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1850 – 1914 Russia and Japan Japan and Russia Compared Managed to avoid Western dominance Industrialize to achieve economic autonomy. Proved to be the most flexible politically Strain of industrialization produced a series of revolutions in Russia As late industrializing nations There were substantial similarities between Russia and Japan. Both nations had prior experience with cultural imitation Japan from China Russia from Byzantium and the West. Both had achieved more effective central governments during the 17th and 18th centuries. As both countries industrialized, they came into conflict over territorial ambitions in Asia. Russian leaders in the 18th and early 19th centuries Russian Intellectuals (Intelligentsia) Isolate Russia from European revolution, Napoleon; completed shift to conservatism Tsar Alexander I sponsored Holy Alliance, linked conservative monarchies together Remained connected to western European trends This connection that worried the elite. 1825 and After The Decembrist uprising Tsar Nicholas I Western-oriented military officers attempted a coup Defeated by Imperial forces and members hung Turned to repressive conservatism Russia also lacked substantial middle or artisan classes Both helped Russia avoid mid-19th century revolutions. Official Nationality, Orthodoxy, Autocracy: Formal name to Nicholas’ policies The tsar suppressed Polish nationalism in 1831 and demanded assimilation of minorities Insisted on a traditional church and approach to politics especially autocracy Pressed southward against the Ottoman Empire. Russia supported nationalist movements in the Balkans as a means of weakening the Turks. • The reality of Russia’s position Economy remained primarily agrarian Fell behind the West in terms of production and trade To maintain the profitability of grain exports • Tighter labor obligations were imposed on the peasantry Tendency to export grain to raise money left many hungry The Crimean War, 1854-1856 Demonstrated how far Russia had fallen behind the West British, French forces drove the Russians from the Crimea Loss convinced Tsar Alexander II that reform was needed • The Peasant Problem In order to establish a more vigorous economy Some attempt had to be made to resolve the peasant crisis. Belief that a freer labor force could increase profitability. Western criticism of Russian social injustice also stung Russian sensibilities. Series of minor peasant rebellions in 1850s stimulated the movement for reform. Tsar Alexander II emancipated the serfs in 1861 • • • The freed serfs got most of the land Aristocracy retained political and economic power Serfs remained tied to their villages • • • • Until they could pay for the land they received. Redemption payments, taxes kept peasants in poverty The emancipation produced a larger urban labor force But failed to stimulate agricultural production Slow pace of change engendered social dissatisfaction Led to regional peasant uprisings, peasant distrust Alexander II carried out other reforms Industrialization and the State Issued new law codes, established regional councils (zemstvoes) for input on local decisions Began military reforms Literacy spread more widely in society with the rise of a mass market in popular literary forms Women gained power slightly through greater access to education Somewhat loosened patriarchal authority Russia lacked a substantial middle class: state handled capital formation, investment Russia created a substantial railroad network in the 1870s Zemstvo Stamp Better transportation permitted more efficient use of Russia's abundant natural resources The railroad also facilitated shipment of grain to the West, which in turn helped finance industrialization. 1880s – 1910s and the Results of Industrialization Modern factories had begun to develop in major Russian cities Count Sergei Witte, minister of finance from 1892 to 1903, enacted high tariffs to protect new industries. Witte also encouraged Western investment in Russian industrialization. As a result, nearly one half of Russia's industrial businesses were foreign-owned. By 1900, Russia ranked fourth in steel production and second in petroleum production. Russian factories were typically enormous but technologically inferior. Agriculture also lagged behind Western standards of productivity. The masses of Russian citizens were only slightly affected by industrialization. Military reforms did not substantially alter the concept of peasant conscripts serving aristocratic landlords. Russian industrialization produce a substantial middle class. Post-1855 Pan-Slavism and Slavophiles Ideologies that portrayed Russia as leader of all Slavs Goal was to liberate all Slavs, unite them under Russian rule Sought to unite Slavs under Russian tsar, common state Saw Russian culture as superior: anti-westernizers Led to Russification in Russia and conflict with Germany, Russia Alliance with France in 1894 and later with England Undo impact of Crimean War and conquer Ottoman Empire Obtain Constantinople as outlet to the Mediterranean Expand Russia’s influence in Asia Expand Russian influence amongst Balkan peoples Rise of Germany scared Russia who made common cause with France Similar fears eventually caused Russia and UK to bury differences Russo-Japanese War 1904 – 1905 Russian military expansion came to an end in 1904 Japan and Russia came into conflict over expansion in northern China. The Japanese quickly defeated Russia in the Russo-Japanese War Military defeat unleashed all of the dissenting forces in Russia. What modern states did the Russians rule in 1914 but not in 1999? In Europe? In the Caucasus area? In Central Asia? Geo-Politics & Geo-Economics How far is it from St. Petersburg to Vladivostok? How would the size & distances in Russia make Government difficult? What relationship is there between Russian ports & access to the seas? Why would ports on the Barents Sea & Arctic Ocean not be practical? During, after the 1880s, Russia became politically, socially unstable Radical intelligentsia demanded revolution Intellectual radicalism shaded off into terrorism and anarchism as a way to restructure society Initially, Russian radicals sought to spread their message among the peasants But they found the masses unreceptive Anarchists fell back on political assassination to unseat the government Alexander II was assassinated in 1881: his successors imposed repressive policies to dampen unrest. Russian Marxism Ethnic minorities began to agitate for national recognition after the 1860s. Recurrent famines produced peasant unrest. Intellectual protest began Business and professional people sought further liberal reforms In the 1890s, intellectuals picked up Marxism from the West as a means of organizing the revolution. Lenin introduced innovations in Marxism to accommodate the reality of Russian society Lenin's organization called for small disciplined cells of Marxists to organize the revolution. Lenin's approach was accepted by the Bolshevik faction of the Russian Marxists. Radicalism spread rapidly among urban workers, who formed unions and engaged in strikes. The Russian Government Faced with mass protests in cities and countryside state clamped down on reform Created a secret police to spy on, infiltrate radical organizations Began exiling malcontents to Siberia Lenin, Engels, Marx From Marxism to Bolshevism Bakunin: Anarchism From Narodniki to Nihilists Russian Social Revolutionaries (Agrarian Socialists) THE CAPITALIST SYSTEM IN RUSSIA ACCORDING TO THE MARXISTS The Tsar, Nobles The Church The Military and Police The Rich Bourgeoisie The Peasants, Workers The Russian Revolution of 1905 After repression failed, tsar's government offered reforms. Duma (national parliament) created; multi-party system legalized Constitution rewritten Minister Stolypin Enacts Reforms Began when soldiers mistakenly opened fire on pro-tsarist demonstration Soldiers, sailors mutinied at end of Russo-Japanese War Urban workers produced widespread strikes Peasants revolts erupted across Russia. Offered lighter burdens to the peasantry Offered peasants a place in village councils Peasant rebellions did die out Some peasants began to accumulate substantial land The reforms were rapidly undone. Tsar Nicholas II withdrew concessions to workers New rounds of strikes followed Duma rapidly became a political nonentity. 1750 Split between Ottomans, Austria, Poland Had largely missed Reformation, Renaissance, changes To 1914 Poland has disappeared Ottomans expelled from Europe Eastern Europe was a patchwork quilt of nationalities Rumania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Serbia included large minorities Replicated Russian patterns of political autocracy Many did establish parliaments put politics was violent, brutal Most eastern European nations abolished serfdom in 1848 After series of wars, revolts ended in two large Balkans wars in 1912 Except for small part of Thrace, Turks expelled from Europe Many Muslims (converted Slavs, Greeks) remained as did large Turkish populations Many new nations emerged in the Balkans Three partitions Russia, Austria and Prussia each received lands Shared a common goal never to allow a Polish state to arise again Industrialization was less thorough and many traditional Ottoman patterns remained Landlords continued to wield economic and political power Most energy, money spent on building nations, supporting large militaries Slavic nations enjoyed an era of great cultural productivity Diplomatically allied with Russia or Germany/Austria Geography & Japan What lands block Japanese expansion? If Japan were to expand abroad, what would she need? Why would Japan covet Korea? Geography & War (use map on 651 too) If Japan expanded into Korea, what countries would contest the move? What 2 wars did Japan fight? What geographic problems plagued Russia but would help Japan? The Late Tokugawa Shogunate Utilitzed a central bureaucracy Combined with alliances to feudal magnates Government was chronically short of funds Due to limited income from taxes Also due to high payments made to feudal lords for their loyalty Shortages of income led to reform movements This weakened shogunate and made it vulnerable to external threats Government and Society The political alliance between the bureaucracy and the samurai worked well Growth of neo-Confucianism made Japanese life more secular Also precluded a religious opposition to change Literacy rates in Japan were much higher than in the West The national school emphasized essentially Japanese culture Dutch Studies school represented attempts to learn Western science, technology The Japanese economy expanded on the basis of commercial growth Manufacturing began to extend into countryside producing some rural protests • 1848 • • • 1853 • Japan was forced to receive Western consuls Forced to open ports to foreign trade. Shogun faced immediate opposition • American commodore Matthew Perry arrived Demanded that Japan be opened to trade 1856 • Ranald McDonald http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio.php?id_nbr=6247 Daimyos insisted on maintaining isolation Shogun and the daimyos both made appeals to the emperor Emperor began to emerge as a more powerful figure. Meiji Restoration Some among the samurai saw an opportunity to unseat the shogun In 1860s samurai armed with Western weapons defeated shogun's army In 1868, certain samurai restored imperial rule under Meiji Emperor • The Meiji government abolished feudalism • 1884 • Replaced the daimyo states with regional prefectures Government sent samurai abroad to study political, economic organization Foreign observations were used to restructure the state Government abolished payments to samurai Paid samurai with government bonds but some samurai fell into poverty Conscription provided a new army Others found avenues of employment in the government and business. Government created a new nobility to staff a House of Peers Civil-service examinations were utilized to open the bureaucracy to men of talent. 1889 constitution Recognized the supremacy of the emperor But gave limited powers to an elected lower house of representatives within the Diet. The new constitution was based on German models. Voting rights were determined by property qualifications Five percent of the population to cast ballots The form of government gave great authority to wealthy businessmen and nobles Political parties developed A small oligarchy continued to dominate the government into the 20th century Inclusion of businessmen among political elite was major difference from Russian model of reform The influence of the army and navy Modernization necessary for military reasons Foundations for industrialization An internal infrastructure was created Guilds and internal tariffs were abolished Clear title to land was granted to individuals Government Involvement Became very influential in society Many reforms were enacted to modernize the armed forces Lack of capital dictated direct government involvement in the stages of industrialization. Japan established the Ministry of Industry in 1870 to oversee economic development The government built model factories to provide experience with new technology Education was extended as a means of developing a work force Private enterprise soon joined government initiatives, particularly in textiles Industrial combines or zaibatsus served to accumulate capital for major investment. Results Japan's careful management of industrialization limited foreign involvement. Japan continued to depend on the importation of equipment and raw materials from the West. Rapid growth depended on existence of cheap supply of labor often drawn from poorly paid women. More than Russia, Japan's industrialization depended on selling manufactured goods abroad. • Social change led to rapid population growth • • The education system stressed science and loyalty to the emperor Westernization? • Strained Japanese resources But provided a ready supply of cheap labor. As industrialization progressed, population growth dropped off. Patriarchal households remained the norm Divorce rates indicated increasing instability within family life. Western culture arrived along with models of state and industrialization. Shintoism as an expression of indigenous culture gained new popularity. Foreign Policy Japan entered the race for colonial domination. • • • • The need to employ the new army Search for raw materials Efforts to prevent Western encroachment All contributed to Japanese imperialism after 1890 Japan annexed the Ryuku Islands Japan won easy victories over China in 1895 and over Russia in 1904. The victories yielded Japan some territories in northern China In 1910, Japan annexed Korea COAL PRODUCTION IN JAPAN IN VARIOUS YEARS FROM 1875 TO 1913 RAILROAD MILEAGE IN JAPAN IN VARIOUS YEARS FROM 1873 TO 1913 RAW SILK PRODUCTION AND EXPORT FROM JAPAN 1868 TO 1913 Production annual average (tons) Exports annual average (tons) 1868-1872 1026 646 1883 1687 1347 Period Year Track (miles) 1872 18 1883 240 1887 640 1894 2100 1904 4700 1914 7100 Year Coal Production (metric tons) 1875 600,000 1885 1,200,000 1895 5,000,000 1905 13,000,000 1913 21,300,000 THE SIZE OF THE JAPANESE MERCHANT FLEET IN VARIOUS YEARS FROM 1873 TO 1913 Year Number of Steamships 1873 26 1889-1893 4098 2444 1894 169 1899-1903 7103 4098 1904 797 1909-1913 12460 9462 1913 1514 • Industrialization and successful imperialism had costs • • • Industrialization upended older traditions, social classes Change is not accepted easily Imperialism demanded a strong industrial base • • • • • Unions, strikes arose in Japan and labor politics became part of industry Carefully contrived political balance became unwieldy • War industries tie up money in producing goods which have no benefit Money spent on war could be invested elsewhere Japan made the decision to be a great power and that meant arming Ministries were forced to call more frequent elections Few working majorities in the Diet Factions emerged in the Diet and old timers dominated proceedings Rise of Nationalism Conservatives appalled at trend to imitate the West. Intellectuals bemoaned loss of an authentic Japanese identity Both saw a Japan that was neither traditional nor Western. Leaders urged loyalty to the emperor and the nation. Nationalism became a strong force in Japanese politics. RUSSIA part of wider process of change state support – no middle class or capital railroads – 1870s - stimulated expansion of iron & coal industry export of grain to West urban working class grows high tariffs to protect industry Western investors to build factories ½ of industry foreign owned debtor nation 1900 4th in world steel production factories huge but not technically advanced JAPAN emperor has power send samurai overseas to learn technology & science government banks fund trade & provide capital state built railroads guilds abolished create national market government dominates industry rr, mines, metallurgy government control kept away too much foreign intervention Ministry of Industry disciplined work systems adapted Western practices for Japanese conditions zaibatsu – large industrial operations depended on imports of raw materials very dependent on world economic situation success in organizing industrialization emancipate serfs still preserve aristocratic power still tied to villages til pay off land larger urban labor force villages provide organization for peasants reform – new law codes, zemstvoes (local political councils army conscription, Westernization literacy increases industrialization part of change & reform match imperialism of Western neighbors Chinese sphere of influence diplomatic aspirations not met by military power defeat by Japanese (could not move navy into Pacific fast enough) protests at home urban workers organize strikes peasant insurrections Duma created to pacify liberals peasants gained more freedoms end isolation end of Shogunate – emperor regains power replace daimyos with district administrators centralize power social revolution – abolish samurai class army based on conscription, Western style military create new nobility, bureaucracy re-organized, civil service exams new parliament – diet centralized imperial rule power to wealthy business leaders and nobles population growth (strains resources, cheap labor) universal education system stress science, technology, morals & values western fashions, calendar, metric system western ideas only to complement Japanese maintain women’s inferiority Shintoism grows nationalism – superiority, cohesion, deference to rulers imperialism – Korea, Manchuria poor living standards in cities parliament clashes with emperor’s ministers successful in modernizing yet keeping innate Japanese culture process threatened traditional & social hierarchies Russia – aristocracy threatened by serf freedom, creation of zemstoves & army reforms Japan – change in samurai status, fall of shogunate, destruction of feudalism & military reforms both use territorial expansion to appease aristocracy & build support for imperial government Japan expanded after industrialization (raw materials) Russia expanded long before industrialization (warmwater port) Japan & Russia use Western models for industrialization & incorporate Western culture. Continue to trade with west so dependent on West culturally & technologically. Japan’s industrialization accomplished with less foreign money or control. Japan more economically autonomous Russia had a dependent economy with foreign capitalization & reliance on agricultural exports both involved in Western alliances Latin America didn’t industrialize, was less involved in Western diplomacy & colonialism. In cultural & money borrowing they were similar to Japan & Russia. Comparisons in 1800 Similarities in 1800 Differences Both had a Confucian culture, adopted a policy of relative isolation from contacts Both lagged behind west scientifically, industrially; forcibly opened by the West about the same time China surpassed Japan in development Chinese Confucian leadership was stronger, more developed; government was secular, bureaucratic Chinese centralized government had no feudal lords to impeded or distract it China had a rich tradition of innovation and scientific discoveries Differences Determined Outcome of Contact So why did Japan succeed? China lacked flexibility: tried to squash or control innovation Japan knew benefits of innovation; had a strong autonomous mercantile tradition Japan’s feudalism produced a dedicated militaristic elite, limited centralization China hampered by rapid population growth which consumed energy, resources Japan was island nation open to maritime contacts, influences: learned from Chinese mistakes Japanese government suffered no breakdown of authority even during Meiji Restoration Or Did China fail? Chinese government less efficient, less popular as dynasty was in decline; intellectual life stifled West fixated on China first as it was a greater prize Western contacts only worsened internal situation and made reform, control difficult Sino-Japanese War 1894 – 1895 proved Japan learned its lessons from the West Russia's already established role in the world expanded in the 19th century, as its cultural, diplomatic, and military power came to be felt in Europe, the Ottoman Empire, and Asia. Japan's role was newer, as it emerged from isolation to develop an increasingly powerful economy and to expand its influence in the western Pacific. Some nations in the West feared the yellow peril represented by Japan's emergence as an international power. The addition of Russia, Japan, and the United States to the world diplomatic picture increased competition. Colonial acquisitions by the new powers heightened the competitive atmosphere, particularly in the Far East. HOLY ALLIANCE DECEMBRIST UPRISINGS CRIMEAN WAR EMANCIPATION OF THE SERFS ZEMSTVOES TRANS-SIBERIAN RAILROAD INTELLIGENTSIA ANARCHISTS BOLSHEVIKS RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR DUMA STOLYPIN REFORMS KULAKS TERAKOYA DUTCH STUDIES ZAIBATSU DIET SINO-JAPANESE WAR YELLOW PERIL NICHOLAS I ALEXANDER II SERGEI WITTE V. I. LENIN MATTHEW PERRY MEIJI EMPEROR
