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Knowledge acquisition and
machine learning
Reading textbook chapters
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INFO 629
Dr. R. Weber
Knowledge acquisition
INFO 612 3/18/2003
Dr. R. Weber
Knowledge acquisition
• Knowledge engineering
• knowledge acquisition & elicitation
• knowledge elicitation
– steps, recommendations, issues, results
•
•
•
•
KA tools and techniques
Manual methods
Interactive methods
Automated methods
Problem
Assessment
humans books
source of
facts
expertise
documents
knowledge
acquisition
design
knowledge
engineer
KNOWLEDGE
ENGINEERING
testing
knowledge
representation
documentation
knowledge
base
+
inference
procedures
Knowledge engineering
humans books
source of
facts
expertise
documents
knowledge
acquisition
knowledge
engineer
KNOWLEDGE
ENGINEERING
Knowledge
knowledge
based
+
representation
system
Knowledge acquisition
• transference of expertise from a
knowledge source to a program
Knowledge elicitation-KE
• capture of expertise from a domain
expert to be represented in a program
Types of Knowledge
• From Durkin 1994
Sources of Knowledge
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Experts
End-users
Multiple experts
Reports
Books
Regulations
Guidelines
First steps in KE
The knowledge engineer must:
• obtain a general view of the domain
• identify a framework to structure the new domain
• capture the reasoning style of the experts in the
domain
First meeting w/experts
•
•
•
•
what is a KBS
goals of system
commitment (e.g., confidentiality)
give the choice to leave
Recommendations
From [DIA89]
• meet only once a week with each expert
• limit meetings to 40 min at most
• keep 2/3 of the interview to technical topics and 1/3
to general topics
• process each interview before the next one
• limit total meetings to 3 hs a day
• be sure never to mention other expert’s views
• employ same methods in the same order to all
experts
• be consistent and provide a convenient environment
Interviews
•
•
•
•
Unstructured interviews
Structured interviews
Observational
Retrospective
Issues in KE
• Compiled knowledge: can be executed but its
internal structure cannot easily be understood
(e.g., ride a bike). Knowledge that became so
obvious that humans cannot explain.
• When asking something to an expert, he or she
might try to answer things that are unknown or
maybe compiled knowledge
• Psychologists do not identify an association
between a verbal report and cognition
Problems with KE
• Plausible lines of reasoning can have little to do with actual
problem-solving.
• Academic knowledge may be obtained in place of compiled
knowledge.
• Experts may be insecure. They could be afraid of losing their
jobs; they may not want computers encroaching on their "private
domain;" they may not want to expose their problem-solving
methods to the scrutiny of colleagues or of the general public.
• Interpersonal interviewing problems can result when knowledge
engineers are not trained in interviewing techniques.
• Protocol analysis (obs. & retrospec.) is labor intensive, errorprone, and results in a series of random behavior samples that
must be synthesized by the knowledge engineer.
Results of KE
• low productivity
– knowledge engineers need to study the field
– it is hard to find a framework to structure the
new domain
– experts reason at a low level of specificity
KA tools and techniques
1. Manual methods
2. Interactive methods
3. Automated methods
From:
John H. Boose
Knowledge Acquisition Tools, Methods, and Mediating Representations
Copyright © 1990, John H. Boose. in Motoda, H., Mizoguchi, R., Boose, J. H., and Gaines, B. R.
(Eds.) (1990). Proceedings of the First Japanese Knowledge Acquisition for Knowledge-Based
Systems Workshop: JKAW-90, Ohmsha ,Ltd: Japan.
Manual methods (i)
• Brainstorming
– rapidly generate a large number of ideas
• Interviewing
– unstructured (general questions)
– semi-structured (open questions+topics)
– structured (strict agenda)
– Neurolinguistic Programming (eye
movement, body language)
– tutorial
Manual methods (ii)
• Knowledge Org. Techniques:
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Card Sorting
ethnoscience techniques (names & categories)
knowledge analysis
mediating representations
overcoming bias
psychological scaling
uncertain information elicitation and
representation
• Hoffman, (1987) describes various methods to elicit
expertise with different advantages and disadvantages
Manual methods (iii)
• Protocol Analysis Techniques
– Participant Observation
– Protocol Analysis (retrospective)
• User Interface Techniques
– in wizard of oz technique, an expert
simulates the behavior of a future system
Interactive methods
• problem-to-method relationship
– usually a domain specific problem employing a
highly specialized method using much domain
knowledge, or a general problem employing a
general method with little domain knowledge) E.g.,
interdependency models
• representation languages
– for defining and describing problems and methods,
e.g., method ontologies
• intelligent editors
– that help AI programmers construct large knowledge
bases, e.g., CYC
Automated Methods (i)
• Analogy
– apply knowledge from old situations in
similar new situations
• Apprenticeship Learning
– learn by watching experts solve problems
• Neural Networks
• Discovery
– Learn by experimentation and observation
The picnic game
• Let’s practice how to learn rules?
• According to Michalski (1983) A theory and
methodology of inductive learning. In Machine
Learning, chapter 4,
“inductive learning is a heuristic search through
a space of symbolic descriptions (i.e.,
generalizations) generated by the application of
rules to training instances.”
Inductive Learning Definition
According to Michalski (1983) A theory and
methodology of inductive learning. In
Machine Learning, chapter 4,
“inductive learning is a heuristic search
through a space of symbolic descriptions
(i.e., generalizations) generated by the
application of rules to training instances.”
Inductive Learning
• Learning by generalization
• Performance of classification tasks
– Also categorization
• Rules indicate categories
• Goal:
– Characterize a concept
Concept Learning is a Form of Inductive
Learning
•Learner uses:
–positive examples (instances ARE examples of a
concept) and
–negative examples (instances ARE NOT examples of
a concept)
Concept Learning
• Needs empirical validation
• Dense or sparse data determine quality of
different methods
Validation of Concept Learning i
• The learned concept should be able to correctly
classify new instances of the concept
– When it succeeds in a real instance of the concept it
finds true positives
– When it fails in a real instance of the concept it
finds false negatives
Validation of Concept Learning ii
• The learned concept should be able to correctly
classify new instances of the concept
– When it succeeds in a counterexample it finds true
negatives
– When it fails in a counterexample it finds false
positives
Rule Learning
• Learning algorithms widely used in data
mining
• Decision Trees
• Neural Networks
Decision trees
• Knowledge representation formalism
• Represent mutually exclusive rules (disjunction)
• A way of breaking up a data set into classes or
categories
• Classification rules that determine, for each instance
with attribute values, whether it belongs to one or
another class
Decision trees
consist of:
-leaf nodes (classes)
- decision nodes
(tests on attribute values)
-from decision nodes
branches grow for each
possible outcome of the
test
From Cawsey, 1997
Decision tree induction
• Goal is to correctly classify all example data
• Several algorithms to induce decision trees:
ID3 (Quinlan 1979) , CLS, ACLS,
ASSISTANT, IND, C4.5
• Constructs decision tree from past data
• Not incremental
• Attempts to find the simplest tree (not
guaranteed because it is based on heuristics)
ID3 algorithm
•From:
– a set of target classes
–Training data containing objects of more than
one class
•ID3 uses test to refine the training data set
into subsets that contain objects of only
one class each
•Choosing the right test is the key
How does ID3 chooses
tests
• Information gain or ‘minimum entropy’
• Maximizing information gain corresponds
to minimizing entropy
•Predictive features (good indicators of the
outcome)
Choosing tests
• Information gain is a statistical property
•Compute entropy
•How to best classify the training instances
•Predictive features (good indicators of the
outcome)
ID3 algorithm
ID3 algorithm
ID3 algorithm
ID3 algorithm (cont’d)
ID3 algorithm (cont’d)
Yes No 3 times
No No 4 times
No Yes 3 times
ID3 algorithm (cont’d)
Yes No 3 times
No No 4 times
No Yes 3 times
Single No 2 times
Married No 3 times
Divorced No 1 time
Divorced Yes 1 time
Single Yes 2 times
ID3 algorithm (cont’d)
Refund?
no
yes
No
Yes No 3 times
No No 4 times
No Yes 3 times
ID3 algorithm (cont’d)
Refund?
no
yes
No
ID3 algorithm (cont’d)
Refund?
no
yes
No
ID3 algorithm (cont’d)
Refund?
yes
Marital Status?
married
Single No 2 times
Married No 3 times
Divorced No 1 time
Divorced Yes 1 time
Single Yes 2 times
No
No
ID3 algorithm (cont’d)
Refund?
yes
Marital Status?
married
Single No 2 times
Married No 3 times
Divorced No 1 time
Divorced Yes 1 time
Single Yes 2 times
No
No
Single, divorced
Taxable Income?
ID3 algorithm (cont’d)
Refund?
yes
Marital Status?
married
Single No 2 times
Married No 3 times
Divorced No 1 time
Divorced Yes 1 time
Single Yes 2 times
No
Single, divorced
Taxable Income?
No
< 80K
No
ID3 algorithm (cont’d)
Refund?
yes
Marital Status?
married
Single No 2 times
Married No 3 times
Divorced No 1 time
Divorced Yes 1 time
Single Yes 2 times
No
Single, divorced
Taxable Income?
No
< 80K
No
>80K
Yes
Refund?
What rules
can you use
from this
decision
tree?
yes
Marital Status?
married
No
Single, divorced
Taxable Income?
No
< 80K
No
>80K
Yes
Knowledge Discovery
1 Knowledge Discovery in Databases (KDD) is the
non-trivial process of identifying valid, novel, and
potential useful and understandable patterns in data.
(R.Feldman,2000)
2 Knowledge Discovery from Processes
1.1 Data mining is one step in the KDD
method.
1.2 Text mining concerns applying data mining
techniques to unstructured text.
Automated Methods (ii)
• Example Selection
– select an appropriate set of examples for
various learning techniques
• Explanation-Based Learning
– deduce a general rule from a single example
by relating it to an existing theory
• Function Induction
– learn functions from input data
• Genetic Algorithm
– crossing-over, mutation
Automated Methods (iii)
• Performance Feedback
– performance feedback is used to reinforce
behavior
• Rule Induction
• Similarity-Based Learning
– learn similarities from sets of positive
examples and differences from sets of
negative examples
• Systemic Principles Derivation
– use general principles to derive specific
laws
References
Boose, John H. (1990). Knowledge Acquisition Tools, Methods, and
Mediating Representations. In Motoda, H., Mizoguchi, R., Boose,
J. H., and Gaines, B. R. (Eds.) (1990). Proceedings of the First
Japanese Knowledge Acquisition for Knowledge-Based Systems
Workshop: JKAW-90, Ohmsha ,Ltd: Japan.
Buchanan, Bruce G. & Wilkins, David C. (eds.) Readings in
Knowledge acquisition and learning: automating the construction
and improvement of expert systems.
Diaper,D. Knowledge elicitation - principles, techniques and
applications. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 1989. p.96-97
Hoffman,R.R.. The Problem of extracting the knowledge of experts
from the perspective of experimental psychology. AI Magazine, p.
53-67, 1987.