchs/mon22.html] (February 13, 2012).
108
BARBER, J. W., 1866, p. 146.
109
INNES, A. D. A History of England and the British Empire: Volume I to 1485, Chestnut Hill,
Adamant/Elibron, 2006, p. 88.
110
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Norman Conquest”, 2002, p. 766.
13
possessions and institutions later shifted to Norman barons, dignitaries, and law
practitioners.111 Through these different processes of occupation, the Normans
“contributed a sense of organisation and administration”112 in order to secure the unified
kingdom of England and expand its borders within the British Isles between 1066 and
1154.113
The Norman occupation thus entailed a unique and complex language scenario in
England: English vernacular languages continued to be spoken by local inhabitants, while
Anglo-Norman (or Anglo-French) was declared the official language of England.
ANGLO-NORMAN (c. 1100 – 1400 CE) was a regional dialect of French which resulted
from the assimilation of the Norse presence, which in turn founded the duchy of
Normandy by the surrounding Frankish culture and its langue d’oïl.114 At the same time,
Latin remained the written language of scholarship, law, and religious administration – as
seen in court judgments, royal commands (writs), and historical records.115
Anglo-Norman thrived in England for approximately two centuries until its usage was
gradually superseded by the language of the Île-de-France.116 It became common practice
for Norman aristocrats to send their children to school in France or to local specialized
schools in order to learn the central Parisian language, thus reflecting its growth in
cultural prestige among the aristocracy and clergy in England.117
The transplanted French languages carried a proliferation of literature in the British Isles
beginning in the 11th century. A classic example is the Chanson de Roland, which was
originally composed around 1100 and more widely published between 1140 and 1170.118
Composed by the Norman poet Turold, it is described as an “Old French epic poem”
which depicts the Battle of Roncevaux of 778 CE (in modern-day Navarre, northern
Spain) between Charlemagne‟s Frankish army and Basque forces.119
During the Norman occupation, the development of the English vernacular was heavily
influenced by the Anglo-Norman and Île-de-France languages, with many of their traits
retained well into the modern era. The Norman Conquest thus catalyzed the MIDDLE
ENGLISH era (c. 1150-1450).120 Three outcomes characterize this period, the first being
the shifting power dynamic among the dialects of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms:
111
History of the English Language, Site for language management in Canada, [online].
PILKINGTON, C. Devolution in Britain Today, Manchester, Manchester University Press, 2002, p. 22.
113
BBC History – British History in Depth, BBC Online, [online]. See also: OSTLER, Nicholas, 2005,
pp. 461-463.
114
DICTIONNAIRES LE ROBERT, “Anglo-normand, ande”, Le nouveau Petit Robert 2011, p. 2049. See
also: OSTLER, Nicholas, 2005, p. 406.
115
OSTLER, Nicholas, 2005, p. 461.
116
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Norman Conquest”, 2002, p. 633.
117
History of the English Language, Site for language management in Canada, [online].
118
Encyclopædia Universalis en-ligne, “La Chanson de Roland”, [online],
[www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/la-chanson-de-roland/] (October 5, 2012).
119
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “La Chanson de Roland ”, [online],
[www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/105825/La-Chanson-de-Roland] (October 5, 2012).
120
OSTLER, Nicholas, 2005, p. 252.
112
14
One result of the Norman Conquest of 1066 was to place all four Old
English dialects more or less on a level. West Saxon lost its supremacy
and the centre of culture and learning gradually shifted from Winchester to
London. The old Northumbrian dialect became divided into Scottish and
Northern, although little is known of either of these divisions before the
end of the 13th century. The old Mercian dialect was split into East and
West Midland. West Saxon became slightly diminished in area and was
more appropriately named the South Western dialect. The Kentish dialect
was considerably extended and was called South Eastern accordingly. All
five Middle English dialects (Northern, West Midland, East Midland,
South Western, and South Eastern) went their own ways and developed
their own characteristics.121
With all dialects placed on an even level relative to the dominant Norman presence, a
shift towards London as the cultural centre occurred. This allowed the dialect of London
to develop and gain important status over the long term.
The second outcome was the frequent borrowing of words from French languages.122
According to Durkin (2012), over 40 per cent of word borrowings from French were
attested in the English language by 1500, a large proportion of which became part of the
Modern English vocabulary.123 Lastly, the third outcome was the adoption of the writing
system used by the Normans, the Carolingian script, which in certain cases affected the
spelling of Old English.124
The English vernacular regained momentum when the king of England, John Lackland or
Jean sans Terre (1199-1216), an Anglo-Norman ruler of the Plantagenet dynasty (11541485), lost Normandy to King Philip II of France in 1202-1204.125 This loss broke ties
with continental Western Europe, thus isolating the language scenario within the British
Isles and allowing the English vernacular to compete with the residing French and Latin
languages (see Barons‟ Wars and the Magna Carta).
121
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Languages of the World”, 2002, p. 660.
LECOMTE, Louis (ed.), “Anglaise (Langue)”, Encyclopædia Universalis, corpus 10, 5th ed., Paris,
Encyclopædia Universalis, 2002, p. 375. See also: HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Languages of the World”, 2002,
p. 660.
123
DURKIN, P., “Middle English – an overview”, Oxford English Dictionary, [online],
[http://public.oed.com/aspects-of-english/english-in-time/middle-english-an-overview/] (October 26, 2012).
124
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Languages of the World”, 2002, p. 501. See also: History of the English
Language, Site for language management in Canada, [online].
125
PINKER, S.,1994, p. 251.
122
15
V.
Declining Status of French and Assertion of the English Language in England
a.
Magna Carta and the Barons’ Wars – 12th and 13th centuries
The king of England, John Lackland or Jean sans Terre (1199-1216), an Anglo-Norman
ruler of the Plantagenet dynasty (1154-1485),126 lost Normandy to King Philip II of the
French Capetian dynasty in 1202-1204.127 Tensions between John and his barons, as well
as the English Catholic church, were brewing over increased taxation and property
confiscations following the costly loss of Normandy. The barons, particularly those from
the northern regions of England, led resistance campaigns against the oppressive actions
of the king.128 Under the threat of civil war, and with the support of the Catholic Church,
the rebellious barons successfully established meeting grounds with King John at
Runnymede, along the Thames River, on June 15, 1215.129 On this date John sealed the
document known as the Articles of the Barons, which later became the basis for the Great
Charter – the Magna Carta.130
The Charter contained sixty chapters of provisions guaranteeing the rights of the Catholic
Church and the provisions which controlled the king‟s feudal practices.131 It also
contained provisions which established the people‟s rights under English common law –
which had already lived a complex process of evolution rooted in King Alfred‟s
codification of existing Saxon law during his reign (849-899 CE),132 its adaptation by
William I during the Norman Conquest (1066), and the codification undertaken by Henry
II (the first Plantagenet monarch) in 1185.133 These rights ultimately enabled a new
power dynamic in which the king would be subject to the rule of law.
126
Following the reign of the “House of Normandy”, with William I (1066-1087) as the first king of the
dynasty, the English crown was passed down to the “House of Plantagenet” (or the Angevin dynasty)
through the marriage between the count of Anjou, Geoffrey “Plantagenet”, and Matilda who was the
daughter of Henry I (1100-1135), the last monarch of the original Norman dynasty. The union between
Geoffrey and Matilda produced the first king of the Plantagenet era, Henry II (1154-1189) (Encyclopædia
Britannica Online, “House of Plantagenet”, [online],
[www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/463365/house-of-Plantagenet] (October 5, 2012).
127
The Capetian dynasty, which succeeded the Frankish Carolingian era (750-887 CE) was founded by
Hugues Capet (393-996 CE) and produced fifteen kings (History of the French Language, Site for language
management in Canada, [online]; Merriam-Webster Dictionary, [online], “Capetian”, [www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/capetian] (October 2, 2012); Pinker,1994, p. 251).
128
PLUCKNETT, T.F. A Concise History of the Common Law, 5th ed., Union, The Lawbook Exchange,
Ltd., 2001, p. 22.
129
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “United Kingdom”, 2002, p. 35.
130
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Magna Carta”, The New Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th ed., Micropædia, Chicago,
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2002, p. 673.
131
IBEJI, M. “King John and the Magna Carta”, BBC History – British History in Depth, [online],
[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/middle_ages/magna_01.shtml] (December 21, 2011). See also:
PLUCKNETT, T. F., 2001, pp. 22-23.
132
KYNELL, K. von S. Saxon and Medieval Antecedents of the English Common Law, Leiston, Edwin
Mellen Press, 2000, p. 12.
133
Ibid. See also: IBEJI, M. “King John and the Magna Carta”, [online]; PLUCKNETT, T. F., 2001,
pp. 22-23.
16
Magna Carta was a valid law for only nine weeks before it was altered and reissued in
1216 – a move which angered the barons.134 By 1216, the rebellious barons were
prepared to offer the English crown to the French Capetian king Louis IX (1226-1270),
thus willing to merge forces with Louis IX‟s invasion of England.135 In an ironic twist of
fate, King John‟s death on October 18, 1216 ensured that the Plantagenet dynasty in
England would endure: the barons supported the crowning of John‟s young son, Henry III
(1216-1272), as the new king of England. 136 The unexpected succession of the crown led
to the withdrawal of Louis IX‟s army from England in 1217.137
Tensions between the Crown (ruled by a regency council until Henry III was of age) and
the barons did not cease. In 1261, the Provisions of Oxford, a document installed by the
barons, was overthrown by Henry III with the support of the papacy.138 By rejecting the
government structure proposed by the Provisions of Oxford, the king catalyzed the
second rebellion (1263-1267). The rebels, led by Simon de Montfort, won crucial
campaigns against the forces of Henry III and his son, Prince Edward (later Edward I). 139
However, the rebels were defeated at the Battle of Evesham (1265), thus restoring the
king‟s authority in England (albeit under the peace terms of the Dictum of Kenilworth).140
These events resulted in crucial changes in the development of the English language.
When the French king Philip II won control over Normandy in 1204, the physical divide
between continental Europe and the British Isles produced a political dynamic in which
the English barons, “[w]ithin the rigours of the feudal system,”141 were forced to declare
their loyalty to the kingdom of France or the kingdom of England. This situation led to
the isolation and gradual decline of French language variations amidst the English
vernacular. The cultural standing of Norman French was already in decline in comparison
to the growing prestige of the “standard” French of Paris.142 Moreover, learning centers
began to teach the French language in English – thus treating French as a foreign
language taught within an English framework.143
At the same time, official documentation demonstrates an Anglicisation of government
affairs in England as well as the spread of English speech among the upper classes in
society.144 Among the clearest indications of this Anglicisation process are the Provisions
of Oxford, which were issued by King Henry III (1216-1272) on October 18, 1258. The
proclamation of the provisions was the first official address given in English since the
134
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Magna Carta”, 2002, p. 673. The Magna Carta would undergo further alterations
and was reissued in 1217 and 1225. It is the 1225 version of the document, reissued under king John‟s son
– Henry III – that became a “part of the permanent law of the land” (HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “United
Kingdom”, 2002, p. 35).
135
IBEJI, M., “King John and the Magna Carta”, [online].
136
Ibid.
137
Ibid.
138
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “United Kingdom”, 2002, p. 36.
139
Ibid.
140
Ibid.
141
OSTLER, Nicholas, 2005, p. 466.
142
BAUGH, A. C. and CABLE, T. A History of the English Language, London, Routledge, 2002, p. 129.
143
Ibid, pp. 125-126.
144
Ibid, p. 125.
17
Norman Conquest in 1066.145 Although they were recorded in Latin and issued in French
as well, the Provisions were diffused in English in order to reach a wider audience of
town folk, county sheriffs, and the middle echelons of the aristocracy.146
b.
Hundred Years’ War – 1337 to 1453
Decades of tensions between England and France followed Normandy‟s surrender to the
French king in 1202-1204, which resulted in a long period of intermittent hostilities – its
historical description is often divided into eras separated by different treaties and
truces.147 Various causes underlie the Hundred Years‟ War, though the catalyzing dispute
was a claim to the French throne made by the Plantagenet kings of England, who pursued
their claim by invading France and raiding several of its regions.
On one side, the kings of France – the House of Valois – aimed to unify their control over
their lands on the continent, especially those that were previously controlled by
Carolingian kings during the dark ages.148 On the other side, the kings of England sought
to fortify and further expand their control over lands in southern France that were tied to
the heritage of Eleanor of Aquitaine, the grandmother of king Edward III (1327-1377).149
England‟s retaliation against France was also fuelled by the alliance forged between the
French king Philip VI (1293-1350) and Edward III‟s enemies: the Scots.150
The early stages of the war saw important victories for the English,151 the devastating
impact of the Black Death on both French and English armies around 1348,152 as well as
the signing of the Treaty of Brétigny in 1360. The treaty marked the resignation of
Edward III‟s claim to the French throne in return for full control of the duchy of
Aquitaine and a number of counties in France.153 The treaty set the tone for subsequent
reversals won by the French which were aided by local revolts in the affected counties.154
From the antagonism at the root of the Hundred Years‟ War, feelings of national pride
emerged amongst the population on both sides. The notions of being an “Englishman” or
a “Frenchman” were, of course, linked to the vernaculars spoken within these different
realms. Within England, French became known as the “language of the enemy,” thus
145
Ibid, p. 125 (at footnote 33).
Ibid.
147
Ibid, p. 129.
148
YUST, W. (ed.), “Hundred Years‟ War”, The Encyclopædia Brtiannica, 14th ed., Chicago,
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1958, p. 889.
149
Ibid.
150
Ibid., p. 890.
151
These would include, most notably, the battles at Crécy in 1346 and Poitiers (1356). See BAUGH, A. C.
and CABLE. T., 2002, p. 129.
152
Ibid.
153
The treaty also called for a hefty sum of 4,000,000 gold crowns as the ransom for the French king
John II (1319-1364). See YUST, W. (ed.), “Hundred Years‟ War”, 1958, p. 891.
154
The French had won back all the lands except for the original holding in Guienne. The tactics of the
constable of France during this period, Bertrand du Guesclin, are often credited for these victories. See
YUST, W. (ed.), “Hundred Years‟ War”, 1958, p. 891.
146
18
leading to its gradual abandonment. Meanwhile, the dominance of spoken English
became further entrenched within society.155
The proliferation of English manifested in various societal spheres. English officially
replaced French as the language of instruction at the University of Oxford in 1349 – a
shift which later occurred in other academic centers over time.156 Furthermore, the
vernacular began to pervade record-keeping practices as well as the practice of law.157
These transitions, particularly those regarding the court system, were extremely gradual.
An example is the STATUTE OF PLEADING (1362), which officially recognized English as
the sole language of usage in court pleadings.158 On a symbolic level, the statute
embodied a socio-political shift rooted in the vernacular: “[i]mplicit in its text are notions
of „realm‟ and „people‟ which clearly associate the boundaries of spoken English with the
reach of English power.”159 However, the spirit of the statute was not immediately
enforced as law practitioners had to progressively adapt their vernacular to the
specialization – thus, French remained in practice until 1731.160 Interestingly, the Statute
of Pleading was also written in French when it entered the parliamentary rolls.161
It is also known that the first monarch to speak the language as his mother tongue was
King Henry IV (1399-1314).162 Henry IV was the first monarch of the House of
Lancaster, a branch of the Plantagenet dynasty, who took the English throne by
murdering his cousin – the last monarch of the direct line of the Plantagenet dynasty,
Richard II (1377-1399).
The later stages of the Hundred Years‟ War saw periods of civil war within France, with
factions clashing over the French crown,163 as well as the revived pursuit of Edward III‟s
original claims in the person of Henry V (1413-1422).164 The involvement of Joan of Arc
(1412-1431), among other heroic figures, sparked a movement lasting over twenty years
155
BAUGH, A. C. and CABLE, T., 2002, pp. 129-130.
Ibid.
157
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “United Kingdom”, 2002, p. 41.
158
BAUGH, A. C. and CABLE, T., 2002, p. 138. The authors note that French was previously the
language used in court proceedngs – a practice that was installed following the Norman Conquest.
159
YEAGER, R.F., “Politics and the French Language in England during the Hundred Years‟ War: The
Case of John Gower”, in BAKER, D. N. (ed.), Inscribing the Hundred Years’ War in French and English
cultures, Albany, State University of New York, 2000, p. 136.
160
BAUGH, A. C. and CABLE, T., 2002, p. 138. The authors note that while proceedings may be debated
in English, the case record would ultimately be entered in Latin. See also: History of the English Language,
Site for language management in Canada, [online]
161
Ibid., pp.136-137.
162
History of the English Language, Site for language management in Canada, [online].
163
The reign of the Valois king Charles VI (1380-1422) over France was troubled by various factors, many
of which stem from his bouts of madness enabling clashes over his throne between the dukes of both
houses of Orleans and Burgundy: Louis I of Valois (younger brother of Charles VI) and John II of
Burgundy (cousin of Charles VI) (VALE, M., “Chapter 19(a): France at the End of the Hundred Years War
(c. 1420-1461)” in ALLMAND C. (ed.), The New Cambridge Medieval History VII: c. 1415 - c.1500,
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1998, p. 392).
164
YUST, W. (ed.), “Hundred Years‟ War”, 1958, p. 892.
156
19
in which Henry V‟s gains were lost and the English were gradually expelled from French
territory.165
England was preoccupied with its own civil wars, particularly the War of the Roses
(1455-1485) between the House of Lancaster and the House of York – both branches of
the Plantagenet dynasty. The Lancastrian reign of Henry V‟s son, Henry VI, was
challenged by Richard, the Duke of York, who shared blood ties with Edward III. A
tumultuous period of intermittent fighting resulted in a Yorkist victory, with the crown
passing to Edward IV (1461-1470 and 1471-1483).166 Two Yorkist monarchs went on to
rule England until the late 15th century, when a distant claimant of the House of
Lancaster, Henry Tudor (1485-1509), won the English throne (see Pivotal Reign of
Henry VIII).
c.
Black Death – 1348 to 1350
A major factor leading to the disuse of the French language in England was the Black
Death, a plague which was likely bubonic and pneumonic in nature.167 The plague (with
origins believed to be from Central Asia) swept through Europe during the mid-14th
century. Around 1347, an army of Turkic peoples, the Kipchaks, besieged a trading post
on the north-western coast of modern-day Italy. Members of this army had already died
of the plague and their corpses were unloaded at the trading post. This enabled the
transmission and spread of the disease to other mainland regions of Italy, Mediterranean
ports, northern Africa, the Baltic regions, Scandinavia, and Western Europe.168
The plague reached England and France around 1348 and its manifestation lasted
approximately two years, although recurrences of the disease were documented during
the 14th century throughout Europe.169 In England, three types of related effects were
observed: population reduction, shifts in socioeconomic classes, and the rising status of
the English vernacular as a result of such shifts.
As a result of the plague, the population in England was reduced to approximately half of
what it was around the year 1300.170 The magnitude of the Black Death‟s impact on the
population caused a number of significant socioeconomic shifts in England:
165
Ibid, pp. 892-893.
History of the Monarchy: The Lancastrians, The official website of The British Monarchy, [online],
[www.royal.gov.uk/HistoryoftheMonarchy/KingsandQueensofEngland/TheLancastrians/TheLancastrians.a
spx] (October 30, 2012).
167
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Black Death”, The New Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th ed., Micropædia, Chicago,
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2002, p. 253.
168
Ibid.
169
Ibid.
170
Ibid. Sources conflict as to the exact (or approximate) number of dead at the hands of the plague. The
detailed account of Dr. Mike Ibeji, for instance, estimates a total of 2.25 million people by 1350 (IBEJI, M.
“Black Death”, BBC History – British History in Depth, [online],
[www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/middle_ages/black_01.shtml] (October 29, 2011).
166
20
As in most epidemics, the rich suffered less than the poor. The poor could
not shut themselves up in their castles or retreat to a secluded manor. The
mortality was accordingly greatest among the lower social orders, and the
result was a serious shortage of labor.171
The result was an increase in wages as a corrective measure in order to re-develop
England‟s labour force over the following hundred years. The economic clout of the
labour class grew, which in turn bolstered the importance of the English vernacular as the
spoken language of the elite.172 Meanwhile, the momentum of written English would be
more readily seen with the advent of the first printing press in 1476 and the spread of
Bible literacy between the 15th and 17th centuries. Such socioeconomic ascent also
brought opportunities for labourers to occupy more influential positions in urban centers
across England.173 At the same time, the emergence of upward mobile Englishmen
rendered the status of French-speaking nobility more vulnerable as a result.174
VI.
Standardization and Diffusion of the Language: The Early Modern English Era
a.
First Printing Press – 1476
The German Johannes Gutenberg developed and perfected a method of mechanical
printing from movable type around 1450 and subsequently launched the first printing
press in Europe.175 Printing machines began to appear in different cities throughout
Europe. In England, around 1476, William Caxton (1433-1491) – a translator and a
publisher – established the first wooden printing press in Westminster.176 Over the course
of his career as a printer, Caxton translated twenty-four books from French to English
and published approximately one hundred written works in total – among them is the first
book printed in the English language, Dictes and Sayenges of the Phylosophers (1477).177
The impacts of Caxton‟s press were greatly reflected in the thriving development of
English literature at the time. Caxton himself was preoccupied by concerns regarding the
standardization of the written language. According to Nicholas Ostler (2005), “in the
period of [the language‟s] re-emergence in the 14th and 15th centuries it was very difficult
for anyone to decide what sort of language should be dignified with the title of „the best
English‟.”178 Caxton resolved the issue by opting for the spoken London dialect, the
“King‟s English,” as classic English.179
171
BAUGH, A. C. and CABLE, T., 2002, p. 130.
Ibid., pp. 130-131.
173
OSTLER, Nicholas, 2005, p. 407.
174
Ibid., p. 467.
175
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Gutenberg, Johannes”, The New Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th ed., Micropædia,
Chicago, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2002, p. 581. See also: LE GOFF, J. The Birth of Europe: 4001500, Malden, Blackwell Publishing, 2005, pp. 177-178.
176
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Wiliam Caxton”, [online],
[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/100766/William-Caxton] (June 15, 2012).
177
Ibid.
178
OSTLER, Nicholas, 2005, p. 469. See also: HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Languages of the World”, 2002,
p. 658.
179
OSTLER, Nicholas, 2005, p. 471. See also: LECOMTE, Louis (ed.), “Anglaise (Langue)”, 2002, p. 375.
172
21
This dialect, considered to be fully developed by the end of the 14th century, was the
natural choice for a national standard given the political and economic clout of the
London area to which it was associated.180 The growing availability of literature printed
in this dialect not only contributed to increased literacy, but it also increased the usage
and dominance of the London dialect amongst all segments of the general population.181
As the dialect began to spread domestically, its stability entailed the possibility of global
proliferation – a shift which not only accelerated the decline of the French language
within England, but also contributed to the gradual disappearance of Latin on a European
scale.182
The level of language stability achieved at this point in history is commonly referred to as
the period of EARLY MODERN ENGLISH (c. 1450-1700)183 – a stage sparked by the death
of Chaucer (1400),184 the English poet renowned for his unique mastery of Middle
English.185 Literary authors and works of this stage, including Shakespeare and the King
James Bible (see Bible Literacy), reflect the RENAISSANCE era in England between the
end of the 15th century and the early 17th century.186 It was an age which followed a
period of decline defined by the social and political context of the early 12th century. This
context was particularly defined by the inability of the Holy Roman Empire and the
Roman Catholic Church to establish a unified religious institutional structure across
Western Europe – an objective hindered by empowered city-states, national monarchical
structures, and the growth of national languages (see Rise of Protestantism).187
With a revival in classical learning, the Renaissance led to innovations such as Caxton‟s
printing press, which necessitated the efforts to standardize language. At the same time,
the development of English was impacted by the specialized language needs of scholars
and intellectuals “who were knowledgeable in foreign languages, especially Greek and
Classical Latin.”188 Therefore, the English language was impacted by a substantial wave
of borrowings from Latin, Greek, and Italian during this period.
b.
Rise of Protestantism and the Pivotal Reign of Henry VIII – 16th Century
In the aftermath of the War of the Roses (1455-1485), the English throne was won by the
House of Tudor with its first monarch Henry VII (1485-1509) (See Hundred Years‟
War).189 The subsequent reign of Henry VIII (1509-1547) was characterized by a breach
180
History of the English Language, Site for language management in Canada, [online]
OSTLER, Nicholas, 2005, p. 472.
182
Ibid., p. 331.
183
PINKER, S, 1994, p. 252.
184
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Languages of the World”, 2002, p. 661.
185
HOROBIN, S. The Language of the Chaucer Tradition, Cambridge, D.S. Brewer, 2003, p. 2.
186
PINKER, S, 1994, p. 252.
187
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Renaissance”, The New Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th ed., Micropædia, Chicago,
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2002, pp. 1019-1020.
188
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “English language”, 2002, p. 501.
189
Henry VII (Henry Tudor) was a distant claimant of the House of Lancaster, who gained the throne by
defeating the last Yorkist monarch Richard III (1483-1485). The House of Tudor (1485-1603) was formed
through Henry VII‟s marriage to the daughter of Edward IV (1461-1470), Elizabeth of York, thus uniting
181
22
with Rome that impacted the administration of religion in England.190 This breach was
rooted in the king‟s attempt to obtain an annulment from the Pope in order to end his
marriage to Catherine of Aragon. The annulment was sought due to the couple‟s inability
to produce a male heir, and also because of Henry‟s desire to marry Anne Boleyn, a lady
of the court.191
Pope Clement VII (1478-1534) did not issue the annulment for various political and
religious reasons.192 From 1527 onward, the pursuit for an annulment became known as
“the King‟s great matter,”193 which ultimately led to a series of policies removing papal
authority over the Catholic Church in England.194 The Act of Supremacy (1534)
confirmed the king as the supreme head of the Anglican Church, which was in itself
defined as a spiritual state department.195 Church administration was thus removed from
Rome‟s jurisdiction. Although such policies were unsuccessful in forcing the Pope to
annul the marriage, he did consent to Thomas Cranmer‟s consecration as the new
archbishop of Canterbury – the spiritual head of the Church of England.196 Cranmer
annulled Henry‟s first marriage and officiated the subsequent marriage to Anne
Boleyn.197
The breach with Rome gave way to an influx of different religious ideals known as the
Protestant Reformation.198 Protestantism arose in Europe during the 16th century as a
critique of the doctrines and practices of medieval Roman Catholicism, particularly the
abuses committed by actors throughout the Church‟s hierarchy.199 Many of these abuses
were observed during the Black Death:
the Lancaster and York houses (History of the Monarchy: The Tudors, The official website of The British
Monarchy, [online],
[www.royal.gov.uk/HistoryoftheMonarchy/KingsandQueensofEngland/TheTudors/TheTudors.aspx ]
(October 30, 2012).
190
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Henry VIII”, The New Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th ed., Micropædia, Chicago,
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2002, p. 840.
191
Ibid. The authors further explain that the sole heir to result from this marriage was princess Mary,
though the possibility of a female heir was avoided given “all the dynastic and political uncertainties it
would bring” (p. 841). Over the span of his life, Henry VIII had six wives – his second marriage with Anne
Boleyn bore the princess (later Queen) Elizabeth I and his third marriage to Jane Seymour bore his
immediate successor Edward VI (p. 840).
192
The pope, then a prisoner of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, was reluctant to cross the emperor‟s
wishes to protect Catherine of Aragon (his aunt). A central aspect was the fact Clement VII had provided a
special dispensation to cover Henry VIII‟s infraction of an English rule that prohibited his marriage to
Catherine (the widow of his deceased brother). See: HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Henry VIII”, 2002, p. 841;
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Protestantism”, The New Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th ed., Macropædia, Chicago,
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2002, p. 213.
193
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Henry VIII”, 2002, p. 841.
194
YUST, W. (ed.), “English History”, The Encyclopædia Brtiannica, 14th ed., Chicago, Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1958, p. 510.
195
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Henry VIII”, 2002, p. 840.
196
YUST, W. (ed.), “English History”, 1958, p. 511.
197
Ibid.
198
Ibid.
199
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Protestantism”, 2002, pp. 206-207. See also: LECOMTE, Louis (ed.),
“Protestantisme”, Encyclopædia Universalis, corpus 18, 5th ed., Paris, Encyclopædia Universalis, 2002,
p. 1041.
23
The pestilences and plagues of the 14th century had bred an inordinate fear
of death, which led to the exploitation of simple people by a church that
was, in effect, offering salvation for sale.200
The population‟s angst fostered an emerging generation of thinkers who, though faithful
to Roman Catholicism, pursued the need for reformation. Protestantism historically refers
to different schools of thought founded by the disciples of German monk Martin Luther
(1483-1546), the Swiss reformer Huldrych Zwingli (1484-1531), and the French
theologian John Calvin (1509-1564).201 Not only did this movement address religious
practices and church administration, but it also became a means through which national
monarchies could assert their independence from the papacy‟s long-standing tradition of
political intervention – as seen in Henry VIII‟s reign.202
In England, the establishment of Protestantism fluctuated from one monarch to another.
Under Henry‟s successor Edward VI (1537-1553), Protestantism thrived before it became
stifled by Queen Mary I‟s reign (1553-1558), only to be revived again by Queen
Elizabeth I (1558-1603).203 These fluctuations are well reflected in the different versions
of the Bible published during the 15th and 16th centuries (see Bible Literacy).
Protestantism eventually became and is presently a dominant religion in England, northwestern Europe, and English-speaking North America.204 The historical link this faith
shares with modern Western democracies is commonly explained through its ideological
undertones. Protestantism has shades of liberal and neo-liberal thought which are often
referred to as the basis for the development of capitalism and Western-style
democracy.205
The role of language was central to the rise of Protestantism. The movement
accompanied the invention of the printing press, which was instrumental in promoting
literacy through revised versions of the Bible in the English vernacular.206 The shift
towards the vernacular was, in turn, a means through which the Reformation could define
itself as being apart from the “Latin linguistic bond”207 of the medieval church. As
Protestantism became further instilled in society, the shift reinforced the status of English
as the national language in England.
c.
Bible Literacy in the English Vernacular – 16th and 17th centuries
Following the administrative and religious effects of Henry VIII‟s breach with Rome (see
Rise of Protestantism), his powers continued to expand well into the 1530s with the
200
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Protestantism”, 2002, p. 208.
Ibid., pp. 206-207.
202
Ibid., pp. 207-208.
203
Ibid., p. 214.
204
Ibid., p. 236.
205
LECOMTE, Louis (ed.), “Protestantisme”, 2002, pp. 1041-1043.
206
Ibid., p. 1044.
207
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Protestantism”, 2002, p. 236.
201
24
dissolution of monasteries in England as part of an on-going attack upon institutions of
western Roman Catholicism. These institutions were seen as sources of resistance against
the king and his newly acquired authority as head of the Anglican Church.208
Furthermore, central to the rise of Protestantism in England were the initial attempts at
translating the Bible from Latin to Middle English during the mid-14th century by
theologian John Wycliffe. Not only were these versions of the Bible written in the
vernacular, but they were also adapted for popular usage. Such adaptation made the
“Wycliffe‟s Bible” (1382) a source of controversy given its use to oppose the hierarchy
of the medieval church.209
With the invention of the printing press came a growing demand for versions of the Bible
in English. Another leading scholar of the Reformation, William Tyndale, undertook
translations of the New Testament and the Old Testament in the first half of the 16th
century, innovating a translation style which incorporated many Hebraisms in the
process.210 Several versions of the Bible subsequently appeared over the latter half of the
16th century which, in their respective manner, attempted to be more faithful to the
original texts while still attempting to instil the Protestant or Roman Catholic values of
the author(s). In other words, each of these versions attempted to be authoritative in their
usage. 211
The milestone version cited in many language history sources is the King James
(authorized) Bible. The reign of Queen Elizabeth I (1558-1603) brought an established
right to read the Bible in English, thus imposing a level of linguistic unity throughout the
church.212 King James I (1603-1625) built on this shift by ordering an official, revised,
Protestant, English-language Bible in 1604 – which was fully published later in 1611.213
For the following three centuries the King James Bible dominated as the sole religious
text of English-speaking Christians, representing a clarified reading and usage standard
for such an audience.214 What made this recent translation arguably more authoritative
than others was the regulatory groundwork laid by Queen Elizabeth I.
208
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Henry VIII”, 2002, p. 841.
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Biblical Literature”, The New Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th ed., Macropædia,
Chicago, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2002, p. 913.
210
Ibid. Interestingly, the authors add that the Tyndale‟s works were not immune to opposition from
ecclesiastical heads, thus forcing publication outside of England. Many versions of the Bible, including
Tyndale‟s translated versions, had to be printed in Switzerland or Germany due to such controversy.
211
There were the versions by Miles Cloverdale and Thomas Matthew (1535), the Great Bible – a revised
edition ordered by King Henry VIII in 1539, the Geneva Bible published during Edward VI‟s reign which
proved more popular than the Great Bible, the Bishops’ Bible which attempted to build on the Great Bible,
and the Douai-Reims Bible which was a Roman Catholic counterpart to the Protestant versions (HEIBERG,
D. (ed.), “Biblical Literature”, 2002, pp. 913-914).
212
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Biblical Literature”, 2002, p. 914.
213
OSTLER, Nicholas, 2005, p. 473.
214
Ibid. See also: BBC History – British History in Depth, BBC Online, [online],
[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/interactive/timelines/british/index_embed.shtml] (December 22, 2011).
209
25
VII.
Establishment and Internationalization of the Late Modern English Standard
a.
Samuel Johnson’s Dictionary – 1755
Throughout the 15th and 16th centuries a number of factors led to the standardization and
spread of the English language which defined the Early Modern English period. These
factors include the establishment of the first printing press in Westminster as well as the
growth of Bible literacy backed by the Reformation in England. Further standardization
was achieved through the publication of the “first prescriptive grammars and
dictionaries”215 – a movement that largely defined the LATE MODERN ENGLISH period
(c. 1700-1900).216
In England, the first dictionaries in use were not entirely prescriptive in nature. Early
language references were often vocabulary books that outlined the meanings of foreignorigin words that crept into the English language (mainly of Latin origin).217 Over time,
the literate public demanded a different type of reference tool that went beyond the
explanation of “hard words” and delved into the meanings of common English words.218
The literate public, on a broader scale, called for an instrument of language authority
comparable to prestigious literary institutions like the Académie française and the
Accademia della Crusca.219 Samuel Johnson – a journalist, translator, poet and
biographer – developed the first renowned prescriptive English language dictionary
guided by the objective of preserving the “purity” of the language in its everyday and
literary usage.220 His dictionary outlined meanings in each developed entry and also
incorporated pronunciation guidelines, etymologies and quotations from renowned
writers in order to illustrate the meanings.221 Samuel Johnson‟s dictionary was thus
considered a much needed instrument that forged a different path for English
lexicography, while also representing the language‟s achieved maturity in society.222
The dictionary, as a milestone, paved the way for other language phenomena that defined
the Late Modern English period. Among them was the movement of the matured English
language to foreign lands (see English in North America) and the industrialization of the
19th and 20th centuries. Both centuries fuelled the expansion of the language‟s vocabulary
to include emerging concepts in the natural sciences and technology.223 The
representation of these concepts in the English language was often rooted in Greco-Latin
sources.224
215
History of the English Language, Site for language management in Canada, [online].
Ibid.
217
REDDICK, A. The Making of Johnson’s Dictionary 1746-1773, New York, Cambridge University
Press, 1996, p. 13. As an example, the author describes the work of Robert Cawdrey A Table Alphabeticall
(1604) to illustrate the difference between prior language reference books and prescriptive dictionaries.
218
Ibid.
219
Ibid., p.14.
220
WELLS, R. A. Dictionaries and the Authoritarian Tradition, The Hague, Mouton & Co., 1973, p. 41.
221
REDDICK, A., 1996, p. 15.
222
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Languages of the World”, 2002, p. 662.
223
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “English language”, 2002, p. 501.
224
History of the English Language, Site for language management in Canada, [online].
216
26
b.
The English Language in North America – 16th and 17th centuries
A period of British settlement and colonization outside of the British Isles, lasting
approximately three centuries, began in the late stages of the 16th century.225 Such
expansion was shaped by a context in which England‟s population had recovered and
grown significantly after the losses of the Black Death and other epidemics. With
population growth came an expanding class of individuals who were often unemployed
and poor – in some cases dispossessed and even deemed criminal.226 The shifting
dynamic among social classes was further amplified in the 18th and 19th centuries by the
Industrial Revolution, an era in England which emphasized a shift away from agrarian
practices and artisanship, and a push towards the “machine manufacture” (or “factory”)
economy.227
Establishing colonies was therefore a means of regulating the socioeconomic impacts of
rapid population growth and the new emerging forms of work organization and economic
authority in England. In terms of political strategy, the monarchy felt an urgency to
establish settlements abroad given that other rival European powers – such as the
Portuguese and the Spanish – had already made significant in-roads since the expeditions
of Vasco de Gama (1497) and Columbus (1492) through modern-day India and southeast
Asia (East Indies) as well as the Caribbean islands (West Indies).228 In also considering
the French presence in North America, with Jacques Cartier‟s milestone expedition to
Canada (1534), it was only natural for England to eventually act on its own “ambition for
distant possessions” 229 as well as their wish for wealth and influence generated by such
possessions.
The first English expeditions in North America, prior to the widespread settlement of
Jamestown (Virginia) in 1607, were small-scale private ventures led by individuals such
as Sir Humphrey Gilbert in 1578230 and Sir Walter Raleigh in 1585.231
It is important to note that “England” included modern-day Wales at this point in time.232
During the North American expeditions, England was also pursuing the colonization and
political integration of its neighbouring Celtic lands. Through various legislative policies
and wars, England extended its control over Scotland (1707), thus resulting in the
225
OSTLER, Nicholas, 2005, p. 478.
GRADDOL, D. English History, Diversity, and Change, New York, Routledge, 1996, p. 181.
227
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “Industrial Revolution”, The New Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th ed., Micropædia,
Chicago, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2002, p. 304. The authors note that the revolution, as a process,
began in England and spread to other European states over time.
228
CHEYNEY, E. P. “Some English Conditions Surrounding the Settlement of Virginia”, (1907) 12-3 The
American Historical Review 507.
229
CHEYNEY, E. P., 1907, p. 510. See also: OSTLER, Nicholas, 2005, p. 478.
230
CHEYNEY, E. P., 1907, p. 511.
231
ROMAINE, S., “Chapter 4: Contact with Other Languages” in ALGEO, J. (ed.), The Cambridge History
of the English Language: Volume VI – English in North America, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,
2001, pp. 162-163.
232
GRADDOL, D., 1996, p. 182.
226
27
expanded state known as “Great Britain.”233 The state came to be known as the “United
Kingdom” when Ireland was incorporated in 1800.234 Throughout this expansion process,
groups of individuals from Wales, Ireland, and Scotland participated in the establishment
of a British empire in North America.
From a language perspective, political integration entailed the use of English as the state
language in these acquired territories235 – though settlers from the Celtic regions still
spoke varieties of Gaelic, Irish, and Scottish well into the 18th and 19th centuries.236
The first substantial waves of international settlement were led by trading companies that
were granted commodity monopolies by the British government.237 Several members of
the East India Company, established in 1600, became part of the Virginia Company that
established Jamestown seven years later.238 Subsequent sparsely-settled colonies emerged
in Massachusetts, Connecticut, Maryland, and the Bermuda Islands over the following
decade.239 Later, the Carolina colony was established in 1670240 and by the early 18th
century, another colony in Pennsylvania was established by Welsh, Swiss, Finnish,
Danish, and German settlers.241
VIII.
The Differentiation of English in North America and Contemporary English
a.
American Revolutionary War: American and Canadian English – 18th Century
Each British colony in North America developed independently due to the broad powers
of self-government granted to them by the British government (see English in North
America).242 Distinct cultural particularities developed among the colonies as a result of
their respective regional traits and their level of interaction with Native peoples. When
the first settlers left for North America, a diverse mix of language varieties were still
being spoken across British landscapes. The varieties spoken by the “ambitious or
dissatisfied members of [the] lower and middle classes from southeastern England”243
became known as standard American speech. These transplanted varieties changed and
became known as “American” due to borrowings from French, Spanish and Native
languages relative to – among other things – the particular trades of each region (i.e.
fishing in New England, tobacco farming in Virginia).244
233
Ibid. See also: OSTLER, Nicholas, 2005, p. 478.
GRADDOL, D., 1996, pp. 182-183.
235
Ibid.
236
History of the English Language, Site for language management in Canada, [online].
237
GRADDOL, D., 1996, p. 181. For reasons supporting the creation of trading companies to carry out
settlement, see CHEYNEY, E. P., 1907, pp. 511-512.
238
CHEYNEY, E. P., 1907, pp. 513-514.
239
Ibid., p. 517.
240
OSTLER, Nicholas, 2005, p. 485.
241
ROMAINE, S., 2001, p. 164.
242
BEER, G. L. “British Colonial Policy, 1754-1765”, (1907) 22-1 Political Science Quarterly 2.
243
PINKER, S., 1994, pp. 248-249.
244
ROMAINE, S., 2001, p. 163.
234
28
Around the mid-18th century, a period of consolidation occurred due to the fact that all
the British colonies positioned along the Atlantic coast were surrounded by French and
Spanish colonies to the north, south and west.245 The French presence in North America
was the main political and commercial threat to the British colonies, despite the fact their
total population outnumbered the French by a fifteen-to-one ratio.246 The autonomous
character of each British colony, however, became an obstacle during the planning of
collective military action against the French and their allies. The Seven Years‟ War
(1756-1762) was the global culmination of aggressions between Britain and France, with
battles fought across North America, India, and Europe. Through the Treaty of Paris
(1763), Britain acquired Canada (Quebec), modern-day Florida, the Spanish island of
Minorca, as well as India and the Caribbean islands.247
In the aftermath of the war, Britain‟s colonial power expanded through governmentdirected campaigns and private expeditions, notably those of James Cook in Australia
and New Zealand (1768-1771).248 Such expansion enabled the establishment of the
English language in the acquired lands.
However, the dynamic between the colonies and the British government was not without
its tensions. Nationalist reactions against the British government, primarily rooted in the
perceived unconstitutional character of its taxation policies, had already been forming
prior to the Seven Years‟ War.249 The English-speaking colonies south of the Great Lakes
secured their political independence from Britain through the AMERICAN
REVOLUTIONARY WAR (1775-1783) – a war in which Britain lost other earlier territorial
gains to Spain, France, and the Netherlands.250 Settlers in North America were therefore
driven to choose between the newly formed United States and Britain, in which an
allegiance to the latter usually resulted in northbound emigration to Canada.
Canada‟s development as a state was influenced by the broad powers of self-government
granted by the British government, which sought to avoid another war of
independence.251 Tensions had developed between Canada‟s English-speaking and
French-speaking communities following the Seven Years War. The dynamic was shaped
by the events leading to – and subsequent to – the Constitutional act passed by the British
parliament in 1791, which resulted in the division of Canada into Lower Canada
(primarily French) and Upper Canada (primarily British).252 The War of 1812-14 between
Great Britain and the United States was, among many things, an affirmation of a loosely
245
Ibid., p. 164.
BEER, G. L., 1907, p. 11.
247
BBC History – British History in Depth, BBC Online, [online],
[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/interactive/timelines/british/index_embed.shtml] (December 22, 2011)
248
HEIBERG, D. (ed.), “United Kingdom”, 2002, p. 76.
249
GRADDOL, D., 1996, p. 183.
250
BBC History – British History in Depth, BBC Online, [online]. See also: OSTLER, Nicholas, 2005,
pp. 486-487.
251
GRADDOL, D., 1996, p. 183.
252
YUST, W. (ed.), “Canada”, The Encyclopædia Brtiannica, 14th ed., Chicago, Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1958, p. 703.
246
29
connected Canadian state relative to the American threat of annexation.253 By granting
Canada dominion status in 1867, another autonomous English-speaking community was
officially granted its political bearings in North America, with a significant portion of
Canadian Anglophones concentrated in Ontario.254 A more elaborate history surrounding
the establishment of official bilingualism in Canada will be developed and published in
the near future.
b.
Emergence of Contemporary English – 18th Century Onward
The defining moments of the colonization process in North America were such that
civilization in the New World acquired a predominantly Anglo-Saxon character as
opposed to a Latin character.255 Part of the process was the displacement and assimilation
of the local Native languages by European languages, with isolated instances of
borrowing from Native speech.256 A diversification of English has occurred within North
America since its initial establishment in the early 17th century. The language was shaped
over time by the different regionalisms of each colony and by the degree to which they
maintained close trading ties with the British government.257 Relative to the political,
social and economic configurations inherent to the nationhood of Canada and the United
States, it was only natural that a language distinction – mainly rooted in minor
vocabulary and accent differences – would emerge between “American English” and
“Canadian English”.258 Linguists also note variations within Canadian English, notably
those associated with the Atlantic regions (i.e. Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, New
Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island), while Central and Western Canada are generally
considered to be “homogeneous” in terms of English speech.259
Language historians commonly credit the continuous spread of English within North
America and abroad to the growing military and economic influence of the United States
since the 19th century – and more notably after World War II (1939-1945), when it
became the engine of commercial enterprise and popular culture.260 Finally, it is also
important to note that – following the example of the OED – CONTEMPORARY ENGLISH is
understood as the current state of the English language within England and throughout
the world.261 Contemporary meanings of English words are the meanings in present usage
as documented by current general and specialized language dictionaries.
253
Ibid.
OSTLER, Nicholas, 2005, p. 487.
255
BEER, G. L., 1907, p. 1.
256
GRADDOL, D., 1996, p. 184.
257
Ibid.
258
SCHNEIDER, E. W. et al. (eds.), 2004, Handbook of Varieties of English, The Hague, Mouton de
Gruyter, p. 353.
259
LECOMTE, Louis (ed.), “Anglaise (Langue)”, 2002, p. 379.
260
OSTLER, Nicholas, 2005, p. 514.
261
Oxford English Dictionary, [online], “Contemporary, adj.”,
[www.oed.com/view/Entry/40115?redirectedFrom=contemporary&] (December 5, 2012).
254
30