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Robert Gagne’s Conditions of Learning ProSeminar B Shari Taylor May 9, 2004 Robert Gagne was considered to be an experimental psychologist who was concerned with learning and instruction. His earlier work was based on a behaviorist viewpoint, but his later work seemed to be influenced by the information processing view of learning and instruction. His major contributions to Instructional Development include co-developing “Instructional Systems Design,” The Conditions of Learning, and co-writing Principles of Instructional Design. The type of research that appears to be related to this theory comes from B.F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning. In Skinner’s theory (Operant Conditioning, n.d.), “learning is a function of a change in overt behavior.” 1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) - answer (response) frames which expose the student to the subject in gradual steps. 2. Require that the learner make a response for every frame and receive immediate feedback. 3. Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so the response is always correct and hence a positive reinforcement. 4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with secondary reinforcers such as verbal praise, prizes and good grades. The Conditions of Learning associates the learning objectives to suitable instructional designs. Gagne identified five main categories of learning: verbal information; intellectual skills; cognitive strategies; motor skills; and attitudes (Robert Gagne, n.d.). Differing conditions, both internally and externally, are essential for each type of learning (Learning Theories, 1996). If you want students to learn attitudes, then the student me be exposed to a credible role model or persuasive justifications. If you want a student to learn cognitive strategies, then you need to provide opportunities for the student to practice developing new solutions to problems (Learning Theories, 1996). This theory also outlines nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes: 1.) Gaining attention (reception); 2.) Informing learners of the objective (expectancy); 3.) Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval); 4.) Presenting the stimulus (selective perception); 5.) Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding); Eliciting performance (responding); 7.) Providing feedback (reinforcement); 8.) Assessing performance (retrieval); and 9.) Enhancing retention and transfer (generalization) (Robert Gagne, n.d.). These nine instructional events should help provide the necessary conditions for learning and serve to be the base for designing instruction and selecting the appropriate materials for learning. The two steps that are critical in applying Gagne’s theory are first specifying the type of learning outcome and secondly, determining the events of learning. The learning outcomes are listed below in the table with examples for applying to learning (Robert Gagne 1916-2002, n.d.). Outcome Verbal Information Example Recite material learned earlier Conditions that would assist the outcome 1. Information that organizes material 2. Instructional aids for motivation and retention 3. Provide meaningful context to assist in understanding of information Intellectual Skill Discriminations Concepts Rules High Order Rules Distinguish objects, features, or symbols Identify classes of objects, features, or events Classify new examples of events or ideas by their definition Apply a single relationship to solve a class of problems Apply a new combination of rules to solve a complex problem 1. Recognize distinctive features 2. Engage in finding examples 3. Relevant concepts reviewed 4. Provide concrete examples 5. Schedule practice 6. Verbal instructions to direct thinking 7. Present variety of contexts to promote transfer Cognitive Strategy Motor Skills Attitudes Choose a personal way to guide learning, thinking, acting, and feeling 1. Demonstrate the strategy 2. Provide time to practice strategy 3. Provide informative feedback 4. Frequent presentation of unique and challenging problems Demonstrate by involving the use of muscles 1. Present verbal directions 2. Model activity 3. Arrange repeated practice 4. Provide immediate feedback Choose personal actions based on understanding and feeling 1. Establish expectancy of success 2. Model behavior 3. Provide opportunities to practice using the strategy 4. Provide informative feedback Gagne’s idea is tied directly to Skinner’s idea of sequenced learning events as shown in his Nine Events of Instruction: This table shows the events of instruction (Carr & Carr, 2000) and an example lesson that could be applied to follow. Example Lesson: Study the relation of interior angles on a right triangle using Geometer’s Sketchpad. Objective: Students will learn how to use Geometer’s Sketchpad, software program, to create and manipulate triangles (acute, right, and obtuse) to show the relationships of the interior angles. Event of Instruction Gain attention Inform learner of objective Stimulate recall of prior learning Lesson Example Teacher tells students how they are going to use Geometer’s Sketchpad in the classroom by showing example on TV monitor. Ask students questions about symbols on buttons to be utilized. Teacher says, “Today I am going to show you how to use the computer software, Geometer’s Sketchpad, to manipulate triangles to discover the relationship of the interior angles on any triangle. These students have previously used Geometer’s Sketchpad to study the relationship of lines and segments. They will associate their prior knowledge with this new learning experience Present the stimulus Teacher gives step-by-step instructions on utilizing Geometer’s Sketchpad that is installed on their computers. Provide learner guidance Teacher demonstrates how to create triangles on the TV monitor and how to use the program to add degree measures and leg lengths to the figure. Students are allowed to discover relationships. Elicit performance Teacher asks students to experiment on acute, right, and obtuse triangles. Give feedback Teacher gives individual feedback after student has given response. Rationale Giving background information creates validity Use of technology grabs the student’s attention Asking questions creates an interactive atmosphere Makes students aware of what to expect Makes students prepared to receive information When covering new concepts, accessing prior knowledge is a major factor in the process of acquiring new information The goal is to acquire new information so the stimulus used is the written content and the actual software program Use “discovery learning” (Robert Gagne, n.d.) because it gives the students freedom to learn. Use hints and clues to facilitate learning Requires the learner to produce based on what has been taught which, in turn, enables the student to confirm their learning. Regular feedback will enhance the student’s learning Assess performance Assign a practice activity using triangles with one angle unknown or with exterior angles given. Enhance retention and transfer Teacher asks student to peer teach. Teacher asks students to create another practice activity. Practice done independently forces students to use what they’ve learned and apply it Applying what they’ve learned leads the students towards mastering the concepts The role implied by this theory for the teacher is to be creative and design your instruction for all domains. The learners will benefit from this breakdown and, with the implementation of technology, be stimulated to learn. In return, the students will leave your classroom with a stronger understanding of the material in the knowledge context. Wiggins and McTighe (1998) state, “The English language offers a challenge to understanding as a word, with different meanings. A closer look at everyday speech and usage also suggests that understanding is a matter of degree, symbolizes not one achievement but several, and is revealed through diverse performances and products.” The knowledge that is worth understanding should include material that is: 1.) Lasting, 2.) At the core of the discipline, 3.) Needing uncoverage, and 4.) Potentially engaging (Wiggins and McTighe, 1998). Utilizing technology to support learning creates new opportunities for content and instruction by bringing in real-world problems into the classroom for students to explore and solve. “Technology can help to create an active environment in which students not only solve problems, but also find their own problems” (Bransford, Brown, and Cocking, 2000). I really feel this is a very sound theory. Conceptually, “Conditions of Learning” breaks down the components of learning into minute steps to assist students in their learning. In addition to comparing to Skinner, Conditions of Learning can be compared to Wiggins and McTighe’s (1998) “WHERE.” “WHERE” stands for: 1.) Where are we headed? Dealing with final performance obligations (informing learner of objectives), 2.) Hook the student though engaging and provocative entry points. Piquing interest by “instant immersion” into questions and problems require the student’s wits, not just the knowledge they’ve acquired from school. Also, “thought provocations” such as weird facts and mysteries grab the student’s attention and interest (gaining attention, stimulate recall of prior learning & presenting stimulus), 3.) Explore and enable/equip. Engaging the students in exploring the unknown (providing learner guidance & eliciting performance), 4.) Reflect and rethink. Guiding the students in self-reflection and adjusting ideas based on feedback (giving feedback), and 5.) Exhibit and evaluate. Showing what is understood through some time of final performance (assessing performance & enhancing retention and transfer). Although the steps are condensed, these theories show strong similarities thus showing strong support for each other. . References Bransford J., Brown A., and Cocking R. (2000). How People Learn. Washington, D.C. National Academy Press. Carr, A. & Carr, C. (2000). The Nine Events of Instruction. Retrieved May 1, 2004, from http://ide.ed.psu.edu/idde/9events.htm. Conditions of Learning: Gagne. (n.d.). Retrieved May 1, 2004, from http://tip.psychology.org/gagne.html. Learning Theories: Conditions of Learning. (1996). Open Learning Technology Corporation Limited. Retrieved May 1, 2004, from http://www.educationau.edu.au/archives/cp/04d.htm. Operant Conditioning: B.F. Skinner. (n.d.). Retrieved May 5, 2004, from http://tip.psychology.org/skinner.html. The Psi Café. (1999-2001). Robert Gagne 1916-Current. Retrieved May 5, 2004, from http://www.psy.pdx.edu/PsiCafe/KeyTheorists/Gagne.htm. Robert Gagne. (n.d.). Retrieved May 1, 2004, from http://www.my-ecoach.com/idtimeline/theory/gagne.html. Robert M. Gagne. (n.d.). Retrieve May 5, 2004, from http://mercury.sfsu.edu/~ching/personal/Learning/theorists/gagne.html. Srisethanil, Chaisak. Georgia Tech Project EPITOME. (n.d.) Gagne’s Instruction Design Framework. Retrieved May 5, 2004, from http://www.ce.gatech.edu/research/projects/computer/Epitome/ITS-Engineering/isd.html. Wiggins, Grant and McTighe, Jay. (1998). Understanding by Design. Alexandria, VA. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.