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Coastal Fisheries Policy and Planning Course, 28/01/08 – 8/02/08, Apia, Samoa
UNIT 5
Applicability of Fisheries Policy Options
to Local, Regional, National and International
Context
Vina Ram-Bidesi
School of Marine Studies, University of the South Pacific
Secretariat of the Pacific Community
UNIT 5 OBJECTIVES
• Briefly outline the broader context of
coastal fisheries policy framework in the
Pacific Islands
• Analyze the identified fisheries policy
options in addressing the goals and
objectives of the broader national policy
framework
• Re-evaluate current fisheries policies
Learning outcomes
• Understand the context of broader coastal
fisheries policy framework and the policy
goals and objectives
• Identify and assess the appropriateness of
a fisheries policy option in meeting the
above goals and objectives
Unit 5 – Part I
The Broader context of coastal
fisheries policy framework in
the Pacific Islands
Introduction
• Briefly review some of the key
international and regional instruments for
the management and use of fisheries
resources -discussed in Unit 1
• Link to the policy options discussed in
Unit 3
• Provide a basis for re-evaluation of current
coastal fisheries policies in the Pacific
Islands
• A FMR that is effective and efficient can
contribute to the national policy goals and
help a country to fulfill its obligations under
a number of different international and
regional instruments at the same time
• Re-look at current fisheries policies
implemented to see their compatibility and
conformity
International Instruments
UNCLOS, Agenda 21, Rio Declaration of
Principles, CBD, FAO Code of Conduct for
Responsible Fisheries, Rome Declaration on
World Food Security, Kyoto Declaration and
Plan of Action on Food Security, WSSDJohannesburg Plan of Implementation,
Millennium Development Goals, Barbados
Action Plan, Mauritius Declaration
Other instruments – WTO rules, CITIES
Regional Instruments
 SPC – Strategic Coastal Fisheries Plan;
Regional Ocean Policy; Regional Coral
Reef Initiative; SPREP - International
Waters Programme; Micronesian
Challenge; Pacific Plan, Vava’u
Declaration on Fisheries
National Instruments
 National Constitution
National legislation – Fisheries & Marine
Resources Act, Environment Management Act,
indigenous/human rights
 National Economic Development Strategy
Plans, National Biodiversity Strategic Action
Plan (NBSAP); National Strategic Action
Framework, National Economic Plans
Fisheries Sector Plans, Fisheries Management
Plans
Customary/traditional norms & practices
UNCED- Agenda 21
• Chapter 17 -sets forth the rights and obligations
of States and provides international basis upon
which to pursue the protection and sustainable
development of the marine and coastal
environment and its resources.
• Chapter 17: programme areas A & D provides a
basis for national policies and strategies on the
sustainable development and management of
coastal fisheries.
• 17.74. States commit themselves to the
conservation and sustainable use of marine
living resources under national jurisdiction. To
this end, it is necessary to:
• (a) Develop and increase the potential of
marine living resources to meet human
nutritional needs, as well as social, economic
and development goals;
• (b) Take into account traditional knowledge and
interests of local communities, small-scale
artisanal fisheries and indigenous people in
development and management programmes;
• (c) Maintain or restore populations of
marine species at levels that can produce
the maximum sustainable yield;
• (d) Promote the development and use of
selective fishing gear and practices that
minimize waste in the catch of target
species and minimize by-catch of nontarget species;
• (e) Protect and restore endangered marine
species;
• (f) Preserve rare or fragile ecosystems.
• Coastal States should support the
sustainability of small-scale artisanal
fisheries
• Integrate small-scale artisanal fisheries
development in marine and coastal
planning
• Prohibit dynamiting, poisoning and other
comparable destructive fishing practices
Barbados Programme of Action for
Small Island Developing States
(SIDs)
• Chapter IV - Programme of Action
focuses on Coastal and Marine
Resources as a priority area
• The focus of this action plan has been on
developing skills and capabilities of small
islands to bring about a more integrated
approach to development
Kyoto Declaration and Plan of Action on
the Sustainable Contribution of Fisheries
to Food Security, 1995
• One of the major strategies to enhance
food security is to have effective
management of fisheries resources and
minimise wastage and discards
The Rome Declaration on World Food
Security and the World Food Summit
Plan of Action
lays the foundations for diverse paths to a
common objective - food security, at the
individual, household, national, regional
and global levels.
World Summit on Sustainable
Development and the Johannesburg Plan
of Implementation (JPOI)
• Paragraph 31 section a, b and h of the JPOI
have direct relevance to coastal fisheries
– Maintain or restore stocks to levels that can produce
the MSY with the aim of achieving these goals for
depleted stocks on an urgent basis and where
possible no later than 2015.
– Implement the 1995 Code of Conduct for
Responsible Fisheries and relevant international plan
of action and technical guidelines of the FAO
– Support the sustainable development of aquaculture
• MDGs- United Nations Millennium
Declaration adopted by the UN General
Assembly (2000) - eradication of extreme
poverty and hunger; achieving
environmental sustainability
• 2001 Reykjavik Declaration on
Responsible Fisheries in the Marine
Ecosystem
Code of Conduct for Responsible
Fisheries (1995)
• provides principles and standards
applicable to the conservation,
management and development of all
fisheries
• It covers capture, processing and trade of
fish and fisheries products, fishing
operations, aquaculture, fisheries research
and the integration of fisheries into coastal
area management
Management measures include the
following:
• avoid excess fishing capacity
• the interest of fishers, including those engaged in
sustainable, small-scale and artisanal fisheries, are
taken into account
• biodiversity of aquatic habitats and ecosystems is
conserved and endangered species protected
• depleted species are allowed to recover
• adverse environmental impacts on resources are
assessed and corrected
• pollution, waste, discards, catch of non-target species,
and impacts on associated or dependent species are
minimised
Regional Ocean Policy
• 5 guiding principles for individual and
collaborative action to promote
responsible stewardship of the ocean for
regional and global benefit
• Implementation guidelines are elaborated
in the Integrated Strategic Action
Framework
SPC - Strategic Plan for Fisheries Management
and Sustainable Coastal Fisheries in Pacific
Islands (2005-2007)
• reduction in catches of inshore marine species
was of seen as the most important concern
• assist in developing the capacity to achieve the
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) on
poverty reduction
• and outcomes of the 2002 Johannesburg World
Summit on Sustainable Development
Summary of problems* in coastal fisheries
management (% based on the number of
countries identifying particular problems as most
important).
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Overexploitation of marine species 78%
Inadequate or outdated fisheries regulations 50%
Inadequate enforcement of fisheries regulations
50%
Lack of capacity in the country – eg in stock assessment, data
collection
50%
Destructive fishing methods – eg explosives, breaking coral 39%
Overly efficient fishing methods – eg night diving, small mesh nets,
SCUBA
22%
Overlap between national/provincial/island responsibilities
17%
Shift from subsistence to commercial fishing 11%
Ciguatera fish poisoning
11%
Illegal fishing by foreign vessels
6%
National Level
Some changes in the recent years within coastal fisheries
management in the Pacific:
• National laws to incorporate the principles of responsible
and sustainable fisheries
• Decentralised management using community-based
approaches
• Increased participation by non-governmental
organisations, industry and private sector
• Need for strengthening monitoring, assessment,
management and conservation aspects of fisheries
• capacity building to enhance capabilities of personnel
• Focus on mitigating impacts on non-target species
Other factors influencing national
coastal fisheries policies
These include:
• Type of government structure
• Political history & national laws and regulations
• Influence by traditional authorities and
institutions
• Availability of fisheries resources
• Market demand
• Management capability
• Number of fishers and the level of dependence
on the fisheries
The following documents provide an indication of the
evolving fisheries sector policies in the Marshall Islands
• Fisheries Policy Statement (1997)
• National Fisheries Development Plan (1997)
• Meto 2000 Economic Report and Statement of
Development Strategies (April 2001)
• Strategic Development Plan Framework 2003-2018 of
the Vision 2018 (June 2001)
• Marshall Islands Fisheries Sector Master Plan
(November 2002) produced as part of Vision 2018 sector
strategy
• Policies and Priority Action for Sustainable Mariculture
Development (August 2004)
Marshall Islands – cont’d
The fisheries policy is guided by the
following interrelated needs to:
• Improve economic benefits within
sustainable limits
• Promote responsible, private sector led
developments; and
• Strengthen institutional capacities within
the country for responsible fisheries
development and management
Ministry of Fiji Fisheries –Sector priorities
– To ensure sustainable development
– To create and maximize values
– To create growth through development of the value
chain of the two sectors
– To increase resource owners participation in the
economic development of the two sectors
– To build capacity & provide institutional strengthening
and infrastructure to support economic development
in the two sectors
– Alleviation of poverty
– Integration of economies
– Implementation of Government strategic interventions
for disadvantaged groups
Fiji’s Fisheries Sector Policies
• To create employment in the rural areas
through resource development.
• To uplift the living standards through
active participation of resource owners
through the development of the sectors.
• To use intervention policies of
Government aligned to UN policies
favoring economically disadvantaged
groups and indigenous communities.
• To improve food security, supply & source
through reseeding, restocking and culture
of fisheries.
Typical Goals and Objectives
(...as stated)
• To promote and facilitate sustainable development to
contribute to national GDP
• Optimise long-term social and economic benefits to the
nation
• Promote long-term sustainable use and the
replenishment of living marine resources
• Achieve the optimum utilization of living resources
• To ensure that fishing and fish processing are conducted
in ways that miminise negative impacts on the
environment, reduce waste, and preserve the quality of
fish caught
• Particular attention should be given to the needs of local
people who depend upon fisheries for their livelihoods
• Use best scientific information available while taking into
account traditional fishing practices and knowledge
where it is appropriate
• Important fish habitats such as reefs and lagoons,
wetlands and mangroves should be protected from
destruction and pollution
• Create employment opportunities for local people and
communities
• Improve income levels of fishers
• Improve welfare of fishing communities
• Increase value added processing to maximize returns
from the fishery
Key Points
• Incorporation of social factors in decision
making- food security, maintenance of
livelihoods
• Inclusion of communities and industry
• Reduce conflicts with other uses
• Integrated approach to fisheries management
• Concern over biological status of resources
• Ineffective enforcement and monitoring
• “Sustainable resource use”
• Increase benefits from fisheries resources
• ………….
A Coastal Fisheries Policy may
reflect the following aspects:
• Ecological/Biological Sustainability
• Optimize net social/economic benefits
• Socially acceptable
• QUESTION?? How to achieve the above
broader national policy goal?
UNIT 5: Part II
Analysis of the identified fisheries
policy options in addressing the
goals and objectives of the
broader national policy framework
Session Objectives
• Examine the apparent outcomes of the different
fisheries policy options identified in Unit 3 and
how they may address the broader policy goals
and objectives
• Identify some of the strengths and weaknesses
• Highlight the need for a complementary set of
policies in order to meet the goals and
objectives of fisheries management
Introduction
• [Unit 3] - key policy options for solving the
problems of fisheries.
• These were seen in the context of
designing an efficient and effective
fisheries management regime comprising
of the three main components
Review the Fisheries
Management Regime
• To achieve full benefits from the fisheries
management, all 3 components of the
fisheries management regime (FMR) must
be appropriately designed, fully functional
and well coordinated (Arnason, 2007).
Desirable properties of a fisheries
management system (Unit 3)
•
•
•
•
•
•
Effectiveness in generating net fisheries rents
Robustness in the face of variable conditions
Low cost of operation
Minimal data needs
Perceived fair distribution of benefits
General social acceptability (Arnason, 2007).
Fisheries management systems: Classification
Direct biological
fisheries
management
Direct economic
fisheries
management
Taxes
Property rights
Gear restrictions
Total allowable catch,
TAC
Taxes/subsidies
Access licences
Area restrictions
Vessel restrictions
Individual harvest
quotas
Effort restrictions
Sole ownership
Time restrictions
Minimum size
restrictions
Territorial use rights
• The MCS costs must also be taken into
consideration when formulating the fisheries
policy
• FJS – benefits of violation< cost of crime
• The net economic benefits to the fishery accrue
after the payment of all the costs including
management implementation & enforcement
costs
Analysis of some policy options
Biological Management
• to improve the yield of the resources
through increase in biomass
• prevent collapse of fisheries
• Enhance biological productivity
• measures include
– gear and size restriction
– area closures
– time (seasonal) closures
• As biomass increases, so does effort
• With management- more fish is supplied,
consumers may benefit, some gains are
made during the adjustment period, costs
eventually increase
• Open access equilibrium is eventually
reached
• Gains depend on how fast the shift is in
adjustment period
• Biological measure will work if effort is
restricted
Direct Economic Restrictions
• Management measures under this include
restrictions on fishing time such as days at
sea; fishing capital control such as vessel
size, engine power, vessel technology;
and effort restrictions such as fishing gear
and type of gear
Direct Economic Restrictions
• Increases the cost of fishing effort
• Common property problems can
continue
• Cost of operation increase due to increase
MCS costs
• Fishers try to substitute unregulated
inputs, make effort more efficient by
improving technology which eventually
leads to increased costs
• Gear Restriction – improve the biological
health but raise operating costs
• TAC
– solve the biological concerns
– it is unlikely to increase the resource rent due
to the costs associated with the fishing
operations
– likely excessive investments.
Taxes and subsidies
• Tax - can change the level of effort by changing
the profitability of fishing
• Fisheries management tax is economically
beneficial if it generates income for the
government from commercial fishery
• Practical implementation of the tax poses
several problems as identified in detail in Unit 3
• Reasons why taxation is inappropriate for Pacific
Island countries
Property Rights
• Types of property rights in fisheries
discussed in Unit 3 :
• access licenses (fishing license),
individual quota,
• individual transferable quota,
• sole ownership,
• TURFs,
• and community rights.
• Common property – a holder of a right
where it could be a group or groups of
people where the various characteristics of
a property may be weak or non- existent
- security, exclusivity, durability, transferability
• Licenses – these are seen as somewhat
weak property rights in relation to fish
stock protection since fish stock are still
regarded as a common property
– licensing in the Pacific Islands
• Territorial Use Rights in Fisheries (TURFs)
– TURFs can be seen as a property right but
have limitations where fish are transboundary
– Useful in management of sedentary species
– Widely used management measure in the
Pacific Islands
Community Management
• Where a defined group has exclusive
rights
• Whether the group is successful depends
to a large extent on the knowledge and
internal dynamics of the group, in
particular their decision making
mechanism (Arnason, 2007).
• Widely practiced in the Pacific Islands
Individual Quota/ITQ
• A catch quota gives the holder the right to a
certain share of the TAC
• ITQ - is economically more efficient system of
quota whereby a market for quota is created
• Allows efficient operators to harvest, thereby
optimise rent/benefits
• Disadvantages in the context of coastal fisheries
Table 5.2
Assessing Policy Goals & Objectives in Fisheries Plans in the Context of Pacific Islands
Management
Tool
Sustainable
Fisheries
Optimising
Economic
Benefits
Achieving
Food &
Nutritional
Security
Increasing
Employment
Conservation
& Stock Rebuilding
Achieving
Integrated
Management
Overall Score
Open access
0
SR (1)
0
0
0
0
1 ?
Gear restriction
2
1
1
0
3
0
7
Area closure
2
1
1
0
3
1
8
Time restriction
2
1
1
0
3
0
7
Minimum size
limits
3
1
1
0
3
0
8
Biological:
Direct Economic Restriction:
Total Allowable
Catch
3
1 (SR)
SR (1)
1
3
1
10
Vessel
restriction
1
1 (SR)
1 (SR)
1
1
0
5
Effort
restriction
2
2
2
1
2
1
10
3
3
3
1
2
1
Access/license
1
1
1
1
1
1
6
IQ/ITQs
3
3
3
1
2
1
13
Sole ownership
3
3
2
1
3
3
15
TURFs
2
2
3
3
2
2
14
Community
rights
3
3
3
3
3
3
18
Indirect Economic Restriction:
Taxes &
subsidies
Property Rights:
Weight: 1 low contribution, 2 average contribution, 3 high contribution
SR: Short Run
• Community Management -Most practical potential policy
tool in addressing the national policy goals that are partly
derived from the various international and regional
instruments and in meeting the local needs and
aspirations
• Choice of appropriate policy will also depend on
minimizing monitoring and enforcement costs.
• QUESTION?
– How can we design a good community fisheries management
regime?
– What is the role of government?
– What is the role of community?
Unit 5: Part III
Re-evaluation of fisheries
policies which have been
implemented
Aims & Objectives
• Critically review some of the current
policies in light of meeting the stated goals
and objectives
• Reconsider the various components of the
fisheries management regime to achieve
the optimal policy mix
• Identify some possible solutions,
opportunities and constraints
Introduction
Current Issues & concerns:
• Sustainability of resources
• Impose limits on coastal areas – reefs and
lagoons
• Assist in alleviating poverty
• Provide a source of income
• Employment generation
• Role of government in fisheries management
• Underlying factors influencing allocation criteria
for fishing opportunities
Analysis of management systems
• Closed Areas (Marine Protected Area) –
Many of the Pacific Islands have some
form of MPAs in the sea adjacent to the
villages
– Closed off either temporarily or permanently
– Rebuild stocks, protect juveniles, spawning
• How effective is this management tool in
addressing the policy objectives?
• Can the benefits from the fishery be
optimized under such a management
system?
• Is there an effective MCS system that is
enforceable and that it is enforced?
• Analyse the costs and benefits of
developing and managing a MPA
• Size limits – Common species with size
limits include beche-de-mer, trochus,
mangrove crabs, pearl oysters and some
finfish
• This management measure helps to
protect juveniles and ensures that there is
adequate recruitment
• Application in a subsistence and artisanal
fishery??
Customary Marine Tenure (CMT)
• A number of the Melanesian and
Micronesian countries have legal
recognition of customary rights - regulated
by custom and culture (refer to Unit1)
• How effective are the CMT systems in
meeting the policy goals and objectives?
• Whether the CMT is able to optimize
resource rent and whether resource rents
could be derived is dependent on the
community choice of an optimal fishing
effort, its enforcement and implementation
• community will also need a mechanism to
distribute the benefits in order to fulfill the
societal goals
Licensing
• While this method is used for managing
artisanal commercial fisheries, its
effectiveness largely depends on the
monitoring and enforcement
• Advantages and disadvantages of
licensing in coastal fisheries management
Total Allowable Catch
• Total allowable catch has been used in
some occasions to limit the amount of
harvest such as trochus fishery in the
Cook Islands.
• A global TAC is unlikely to provide optimal
returns - practical difficulty in monitoring
and enforcement
Locally Managed Marine Areas
• A form of a community based management
where community has agreed to set up a formal
structure (as representative of the community) to
oversee management of the fishery
• Strengths and weaknesses in light of the
characteristics of an efficient and effective
fisheries management regime?
• What level of MCS does this system require and
is it cost effective?
Concluding Comments
• The goals and objectives must be clearly stated so that
the outcomes could be measured or evaluated using
some criteria such as economic and environmental
principles, eg. cost and benefit analysis
• The long term social benefits from a fishery must
outweigh the long term social costs of management.
• Often when there are several policy objectives that are
not well coordinated, there will be room for conflicts and
sub-optimal results.
• Policy coordination in order to get the right policy mix
that is complementary is very critical for the success of
any policy.