Download Learning Environments Engagement Theory

Instructional Technology
Theoretical foundations and my
philosophical beliefs
Psychological Foundations
Below are the major psychological theories that have
shaped the field of Instruction Technology and influenced
my understanding of learning processes
Behaviorism
Information Process Theory of Learning
Situated Learning Theory
Gagne’s Theory of Instruction
Constructivism
Psychological Foundations
Behavioral Learning Theory
Behaviorism is a theory of animal and human learning that only
focuses on observable behaviors and ignores mental activities
(Funderstanding, 2001, paragraph 1). Behaviors are reactions to
different stimuli. Learning occurs when behaviors receive positive
results and are repeated. Important scientists in behaviorism
research include
Ivan P. Pavlov (classical conditioning),
John B. Watson
B. F. Skinner (operant conditioning)
Psychological Foundations
Information Process Theory
Information processing theory uses the computer to model
human learning. The human mind gets information (attention),
processes the information (encoding), stores the information
(retention) and gets the information when needed (retrieval).
They believe there are three kinds of memory: sensory
registers, short-term memory and long-term memory.
Information goes from sensory registers to short-term memory
which can only hold 5 to 9 chunks of information. Information
from short-term memory is then transferred to long-term
memory that has unlimited storage capacity .
Psychological Foundations
Implications of CIP for Instruction
Provide organized instruction. Make the structure and relations of the material
evident to learners, such as through concept maps or other graphic representations.
Link new material with what is currently known. This provides a sort of mental
"scaffolding" for the new material.
Recognize the limitations of short-term memory. Use the concept of chunking:
don't present 49 separate items, make them 7 groups of 7. Use elaboration and
multiple contexts.
Arrange for a variety of practice opportunities. The goal is to help the learner
generalize the concept, principle, or skill to be learned so that it can be applied
outside of the original context in which it was taught.
Help learners become "self-regulated." Assist them in selecting and using
appropriate learning strategies such as summarizing and questioning (Perry,2003,
paragraph 14).
Psychological Foundations
Situated Cognition Theory
Situated learning theory proposes that learning is a result of
an activity done in its proper environment and with social
interaction within the culture. Situated learning theorists
believe that one learns a subject matter by doing what experts
in that subject matter do.
Principles
Knowledge needs to be presented in an authentic context,
i.e., settings and applications that would normally involve
that knowledge.
Learning requires social interaction and collaboration
Psychological Foundations
Gagne’s Theory of Instruction
Gagne’s nine step process that defines the conditions
necessary for learning.
gaining attention (reception)
informing learners of the objective (expectancy)
stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)
presenting the stimulus (selective perception )
providing learning guidance (semantic encoding )
eliciting performance (responding)
providing feedback (reinforcement)
assessing performance (retrieval)
enhancing retention and transfer (generalization)
Psychological Foundations
Constructivism
Constructivism is the belief that individual students form
knowledge for themselves and don’t rely on what someone
else say is true. In constructivism, the student acts as the
creator of their own meaning. Their current experiences
reinforces and builds on prior experiences if they are
similar and challenges prior experiences that conflict.
For constructivist, there is no knowledge outside of the
learner’s constructed knowledge from experience.
Learning Environments
There are two major views about the nature of
knowledge and learning. These views have lead to
different instructional methods for teaching and have
created different learning environments.
Positivism believe that knowledge exists independent of
individuals, That there are absolute truths that exist in the world.
( Behaviorism and cognitive theories )
Relativism believe that knowledge is constructed by the
learner; truth is contextual
( Constructivism )
Learning Environments
Direct Instruction
Directed Instruction is a systematic method for presenting material in small
steps, pausing to check for student understanding and drawing active and
successful participation from all students. (Rosenshine, 1986, p. 60) This
model is based on behaviorist theory.
Important teaching functions
daily review
presenting new material
guided practice
corrections and feedback
independent practice
weekly and monthly reviews.
Learning Environments
The Distributed Network Learning Framework
& Knowledge Spaces conceptual model
In a network learning environment, information flows through the network
based on decisions made by learner. Information and knowledge flow to
where learner needs it. Information from the network is stored locally
(memory) if the learner expects it to be of value. Over time learner would
optimize the organization of locally stored information.
EXAMPLE
Learner is a pizza lover. They initially look up pizza phone number via
computer. They order pizza and like it, so after several more orders the
pizza phone number moves from computer to note pasted on computer for
easier access. The pizza phone number will then move to memory which
is the fastest access to the phone number thus knowledge has been
transferred from network to learner.
Learning Environments
Anchored Instruction
The goal of anchored instruction is to create interesting, realistic contexts
that encouraged the active construct ion of knowledge by learners. Anchors
were usually stories rather than lectures and were designed to be explored by
students and teachers. The use of interactive videodisc technology makes it
possible for students to easily explore the content.
Principles:
Learning and teaching activities should be designed around a "anchor"
which should be some sort of case-study or problem situation.
Curriculum materials should allow exploration by the learner (e.g.,
interactive videodisc programs).
Learning Environments
Engagement Theory
Engagement theory is the idea that students must be meaningfully engaged in
learning activities through interaction with others and worthwhile tasks.
Engagement theory is intended to be used for technology-based learning and
teaching because technology offers the most engagement methods.
Engagement theory shares similarities with constructivism, situated learning
theory and androgogy.
Similarities with other theories
Constructivism-emphasis on meaningful learning
Situated Learning theory- emphasis on collaboration among peers and a
community of learners
Androgogy- focus on experience and self-directed learning
Learning Motivation Theories
The field of Instructional design is assuming more responsibilities in the
larger scope of human performance. From this perspective, instructional
designers have to understand and identify all factors that influence
human performance and design to improve performance. Within this
broader scope, understanding motivation is important ( Reiser,
Dempsey, 2002, p.86 ).
Motivation “refers to a person’s desire to pursue a goal or perform a
task, which is manifested by choice of goals and effort (persistence plus
vigor) in pursuing the goal”( Reiser, Dempsey, 2002, p.86 ).
Learning Motivation Theories
Motivational needs Theory
David C. McClellan proposed that we all have three fundamental needs that
exist in different balances. These needs affect how we are motivated and how
we attempt to motivate others. McClelland’s theory states that these needs
could be changed through training
Fundamental needs
Need for achievement- Seeks achievement, attainment of goals and
advancement. Strong need for feedback, sense of accomplishment and
progress
Need for affiliation- Need for friendships, interaction and to be liked.
Need for power- Authority motivated needs to influence and make an impact.
Strong need to lead and to increase personal status and prestige.
Learning Motivation Theories
Learned Helplessness Theory
A theory by Martin E. P. Seligman based on cognitive psychology, it states that
what one thinks determines their behavior. Seligman explains that depression is
a result of pessimistic thinking. Depressed people thought in more pessimistic
ways than non-depressed people. Explanatory style was the termed coined to
describe the different thinking styles.
Seligman found that these explanations could be rated along three dimensions:
personalization: internal vs. external
pervasiveness: specific vs. universal
permanence: temporary vs. permanent.
He found that the most pessimistic explanatory style is correlated with the most
depression. He said we often learn explanatory styles from our parents.
Learning Motivation Theories
Attribution Theory
Attribution theory is about how people explain things. We have only two
possible explanations for why things happen.
Explanations
Internal Attribution: an internal attribution assigns causality to factors within
the person. The person is claimed to be directly responsible for the event
External Attribution: assigns causality to an outside agent or force. The
outside agent is claimed to have motivated the event.
Attribution theory shows us that people can create new attitudes or beliefs
depending upon the explanation they make. If they make internal attribution
they tend to change their attitude and beliefs about themselves. With External
attributes they are not taking responsibility so they are unlikely to change.
Learning Motivation Theories
ARCS Model
John Keller’s ARCS Model for motivation is a systematic process to include
motivational factors in the design process of instructional materials. There are
four main motivation categories along with sub categories.
Motivation Categories
Attention
Perceptual Arousal
Inquiry Arousal
Variability
Relevance
Goal Orientation
Motive matching
Familiarity
Confidence
Learning requirements
Success Opportunities
Personal control
Satisfaction
Intrinsic Reinforcement
Extrinsic Rewards
Equity
My Philosophical Beliefs
My philosophical beliefs about learning and learning environments is
based in between positivism and relativism epistemology. My
philosophical beliefs are a reflection of my career interest in adult
education. I subscribe to Gagne’s theory of instruction and Knowles’
principles of androgogy.
I am a strong believer that adult education should be learner centered
with teachers acting as facilitators. I believe that assignments and
course materials should be based on real world situation, the career
path of the learner.
My Philosophical Beliefs
Within the positivism epistemology, I favor the cognitive theories
more than behaviorism. I believe that learning has an internal process
component, our mind, which processes a stimuli and puts out an
appropriate behavioral response.
Where I defer from relativism is my belief that knowledge exists
independent of the learner. I believe there is an absolute truth which
we are constantly seeking with our observations, theories and
experiments.
I subscribe to relativism’s learner-centered approach, and relevant
nature of learning content. I like situated cognition theory,
engagement theory and distributed network learning framework. I
believe that technology can be a way of learning as well as a tool for
learning.
References
Droar, D. (2004). Motivational Needs. Retrieved February 7, 2004 from
http://www.arrod.co.uk/archive/article_motivational_needs.php
Funderstanding. (2001). Behaviorism. Retrieved February 7, 2004, from
http://www.funderstanding.com/behaviorism.cfm
Funderstanding. (2001). Constructivism. Retrieved February 7, 2004, from
http://www.funderstanding.com/constructivism.cfm
Huitt, W. (2000). The Information Processing Approach. Retrieved February 7, 2004,
from http://hsc.csu.edu.au/pro_dev/teaching_online/how_we_learn/
information.html
Kruse, K. (2002). The Magic of Learner Motivation: The ARCS Model. Retrieved
February 7, 2004 from http://www.e-learningguru.com/
articles/art3_5.htm
Open Learning Technology Corporation Limited. (1996). Situated Learning. Retrieved
February 7, 2004 from http://www.educationau.edu.au/
archives/cp/04k.htm
References
Miller, G.A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our
capacity for processing information. Retrieved February 7, 2004, from.
http://www.well.com/user/smalin/miller.html
Perry, J.D. (2003). Cognitive approaches I - Basic information processing model.
Retrieved February 7, 2004, from http://education.indiana.edu/%7Ep540/
webcourse/readings
SBB. (1996). ATTRIBUTION THEORY. Retrieved February 7, 2004 from
http://www.as.wvu.edu/~sbb/comm221/chapters/attrib.htm
Yen, D.H. (1998). Learned Helplessness. Retrieved February 7, 2004 from
http://www.noogenesis.com/malama/discouragement/helplessness.html
Bransford, J.D. & CTGV. (1993). Anchored Instruction. Retrieved February 7, 2004 from
http://tip.psychology.org/anchor.html
Carr, A.M., & Carr, C.S. (2000). The Nine Events of Instruction. Retrieved February 7, 2004 from
http://ide.ed.psu.edu/idde/9events.htm
References
Jacobson, M.J., & Levin, J.A. ( 1993). Network Learning Environments and Hypertext:
Constructing Personal and Shared Knowledge Spaces. Retrieved February 7, 2004 from
http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/TTA/Papers/J&L-Tel-Ed93.html
Kearsley, G., & Shneiderman, B. (1999). Engagement Theory:
A framework for technology-based teaching and learning. Retrieved February 7, 2004
from http://home.sprynet.com/~gkearsley/engage.htm
Reiser, R.A., & Dempsey, J.V. (2002). Trends and Issues In Instructional Design And
Technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall
Bustamante, L., Howe-Tennant, D., & Ramo, C. (1996). The Behavioral Approach.
Retrieved February 7, 2004, from
http://facultyweb.cortland.edu/~ANDERSMD/BEH/BEHAVIOR.HTML