Download 1. Age - Vrindavan Academy Secondary School

Demography
Unit 1
Demography
Demography is the measurement of the population of a specific place in a particular time
and their scientific study. Demography means the statistical and mathematical study of
population size, regional distribution, composition and population change. Demography
can also be stated as the scientific study of human population.
Major sources of population statistics:
Statistics is the study of the collection, analysis, interpretation, presentation, and
organization of data. In applying statistics to, e.g., a scientific, industrial, or societal
problem, it is conventional to begin with statistical population or a statistical
model process to be studied. The major sources of population statistics are as follows:
1. Primary Sources
2. Census
3. Vital registration
4. Sample survey
5. Administrative records
6. Secondary sources
7. Organizations and institutions
8. Books
9. Journals
10. Newspaper
Population:
A population is a summation of all the organisms of the same group or species, which live
in a particular geographical area, and have the capability of interbreeding. In human
population, Population is the number of people living in specific area.
World population:
For humans, population density is the number of people per unit of area, usually quoted
per square kilometer or square mile which include or exclude, for example, areas of water
or glaciers. Commonly this may be calculated for a county, city, country, another territory,
or the entire world.
The world's population is around 7 billion, and Earth's total area (including land and water)
is 510 million square kilometers (197 million square miles). Therefore the worldwide
human population density is around 7 billion ÷ 510 million = 13.7 per km2 (35 per sq. mile).
Density of population of Nepal:
Population density in Nepal is also increasing along with the rapid growth of population.
Due to limited land areas of the country, it is natural that population density increases
simultaneously with the growth in the population. Looking at the condition of population
density in different censuses from 1981 to 2001 AD, it is found that population density
has increased in all development regions. However, it has increased drastically in the
Terai region in comparison to the hills and the mountains regions. Population density has
also increased rapidly in the country as a whole. The density of population was 102
persons in 1981, 126 persons in 1991 and it reached 157 persons in 2001 AD. From this
fact, we can clearly consider Nepal as one of the density populated countries in the world.
Our country is also full of inequality in terms of population density by geographical and
development regions. The population growth rate in the central development region is the
highest of all development regions. The main reason behind this is the migration of people
to this development region due to the availability of fertile soil and various other facilities
and services.
The major factors responsible for the increasing population in Nepal are;
1. Early marriage and child marriage.
2. Polygamy
3. Ignorance and illiteracy of the people
4. Poverty
5. Importance of son in the family
6. Role of children in economic status
7. Low status of women in the society
8. Lack of population education
9. Concept of more children means more income
10. Lack of women employment
11. Higher rate of infant mortality
12. Social superstation etc is the main factor in the contest of Nepal.
Composition of population:
Population composition is the description of a population according to characteristics such
as age and sex. These data are often compared over time using population pyramids.
The composition of the population is part of the social environment. It provides a
framework against which to interpret the health status and behaviors of the population.
Composition of population can be classified and studied by the following ways;
1. Population composition by sex
2. Population composition by age
3. Population composition by occupation
4. Population composition by religion
5. Population composition by caste
6. Population composition by language
From such study of population composition, can get the idea of the population structure
of a place, area or country. The number of males, females, children, adults and elderly
are taken in to account. The total population can be divided in many ways for the
systematic and scientific study of population composition. The different societies are
formed on the basis of sex, age, caste, language, religions and occupation. The scientific
study, research and analysis of every aspect of population of any country or region have
direct relation with the composition of population. The structure and situation of a
particular community or society of the country can be depicted by the composition of
population.
Hence the real picture of a certain community or society is presented by population
composition.
Population data:
Population data can be obtained from different sources. Two major sources are:
1. Primary sources
2. Secondary sources
There are four types of sources of primary data namely Census, Vital registration system,
Sample Surveys, Administrative Records. Secondary sources refer to those data that are
already collected and compiled by other national and international organizations.
Data are needed for explaining the distribution of population because:
1. From the data we are clear cut idea about the population situation can be visualized
and the plans and policies can be made for the existing population for their progress and
development. Therefore data are needed for explaining the distribution of population.
2. Data are used to find out the number of present and future voters.
3. They are also useful for international compression.
4. Data report is also used by individual scholars and researchers.
5. Demographer needs census data to make precise projection of future population.
6. It is useful to prepare life table.
7. It is also useful for policy maker, researcher, economics, politicians, statisticians and
other to perform social activities.
8. It is useful to formulate future plans.
9. Data records also help on many others needs.
Demographic measures:
The measurement of the three components of fertility, mortality and migration are
necessary for the proper analysis of population. The rates of fertility, mortality and
migration are used for measuring population changes using different formula. Necessary
figures are calculated from these measures. We can analyze the changes in size,
composition and distribution of population. Moreover, the trend of the changes of
population in the future can also be analyzed.
The fertility rate can be obtained in the following ways:
1. Crude Birth Rate,
2. General Fertility Rate
3. Age Specific Fertility Rate
4. Total Fertility Rate
The mortality rate can be obtained in the following ways:
1. Crude Death Rate
2. Age Specific Death Rate
3. Infant Mortality Rate
The migration rate can be obtained in the following ways:
1. In Migration Rate
2. Out Migration Rate
3. Net Migration Rate
4. Gross Migration Rate
Migration:
Migration is the process of transferring of people from one place to another place for
permanent settlement. Migration affects the distribution of population of the place. The
distribution of the population of the particular place will be affected because due to
urbanization the people will migrate to urban areas which will definitely increase the
population of that place. Similarly the population of the urban areas will decrease
accordingly. In this way migration creates uneven distribution of population. So migration
is not a good factor in population because people do not migrate to rural areas where
there are ample natural resources. The proper exploitation of natural resources is
decreasing due to migration.
The factors affecting migration are age, sex, family status and occupation. They are
described as follows:
1. Age:
In both of the internal and international migration, young age people migrate more than
the people of other age groups. One of the reasons behind this is that young people can
easily adapt in a new place, society or climate. The number of migrants from children, old
age groups is very low in comparison to the young and economically active population.
2. Sex:
Internally, female migrate more than males because they have to leave their parents
home and go to their husband's home after they get married. Males migrate in search of
work.
3. Family status:
The status of a person also affects migration. Young and unmarried people migrate more
than the married and people of other age group.
4. Occupation:
People have to migrate from their birth place to new place for occupation. By the nature
of work people do migrate from one place to another place.
Measures of Migration:
1. In-Migration Rate:
The rate of number of people migrating to certain place is called the in-migration rate of
that place.
Mathematically it can be calculated by;
IMR=IP∗1000IMR=IP∗1000
2. Out-Migration Rate:
The rate of number of people migrating from certain place is called the out-migration rate
of that place.
Mathematically it can be calculated by;
OMR=OP∗1000OMR=OP∗1000
3. Net Migration Rate:
The difference between the number of people in migrants and the number of out migrants
is called net migration rate.
Mathematically it can be calculated by;
NMR=I−Op∗1000NMR=I−Op∗1000
4. Gross Migration Rate:
Gross Migration Rate refers to the total number of immigrants and emigrants and divided
by mid-year population of that year multiplying by 1000.
Mathematically it can be calculated by;
GMR=I+OP∗1000GMR=I+OP∗1000
Sex-ratio:
The sex ratio is the ratio of males to females in a population. It is generally denotes the
number of males per 100 females this can be derived from following formula:
Sex-ratio = mn∗100mn∗100
Where;
M = total male population in particular year
F = total female population in particular year
Factors that affect birth:
There are various biological factors affecting birth. The biological factors affecting birth
are heredity, age, ovulation, lactation, miscarriage and health. Any three of them are
described below:
Heredity:
Heredity affects birth because the problems related to reproductive organs; reproductive
process and infection of sexually transmitted diseases have negative effects on fertility.
Age:
People become fecund after they reach certain age of maturity. Girls become fecund after
they reach the age of 14-15 and they can conceive upto the age of 49. Therefore age is
the biological factor affecting birth.
Health:
Healthy man has healthy life and their child bearing capacity is affected by their health
also. Therefore health is the biological factor affecting birth.
Factors that affecting death:
The factors affecting death rate are heredity, sex, senescence, diseases, level of nutrition,
health services and facilities and health education. Any four of them are described below:
Heredity:
Longevity of life is characteristics of heredity. Long life is attributed to heredity. Some
people whose forefather lived for a long period of time are also living longer. Longevity of
human life depends on the environment where they are born and brought up.
Sex:
It has been found that female live longer than males. This trend has not only been seen
in a certain countries but everywhere in the world. It has also been found that infant
mortality rate for boys are higher than for girls.
Diseases:
This is the age of science and technology. In spite of great development of science and
technology, scientists have not been able to prevent death. People have to lose their life
being the victim of infectious, fatal and hereditary diseases.
Level of nutrition:
Food is one of the bases of life. Continuous intake of nutritious food is as important as air
and water for the survival of life. Lack of nutritious food makes people fight against
diseases which ultimately take the life towards death.
Short-cut formula of Demographic Measures:
1. In-Migration Rate:
IMR=IP∗1000IMR=IP∗1000
2. Out-Migration Rate:
OMR=OP∗1000OMR=OP∗1000
3. Net Migration Rate:
NMR=I−Op∗1000NMR=I−Op∗1000
4. Gross Migration Rate:
GMR=I+OP∗1000GMR=I+OP∗1000
5. Sex-ratio:
Sex-ratio = mn∗100mn∗100
6. Total dependency ratio:
Total
dependency
ratio
= no.ofpeopleaged0−14and60andabovenoofpeople15−59∗100no.ofpeopleaged0−14and60andabove
noofpeople15−59∗100
7. Crude Birth Rate:
CBR = BP∗1000BP∗1000
8. Crude Death Rate CDR:
CDR = DP∗1000DP∗1000
8. Population doubling Time:
PopulationdoublingTime=70PGRPopulationdoublingTime=70PGR
9. Population Growth Rate:
PGR=CBR−CDR+NMR1000∗100PGR=CBR−CDR+NMR1000∗100
10. Rate of Natural Increase:
RateofNaturalIncrease=CBR−CDR1000∗100RateofNaturalIncrease=CBR−CDR1000∗10
0
11. Infant Mortality Rate:
InfantMortalityRate=D0B∗1000InfantMortalityRate=D0B∗1000
Quality of Life
Quality of life:
The fulfillment of basic as well as additional needs in order to have a life full of happiness
and satisfaction is called quality of life. Quality of life is a degree of happiness or
satisfaction that is achieved by the fulfillment of various needs in one’s life.
In a quality of life every sorts of demands of an individual needs to be fulfilled. If a person
receives different types of physical facilities but not a secure life then that is not the quality
of life. So a quality of life includes all essential services and facilities for the happiness
and satisfaction of human being.
The tasks which were thought impossible are nowadays been completed very easy by
the assistance of one technology. In the past people were very happy when they got a
good fooding, housing and clothing. But eventually the people have started demanding
high and high. So their expectations should be met to have a good quality of life for them.
In the war stricken countries the stoppage of the war will be the expectation of the people
and if the war is stopped then the people will feel secure and happy and their quality of
life is accordingly met. Therefore by change of time and the country's situation the
definition of the quality of life changes.
The
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
elements
of
quality
of
Nutritious
Family
life
are
Family
Social
and
cultural
as
under:
food
size
Health
Sanitation
Education
income
Security
Saving
Housing
values
Nutritious food: nutritious food is one of the elements of quality of life. It plays an important
role to develop family members physically, mentally, emotionally, etc. Lack of nutritious
food and balanced diet results malnutrition. Due to malnutrition people become weak,
powerless
and
also
suffer
from
various
diseases.
Family size: The family size is an important element for quality of life. It directly affects
other elements of quality of life. If the family size is large then the family has to spend
more amount of money to fulfill the basic needs where as if the family size is small then
the family can easily maintain the basic needs so family size is one of the elements of
quality
of
life.
Health: Health is wealth of the man. If money is lost nothing is lost but if health is lost then
everything is lost. So health is very important. A person has to have a very good health
in order to have a quality of life. So a good health needs to be maintained for all the family
members
in
order
to
have
a
quality
of
life
of
the
family.
Sanitation: Sanitation is a very important element of quality of life. If we keep our
surrounding such as house, courtyard, waste material pit, public well, tap, path road,
ponds, lake, etc. then our life style improves. Consequently, quality of life can be
achieved.
Education: Education is the only great thing which can lead a man from darkness to
brightness. It can make a person learned and an educated person can deal with any sorts
of difficulties very easily. Therefore education is considered as an important element of
quality of life.
Short Notes on:
Low quality of life and family dispute
The fulfillment of basic as well as additional needs in order to have a life full of happiness
and satisfaction is called quality of life. Quality of life is a degree of happiness or
satisfaction that is achieved by the fulfillment of various needs in one’s life. If these
necessary needs are not fulfilled in the family, these will decline the standard of living of
family. As a result, the member of the family will be deprived of basic needs. Degradation
of quality of life creates a number of problems. In this way, Low quality of life and family
dispute.
Quality of life and employment
Employment is an important element of quality of life. It directly affects the other elements
of quality of life. If the employment then more amount of money should be spent even to
fulfill the basic needs of life. In such condition, the needs of the members of small family
can easily be fulfilled. They will get an opportunity of quality food, clothes, housing, etc
according to the seasons, quality education, health, and recreation. Therefore, to rear
children well to provide opportunity of good and quality education, Due to employment
parents can easily undertake their responsibilities towards their children. In this way,
employment
helps
to
improve
the
quality
of
life.
Delayed and appropriate age for marriage for quality life
Much harm will be done to the health of women if she conceives the child by marriage at
an early age. The effect will be adverse on the health of both mother and child if the child
is born at an early age due to early marriage So, proper care of health of both mother and
child cannot be made as a result child become mentally physically and intellectually weak.
Delayed and appropriate age for marriage helps to make the selection of proper life
partner and to be responsible parents. Due to this family life become happy and gives
quality of life.
High maternal and infant mortality rates in the family with low quality of life
Low quality of life is resulted whenever there is no any sort of happiness and satisfaction
in the life. Low quality of life is also resulted when there is no fulfillment of basic as well
as additional needs. High maternal and child death rate has also resulted the low quality
of life. When the mother and child lose their life because of lack of provision of good health
facilities and services then also the low quality of life is resulted. Therefore the child death
rate and maternal death rate must be reduced in order have a good quality of life.
Low quality of life and low income
In such low quality of life, it becomes difficult to get employment opportunity;
Unemployment means low or no income coming to the family. It promotes the low quality
of life due to various reasons. Low income degrades the quality of life. Low income of the
family leads to poverty. Since the family income is not adequate to meet the family needs,
it results in dissatisfaction. Hence low income makes low quality of life.
Problem of sanitation in low quality of life
Sanitation is a very important element of quality of life. If we keep our surrounding such
as house, courtyard, waste material pit, public well, tap, path road, ponds, lake, etc. then
our life style improves. Consequently, quality of life can be achieved. But lack of education
in low quality of life creates sanitation problems.
Family size and quality of life
Family size is also an important element of quality of life. It directly affects the other
elements of quality of life. If the family size is large then more amount of money should
be spent even to fulfill the basic needs of life. In such condition, it becomes difficult to get
employment opportunity, provision of security, transport, communication, recreation,
human rights, freedom, etc. As a result quality of life in a large family size cannot be easily
maintained. The needs of the members of small family can easily be fulfilled. They will
get an opportunity of quality food, clothes, housing, etc according to the seasons, quality
education, health, employment and recreation. Therefore, to rear children well to provide
opportunity of good and quality education, to keep them healthy and strong, and to
manage the family expenditure, the family size should be smaller. In small sized family,
parents can easily undertake their responsibilities towards their children. In this way, small
family size helps to improve the quality of life.
Basic needs:
The thing that is very essential for the survival of an individual is called basic needs. Food
is the most essential thing required in one’s life. Without food man cannot survive for a
single week. Food provides energy to do work and other activities. Similarly clothes are
another essential thing required for people to protect themselves from external things. It
is also the basic need of people. Also the thing that is of prime necessary to all the living
beings is shelter. A good shelter protects the man from heat, rain and other kinds of
external things. Such basic needs should be fulfilled in order to live a simple life. Without
the
basic
needs
life
is
not
possible.
Quality of life and saving:
The degree of happiness or satisfaction in one’s life which is received by the fulfillment of
basic as well as additional needs is called quality of life. For a quality of life saving is very
important. Many difficulties might arise in one’s life. In such difficulties the most important
thing is money. Money is the most important thing in today's world because without money
very small thing is also impossible. So saving should be done in order to make the future
better
in
any
sorts
of
difficulties.
Family size:
Family size is also an important element of quality of life. It directly affects the other
elements of quality of life. If the family size is large then more amount of money should
be spent even to fulfill the basic needs of life. In such condition, it becomes difficult to get
employment opportunity, provision of security, transport, communication, recreation,
human rights, freedom, etc. As a result quality of life in a large family size cannot be easily
maintained. The needs of the members of small family can easily be fulfilled. They will
get an opportunity of quality food, clothes, housing, etc according to the seasons, quality
education, health, employment and recreation. Therefore, to rear children well to provide
opportunity of good and quality education, to keep them healthy and strong, and to
manage the family expenditure, the family size should be smaller. In small sized family,
parents can easily undertake their responsibilities towards their children. In this way, small
family
size
helps
to
improve
the
quality
of
life.
Role of education in quality of life:
Education is the light of knowledge. It raises awareness. A person can improve his/her
family members' quality of life through the proper knowledge, attitude and skills attained
by education. Therefore, education is regarded as an important element of quality of life.
Educated people do not have any problems in getting job and earning money. The
educated family members are capable to achieve or fulfill their basic and extra needs
easily. Likewise, education enables people to use modern services and facilities in a
easier
way,
helping
them
to
improve
the
quality
of
life.
Low quality of life and high maternal child death rate:
Low quality of life is resulted whenever there is no any sort of happiness and satisfaction
in the life. Low quality of life is also resulted when there is no fulfillment of basic as well
as additional needs. High maternal and child death rate has also result the low quality of
life. When the mother and child lose their life because of lack of provision of good health
facilities and services then also the low quality of life is resulted. Therefore the child death
rate and maternal death rate must be reduced in order have a good quality of life.
Environmental Status Of Nepal
Status of environment in Nepal
Ecosystem:
Ecosystem is defined as the structural, functional and self-sustaining unit of biosphere,
which consists of biotic and abiotic components. There is a continuous cycle of
interrelationship between a community and its physical environment that causes the
formation of complex and permanent relationship. Such kind of phenomenon that occurs
in the nature is also known as ecosystem. So, an ecosystem can be defined as an overall
integration of the whole mosaic of interacting organisms and their physical environment
in particular areas.
An ecosystem includes biotic factors like producer, consumers, decomposers and abiotic
factors like soil, rock, water, heat, light etc.
An ecosystem includes abiotic factors like soil, rock, water, heat, light etc. It helps for the
circulation of the ecosystem properly. It also helps in the balance of ecosystem. They are
responsible for the survival of the living organisms
All living beings in nature fall under biotic factors. The factors indicate a biological
community of particular area. A biological community can be divided into producer,
consumer and decomposer on the basis of flow of energy in the ecosystem.
Producers: Producers are those living organisms of the ecosystem which are capable of
synthesizing their own food from inorganic compound. For example, grasses, trees,
Aquatic green plants, etc.
Consumers: Consumers are the heterotrophs of the ecosystem which feed on other living
organisms. For example, cats, insects, fish etc.
The relation between the people and the environment:
There is Very deep relation between people and the environment. The conservation of
the forest is very important to have a balance in the natural environment. The
conservation of the forest plays an important role so it must be preserved by the effort of
the human beings. Community forests must be conserved with the help of the students.
These programs help to increase the awareness level in students and also in protecting
the forest.
Soil is also very important element of the environment which is very necessary for the
mankind. Without soil on earth the life of the human beings on earth is almost impossible.
So soil must be preserved by the people by various ways. Use of harmful pesticides and
chemical fertilizers for high yielding of crops may give short term benefit but it detroits the
quality of soil in a long run. Therefore the conservation of soil must be initiated. A lot of
waste products are produced in our daily use.
Ecosystem of Nepal by Geographical Region:
1. Ecosystem of the mountainous region:
The ecosystem of mountain region is different from that of other regions. There is 35% of
land of the country is covered by mountain region. Its altitude Varies from 4877 meters to
8848 meters. Sub divisions are inner himalaya, main himalaya and marginal Himalaya.
In this region Trees like pine, fir, deodar, bhojpatra, talispatra, rhododendren, gobre salla,
thingre salla, etc are found. And animals like himalayan thar, himalayan ghoral, serow,
langur, musk deer, red panda, snow leopard, etc. Plants and medicinal herbs like
yarsagumba, panchaunle, uwa, barley, buckwheat, etc are found. The people of this
region follow hinduism and buddhism as their main religion. The main economic activities
of this region are trade, agriculture and animal husbandary.
2. Ecosystem of the hill region:
The ecosystem of hill region is different from that of other regions. There is 42% of land
of the country. It’s altitude from 610 meters to 4877 meters. Sub divisions are churiya
range,mid hill and mahabharat range. Trees like sal, chilaune, bamboo, katus, kharsu,
peepal, rani salla, etc are found in this region. Animals like tiger, clouded leopard, deer,
jackal, wolf, bear, fox, monkey, langur, etc are found. Plants and medicinal herbs like
mushroom, kurilo, koiralo, asuro, harro, barro, sarpagandha, zibre saag, etc are found.
The castes living in this region are Brahmin, Chetri, kami, damai, rais, limbus, magars,
etc. The people of this region follow Hinduism as their main religion. The houses of this
region are multi storey in the urban areas and are made up of concrete and cement. In
the villages are made up of wood, mud and stone.
3. Ecosystem of terai region;
The ecosystem of Terai region is different from that of other regions. The altitude of this
region gradually decreases moving from north to south. Various aspects of the ecosystem
of terai region are described below:
Physical aspects
There are altogether twenty districts in terai region of Nepal. They are Jhapa, Morang,
Nawalparasi, Bara, Parsa, Chitwan, Banke, Bardiya, etc. Terai region of Nepal covers
23% of the total land area of Nepal. Terai region has the variation of altitude from 60
metres to 610 metres. Terai region consists of twenty districts. Terai region of Nepal is
divided into three sub-divisions. They are inner terai, main terai and bhabar terai. Terai
region is the most fertile among all the regions of the country. Terai region is also called
the granary of Nepal.
Biological aspect
The biological aspect of this region is also different from that of the mountain and the hilly
region because of the varation of the land topology and altitude. Different kinds of birds
found in Terai region are eagle, vulture, hawk, crane, stroke, hornbill, peacock, etc.
Similarly trees like sal, sissau, khayar, pipal, bamboo, katus, chilaune, etc. are mainly
found in this region. Animals like leopard, tiger, elephant, rhinoceros, panther, crocodile,
deer, bear, etc are found. Medicinal herbs like amala, harro, barro, mushroom, etc are
also found in this region. This region is also called the store house of the food grain.
Socio-economic aspect
The types of food crops found in this region are rice, wheat, maize, etc in this region. The
houses in the urban areas are multi storey buildings where as in the rural areas are small
and made up of bamboo wood and stone along with mud. People of caste like Satar,
Dhimal, Rajbansi, Tharu, Yadav, Mandal, etc live in this region. The main economic
activities of the people of this region is agriculture but people are also engaged in service
and trade along with business. People in this region mostly follow Hinduism as their
religion however few number of muslims are also found. The main festivals that the people
of this region observe are Dashain, Deepawali, Holi, Janai purnima, Id, Chhath, etc.
Physical aspects of the mountain, hilly and terai belts:
Physical aspects of the environment are altered with the alteration of the geographical
region. The physical aspect of mountain region is peculiar from that of hilly and terai
region. This is because of the landform and the structure of the topology. The altitude of
the terai region is from 60 metres to 610 metres where as the altitude of hilly region is
from 610 metres to 4877 metres. Similarly the altitude of the mountain region is from 4877
metres to 8848 metres. So the physical aspect of the place differ with the geographical
region.
Hilly Region
Terai Region
Mountain Region
1. 42% of land of the country
1. 23% of land of the country
1. 35% of land of the country
2. Altitude from 610 metres to 2. Altitude ranges from 60
4877 metres
metres to 610 metres
3. Sub divisions are churiya
3. Sub divisions are inner terai,
range,mid hill and mahabharat
main terai and bhabar terai
range
4. Soil found- Alluvial soil
4. Soil found-Silty
5. Climate- Hot and humid
5. Climate- Modrate
2. Altitude from 4877 metres to
8848 metres
3. Sub divisions are inner
himalaya, main himalaya and
marginal Himalaya
4. Soil found- Silty and loamy
5. Climate- COLD Moist and
dry
Socio-economic levels of mountain, hilly and terai belts:
MountainMountain region lies in the northenmost part of the country. The people living here in the
mountain region are specially Bhotiyas, Gurungs, Ghales, Mugals, Thakalis, Dolpo,etc.
The people of this region live in the house made up of wood, mud and stone with thatched
roof. The houses have small doors and windows in order to prevent the escape of heat in
the frigid region. The main religion of the people of this region is Buddhism however some
people are Hindu. The main festivals of the people are Lhosar, Buddha Jayanti, Udhauli
Parba, Ubhauli Parba, Dashain, Tihar, Maghe Sakranti, etc. The main crops of the
mountain region is millet, maize, potato, barley, wheat, buckwheat, etc. the main
economic activities of the people of this region is animal husbandary. People are also
engaged in trade and business along with the collection of the medicinal herb. People
also has depended their livelihood in agriculture. They put on very thick clothes in order
to prevent themselves from irresistible heat.
TeraiThere are altogether twenty districts in terai region of Nepal. They are Jhapa, Morang,
Nawalparasi, Bara, Parsa, Chitwan, Banke, Bardiya, etc. Terai region of Nepal covers
23% of the total land area of Nepal. Terai region has the variation of altitude from 60
metres to 610 metres. Terai region consists of twenty districts. Terai region of Nepal is
divided into three sub-divisions. They are inner terai, main terai and bhabar terai. Terai
region is the most fertile among all the regions of the country. The main caste living in this
region are Dhimal, Rajbansi, Satar, Rajput, Yadav, Mandal, Tharu,etc. The people of this
region follow Hinduism as the main religion however Muslims are also found. The houses
in the urban areas are multi storeyed building where as in the rural areas is of wood, mud,
stone and bamboo. The main festivals observed in this region are Chhath, Holi, Dashain,
Tihar, Id, Bakrid, etc. The main economic activities of the people are agriculture, service
and trade.
HillyThere is 42% of land of the country. It’s altitude from 610 meters to 4877 meters. The
status of religious and cultural heritage of hill region is different from other. The main
Cultural and religious sites of hill region are Haleshidham, pasupatinath,
Swoyambhunath, Manakamana, etc. The castes living in this region are Brahmin, Chetri,
kami, damai, rais, limbus, magars, etc. The people of this region follow Hinduism as their
main religion. The houses of this region are multi storey in the urban areas and are made
up of concrete and cement. In the villages are made up of wood, mud and stone. The
main festivals observed in this region are Dashain, Tihar, Christmas, Id, Lhosar,
Buddhaajayanti,etc. Various jatras are also celebrated. The main economic activities of
this region are agriculture, business and service.
Biodiversity
Biodiversity:
There are millions of creatures like vegetation, animals, and microorganisms including
human beings on the earth. They have variation among themselves. Their diversity or
variation on the ecosystems denotes biodiversity. Biodiversity is specially classified into
three levels. They are species, ecosystem and genetic diversity.
1. Species Diversity
There are various species of animals and vegetations including human, elephant, birds,
maize, wheat, pulse, potato, etc. They are categorized under species diversity. The
species of micro organisms like virus and bacteria also come under it.
2. Ecosystem Diversity
Ecosystem is the inter relationship between living organisms and the environment. Living
organisms survive according to their capacity and capability. There is also biodiversity
due to the structure of ecosystem.
3. Genetic Diversity
Each creature has own genetic qualities, the people in the mountain have the genetic
quality of bearing cold while the people in terai have the genetic quality of bearing hot. In
this way the genetic diversity among other creatures also exist in the environment.
The description about the importance of biodiversity is as under:
Agricultural products
Agricultural products give the daily food to survive for the human beings. Various products
like paddy, maize, wheat, vegetable, fruits, etc are the basic food of people needed to be
taken in order to live a healthy life. The source of all those products is agricultural
biodiversity. These plants were in the wild state at the beginning but the human beings
started cultivating them. In this way agricultural biodiversity is very important.
Animal products
Animal products are also very necessary for the survival of human beings. The animal
products like milk, curd, ghee, meat, fish, etc are very important sources of protein for the
nourishment of the body. Raw materials required for the medicinal treatment is also
obtained from the animals. Income generation can also be done from the animal products.
Vegetative products
Human beings obtain fruits and wild roots from plants. Plants are the sources of furniture,
industries, herbs, clothes, medicines, paints and papers. Biodiversity has made us able
to obtain many kinds of useful materials from various kinds of plants.
Improvement of breeds
There are various species in the biodiversity which has become very important for the
human beings. These species of the nature which exist in the biodiversity are scientifically
tested and cross breeding are done in order to produce highly improved breeds. The
cross is done on the basis of local species, disease resisting capacities, etc. Therefore
biodiversity is very important.
Soil conservation
Soil is the integral part of biodiversity. Without soil life wouldn't be possible on earth. It is
directly the habitat for thousands of life living under soil and it is the most suitable platform
for the growth of crops. The biodiversity has also resulted the conservation of soil in the
nature. Due to the capturing of the soil by big as well as small plants the soil is prevented
from erosion. The decayed and dead plants and animals after going under decomposition
be bacteria serves as the nutritional element for soil. In this way the fertility of soil
increases. In this way biodiversity is important for soil conservation.
Measures of Biodiversity conservation:
Human activity is the most important for the conservation of biodiversity. Human beings
are the wisest among the living things found on earth. Biodiversity is getting degrading
due to the unwise activities of humans. Human should be very conscious about the
conservation of biodiversity. If biodiversity will be exploited systematically with maximum
use and less harm for the nature then it will be the best way for the conservation of
biodiversity.
Various Organizations are conducting different programmes at national and
local level for the conservation of biodiversity. The conservation of biodiversity refer to the
conservation of whole creature on earth. It is the conservation of habitat required for them
and is also the conservation of genetic characters, conservation of animals requires the
conservation of habitat and ecosystem. Conservation work develops both of their
numbers and characters. Therefore the conservation of biodiversity is essential.
1. in- situ and Ex- situ conservation:
The conservation of the living beings and animals by creating a man made habitat is
called in-situ conservation of the rare animals and plants. The conservation of the natural
resources in their own natural habitat is called the ex-situ conservation of rare plants and
animals.
2. NTNC
For the instance, National trust for natural conservation has been conducting different
programmes for biodiversity conservation through the participation of community
members.
3. ICIMOD
The international centre for integrated mountain development is also conducting different
programmes for the conservation of biodiversity and management of habitats and
ecology.
4. IUCN
The world conservation union IUCN is also conducting different programmes for the
conservation of biodiversity and management of habitats and ecology.
Role of community in diversity conservation
Community is closest to biodiversity. The utilization of the elements of biodiversity is done
by the people residing in the community. Due to the people of the community the
biodiversity is also getting degraded day by day. Biodiversity conservation has become
the most important issue in today's world. We need to be very careful about the
conservation of the biodiversity. Conservation of biodiversity does not only mean to
preserve them without touching them. Rather the conservation of biodiversity means the
proper exploitation and systematic utilization without making severe harm to the
biodiversity. Community should make plans and policies and look after the conservation
of biodiversity because initiation of community for its conservation can be very important.
Different causes of depletion of wildlife in Nepal:
Like most developing country, threat to biodiversity in Nepal is initiated by the activities of
the human beings. Habitat destruction and over-exploitation are the main cause of
extinction of wild life.
a. Habitat loss, forest destruction and degradation: In Nepal the greatest threat to the
conservation of wildlife comes from the activities of man which include habitat loss and
forest destruction. The destroying habitat of wild life by overpopulation for commercial
timbering, cropland, industries, road ways, canal developmental activities, for fuel wood,
power plants cause wildlife extinction.
b. Over-exploitation of forest resources: People to large extent depend on forest
resources for their sustenance. People use forest products for fulewood, fodder, timber,
shelter, medicine and food plants which increase the extinction of wild life.
c. Illegal hunting and poaching: Illegal hunting is common practice throughout Nepal.
Mammals and birds are killed, river fish stocks are overexploited, dolphins are trapped
for meat, pheasants are hunted for their meat and carnivores are hunted for their pelts
and bones.
d. Trade: There has been commercial trade of wild flora and fauna both legally and
illegally. One of example is one-horned rhinoceros which is in decreasing amount due to
trading.
e. The population growth and poverty is also the main cause of wild life extinction.
Rare animals
The habitat of organisms, birds and animals is called the natural environment. Rare
animal is considered as the condition in which their number is not sufficient at present.
Some examples of rare animals are as;
1. Clouded leopard
2. Red panda
3. One-horned rhinoceros
4. Bengal tiger
5. Crimson Horned Pheasant
6. Black stork
7. White stork
8. Sarus Crane
These animals have lost their habitat due to various reasons. Trees in the forests are cut
indiscriminately which have caused the loss of their habitat.
Forest fire has also caused the loss of their habitat. People are hunting these illegally for
selling important organs of the animals because those animals have very high demand
on the black market. Strong rules and regulations are not made therefore the poaching is
still continued which has caused to the increment of the rareness of the animals.
Due to the adverse affect in the environment various reasons like forest fire, landslide
and other regions the habitat of the organisms living on earth is losing their habitat.
Therefore the conservation of habitat must be done. For this plants should be planted in
bare land and the stream and the water areas must not be filled up.
National parks:
1. Chitwan National Parks:
It is the oldest national park of Nepal and covers 932 km2 areas. It is declared as national
parks in 1973. It is also placed in world heritage site. It comprises a complex ecosystem
of Churia hills, ox-bow lakes and flood plains of Rapti, Reu and Narayani rivers.
2. Langtang National Park:
It is situated in the north of central Nepal and is the nearest park to Kathmandu. It
comprises 1710 sq. km. The park is the home of several ethnic groups.
3. Sagarmatha National park:
Sagarmatha national parks lie in the solokhumbu district of the north-eastern region of
Nepal and cover an area of 1,148 sq. km. It is established in 1976 and declared as world
heritage site in 1979.
4. Rara National park:
Rara national park is located in North-west Nepal. The park lies in Mugu and Jumla
districts in the mid weastern Nepal. This is the smallest park in Nepal covering 106 sq.
km. It is established in 1976.
5. Shey- Phoksundo National park:
It is situated in the mountain region of Dolpa and Mugu district of north-west Nepal. It is
the largest park in the country with an area of 3,555 sq. km. The area around shey and
phoksundo lake was first purpose as a wildlife reserve in 1974 and in 1984 a very large
area around that is declared as national park.
6. Khaptad National park:
The khaptad national park is located in the mid-mountain region of far-western Nepal. It
was established in 1984 and it covers area of 225 sq. km.
7. Bardia National park:
Bardia national park is situated in Bardia district in the middle far-western terai. The park
which covers an area of 968 sq. km. it is established in 1969.
8. Makalu-Barun National park:
It lies in the solukhumbu and sankhuwasabha districts of eastern Nepal. It was
established in 1991.
Population,
Development
Environment
and
Pollution environment and development
Population, environment and development have very close relationship with each other.
The use of natural resources increases due to population growth. The uses of land, water,
etc. increases to grow food subsistence. Similarly, population growth causes the growth
of poverty, hunger, disease, illiteracy, etc. If the growth of population goes on, the needs
of human cannot be fulfilled from natural resources. The development activities like
construction of road, increase in agricultural production, production of industrial materials,
export of manufactured goods, etc are necessary to be operated in the country for
economic development. Such development activities provide employment to people. Skill
is developed in them. The level of their work increases. It results the economic
development of a person, society and country. The life standard of people does not
change
without
the
developmental
activities.
Development
Development activities are the pathways for the economic development of people. If
development activities will take place in certain place then the people and the lifestyle of
people will also develop gradually. When there will be road construction in one of the
place which is the part of development then the products that are produced in that place
will get market which will enhance the economic development of people. In such ways
development activities enhance the economic development of the people. Development
environment and have very close relationship with each other. The relationship between
development
and
environment
is
stated
as
under:
1.
Use
of
natural
resources
The use of natural resources increases due to population growth. The uses of land, water,
etc. increases to grow food subsistence. Similarly, population growth causes the growth
of poverty, hunger, disease, illiteracy, etc. If the growth of population goes on, the needs
of
human
cannot
be
fulfilled
from
natural
resources.
2.
Development
and
construction
works
Human beings carry out various kinds of development works to fulfill their needs.
Development activities should operate continuously to fulfill the needs and desires of
growing population. The aspect of environment conservation cannot be abandoned while
operating
developmental
activities.
3.
Economic
development
The development activities like construction of road, increase in agricultural production,
production of industrial materials, export of manufactured goods, etc are necessary to be
operated in the country for economic development. Such development activities provide
employment to people. Skill is developed in them. The level of their work increases. It
results the economic development of a person, society and country. The life standard of
people
does
not
change
without
the
developmental
activities.
4.
Social
and
cultural
activity
There are social and cultural activities in society. People protect, renovate, construct
traditional rituals, religious places, temples, etc. These activities are development works
related to social and cultural aspects. The protection, promotion and development of such
aspects support to raise the culture of people. The relationship between the activities of
development of various aspects of population and environment should be continuously
adjusted and managed. The development works should fulfill the needs of present
generation. Similarly, it is our duty to protect the environment which is able to fulfill the
needs
of
future
generation.
Major development activities
The development activity refers to the modernization of the environment. Development is
the positive and structural improvement in the state of the existing physical, human,
cultural situation, etc. Development works help to bring gradual change in existing
situation. Development makes progress in social, economic, cultural field, etc. it helps to
fulfill the need of people and raise the standard of living. When the country is developed
then the country will march to happiness and satisfaction of the people. Development
activities are essential for the development of the society. Development works encourage
people to utilize the resources like land, water, forest, etc. The development helps to
make the people self dependent. Economic status of people will be improved. It brings
change in the lifestyle of people. Thus, development works raise the standard of living.
The development activity of the environment refers to the modernization of the
environment. The conservation activity of environment refers to the preservation of
natural habitat with maximum utilization of the resources without making much harm.
Development activities of environment always focus on the development without letting it
harm. Population, environment and development have very close relationship with each
other. The use of natural resources increases due to population growth. The uses of land,
water, etc. increases to grow food subsistence. Similarly, population growth causes the
growth of poverty, hunger, disease, illiteracy, etc. If the growth of population goes on, the
needs of human cannot be fulfilled from natural resources. The development activities
like construction of road, increase in agricultural production, production of industrial
materials, export of manufactured goods, etc are necessary to be operated in the country
for economic development. Such development activities provide employment to people.
Skill is developed in them. The level of their work increases. It results the economic
development of a person, society and country. The life standard of people does not
change without the developmental activities.
Hence human should pay attentation to their present and future generations to mention
balance in population, environment and development activities. It possible only when the
people
conduct
development
works
by using
their
rights
rationally.
Economic development of country
Development work is very important for the progress of the country. Development work is
important for the country because development works like agriculture, operation of
industry, production of electricity, tourism, construction of road, etc. help in promoting
income generating activities. From these works economic development can be observed.
Such development activities provide employment to people. Skill is developed in them.
The level of their work increases. It results the economic development of a person, society
and country. The life standard of people does not change without the developmental
activities. Similarly transportation for goods from one place to another becomes easier.
Basic goods and services are required for livelihood of people. Food, clothes, shelter,
education, health services, drinking water, hygiene, fuel, entertainment, safety, etc are
basic things; the first and primary goal of development is to fulfill these basic needs of
people. Various development and construction works help to fulfill the basic needs. Each
country has its own kind of geographical structure. It affects the development works.
Development activities should be operated in different parts of the country considering
the geographical situation. It helps to distribute facilities in all regions. It helps to maintain
the balance of population distribution. Development activities are essential for the
development of the society. Development works encourage people to utilize the
resources like land, water, forest, etc. The development helps to make the people self
dependent. Economic status of people will be improved. It brings change in the lifestyle
of people. Thus, it will help to protect the environment if the feeling of environment
conservation
can
be
aroused
in
people.
Infrastructure of development:
Infrastructure of development refers to the essentials that include physical, economic and
human resources aspects without which the development activities are impossible. Types
of infrastructure development are as follows;
1. Human resources:
Skilled manpower needed to conduct the development works. The human resource
related to different sectors such as education, health, communication, science and
technology are to be developed.
2. Physical aspect:
The road, bridge, canal, drainage, building, electricity and commutation etc. can be taken
under physical-infrastructure. Development works provide facilities to people. Various
development and construction works help to fulfill the basic needs. Development activities
are essential for the development of the society. The development helps to make the
people self dependent. It brings change in the lifestyle of people.
3.
Social
aspect:
Development activities are essential for the development of the society. Development
works encourage people to utilize the resources like land, water, forest, etc. The
development helps to make the people self dependent. Economic status of people will be
improved. It brings change in the lifestyle of people. Thus, it will help to protect the
environment if the feeling of environment conservation can be aroused in people.
4.
Economic
aspect:
The development activities like construction of road, increase in agricultural production,
production of industrial materials, export of manufactured goods, etc are necessary to be
operated in the country for economic development. Such development activities provide
employment to people. Skill is developed in them. The level of their work increases. It
results the economic development of a person, society and country. The life standard of
people
does
not
change
without
the
developmental
activities.
Urbanization:
The process of changing remote village areas into a place with various facilities is called
urbanization. People who are living the life of misery even without basic facilities have
thought for few facilities to make their life very comfortable one. So people when started
getting few facilities thought for more and more because it is the nature of human to
demand more and more. No human can stay satisfied. So due to the nature of human
they started to carry out developmental activities for their benefit. They started making
the remote places full of facilities. However in context of Nepal due to unplanned
urbanization various difficulties have aroused in different places. In such way urbanization
started
taking
place.
Unmanaged urbanization has main effects like, Lack of facilities, Unhealthy Resistance,
Adverse effect on health, improper distribution of population, Social disorders, and
Environmental degradation. Unmanaged urbanization is controlled by sustainable
development. Sustainable development is also termed as meaningful development. Due
to sustainable development of the places there have been very smooth running of life in
various countries of the world. So sustainable development should be initiated in order to
achieve long term development from which different generations can be benefitted.
It is very necessary and in a way compulsory to integrate the principles of sustainable
development with the development activities because of the following reasons. The
principles
of
sustainable
development
are
as
follows:
1.
Conservation
of
ecosystem,
2.
Sustainable
development
of
society,
3.
Conservation
of
biodiversity,
4.
Control
of
population,
5.
Development
of
human
resource,
6.
Increase
in
public
participation,
7.
Conservation
of
cultural
heritage,
8.
Limit
of
development
under
the
carrying
capacity
of
earth
Any
four
of
them
are
described
as
follows:
Conservation
of
ecosystem;
The main objective of sustainable development is to protect the earth. It is to keep
retaining it. Various ecosystems like water and land ecosystem should be protected to
retain
the
earth.
Sustainable
development
of
society:
Social development works should be operated for sustainable development. These
development works should be sustainable. Life standard of people should be improved
for this. Sustainable development of the society can be enhanced by providing education,
health, employment, security, etc. Similarly, various communities existing in the society
should be involved in environment conservation works. The altitude of respect toward all
kinds of living beings in earth should be developed in people.
Conservation
of
biodiversity:
It is necessary to protect all living things in the earth for sustainable development. Human
should learn to protect natural resources which help to protect animals. National and
international programmes should be undertaken to protect them. It is essential to maintain
coordination
between
such
programmes.
Control
of
population:
Human survives utilizing limited means and resources existing in the earth but with the
growth of population, human needs like food, habitat, facilities, etc are also increasing.
The means and resources existing in the earth not are increased according to the need
of people. Therefore, control and management of population is essential for sustainable
development which supports to maintain balance in the environment.
Sustainable development
Developmental activities should be in accordance with the bearing capacity of
environmental sources. Natural resources in environment should not be used excessively
to fulfill the needs of increased population. Excessive use of sources affects environment
adversely and it will be difficult for animals to live. The concept of sustainable
development has been developed to prevent these problems. Problems that arise in the
process of development can be solved during the same period if the objectives of
sustainable development programmes followed. It is very necessary and in a way
compulsory to integrate the principles of sustainable development with the development
activities because of the following reasons. The importances of sustainable development
are
as
follows:
1.
Proper
use
of
resources
Sustainable development suggests common people that there should be minimum use of
any resources as far as possible. This will definitely lead towards the proper use of natural
resources.
2.
Feeling
of
responsibility
Sustainable development changes the knowledge, skill and vision of people. It makes us
feel the responsibility of utilization and conservation of natural resources. In this way the
feeling
of
responsibility
gradually
increases.
3.
Development
of
basic
aspects
Sustainable development emphasizes the development of essential aspects of human
life like health, education, agriculture, tourism, social improvement, etc. These aspects
should be developed in integration with protection and promotion of environment.
4.
Participation
in
development
Public participation is one of the most important principles of sustainable development.
Priority should be given to public for the achievement of targets of any development work.
This
will
increase
the
participation
of
people
in
development.
5.
Demarcation
of
development
activities
Limited but effective means and resources are enough to fulfill basic requirement of
human beings but they begin to perform more development activities inspired by greed.
The means and resources which are not renewable go on finishing by their excessive
use.
6.
Long
term
vision
Sustainable development forwards the vision of social and economic development
without destroying the means and resources available on the earth. It attempts to develop
the concept in all people about the preservation and retention of present works and
resources for the future generations too. Therefore, sustainable development contributes
to the conservation of environment by developing long term thought.
Disease, Nutrition, Tobacco, Alcohol and
Drugs
Disease, Nutrition, smoking and narcotics
Any change from the normal stage that causes discomfort or disability or disturbs the
health called a disease. All human disease can be classified into following;
1. Congenital Disease: They are anatomical or physiological abnormalities present in the
person from birth also called natural diseases. For example; sickle cell anaemia, diabetes
mellitus, haemophilia , etc.
2. Acquired disease: These are acquired by the person at any time after birth. They are
of two types namely; communicable and non- communicable.
Types of disease:
A. Communicable and
B. non- communicable disease
Communicable and non- communicable disease
Diseases which are not transmitted from one person to another through any media are
called non communicable diseases. It is believed that non communicable diseases are
mostly the result of physiological disturbances, genetics, lifestyle, negligence and
nutritional disorders. In some of the diseases, physiological function of our body system
looks disturbed whereas in some of the diseases weakness and disabilities in organs are
observed. The diseases like cancer, diabetes and asthma are the examples of non
communicable diseases. Some of the communicable diseases may develop due to
nutritional disturbances. Non communicable diseases are considered more dangerous
than communicable diseases because the result of psychological disturbances, genetics,
lifestyle, negligence and nutritional disorder. Non communicable diseases mostly have
chronic nature such as cancer, Diabetes, so far no perfect cure has been found for such
diseases.
Modes of transmission of communicable diseases:
Modes of transmission of communicable diseases are;
1. Contact transmission
2. Food and drinks
3. Air-borne infection
4. Insect born infection
5. Transplancental transmission
6. Skin infection
7. Transmission of contaminated blood
8. Transplantation of infected organs
Communicable diseases
Typhoid
It is one of the communicable disease and commonly called Enteric fever or Salient fever.
Symptoms:
At the beginning slow fever follow higher fever, headache, sweating, chill fever, nausea,
gastro intestinal problems, slight abdominal pain, diarrhea, heart beat raises, number of
WBCs reduces about 3000 per cubic mm, swelling of liver, spleen, loss of appetite, body
weight loss and at the chronic stage blood may comes out in the stool shows ulceration
in the intestine etc.
Causative agent:
The main causes of the Enteric fever is due to bacillus called salmonella of
enterobacterioceae group. Salmonella constitute species;
S.paratyphi
S.typhi
S.enteridis
S.typhimurium
Shape and size: cylindrical or thread like, 3-4 µm.
Salmonella in patient blood can be easily identify by culturing blood to 24-48hrs.
Typhoid is also commonly called water borne disease because bacteria transmit very
fastly through water media or any other contaminated foods.
Control Measures:
1.Patient must be isolate from other family members.
2.Patient belongings should sterilized well the direct sunlight for 4-6hrs.
3.Patient belongings can be treat by 1% phenol solution or dettol solution.
4.Patient urination and solid waste should be disposed scientifically.
5.Live in most hygienic way is the best control method.
Treatment:
The conformed typhoid should be checked by physician and medicines are given
according to the advised of physician.
a.Cetamol
b.antibiotics as ciprofloxacin
c.chlorophenical
Ascariasis
Commonly called as warm disease or pet disease of South asian countries specially India,
Nepal, Bangladesh, etc.
Symptoms:
In the children: very acute in children, expose gastro- intestinal disorders, severe
abdominal pain, continous crying habit, eye balls looks like xeropthalmia, belly protrude
out, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, coughing, excessive growth of parasites may comes out
from the mouth during vomiting, body weight loss, loss of appetite.
In adult: Disease is mild, expose slight pain in the abdomen, chances of pharyngitis,
laryngitis, nausea, loss of appeitite,etc.
Causative agent:
Caused by endoparasites Ascaris lumbricoides commonly called roundworm.
Shape: body is long, cylindrical, unsegmented, colourless, sexes are separated ,etc.
Male: short with posterior end cured have a pair of pineal seta as copulatory organs and
female is long, both ends straight, complete life cycle in 2 or more hosts. Its Juvenile
stage is the main which reaches the blood vessels of brain may cause brain cyst.
Site or location: Intestine, Ileum and colon
Control Measures:
1.Live in most hygienic way.
2.Scientific disposal of solid wastes.
3.Sterilization of foods before feeding.
4.Nails of the children must be cut.
5.Education about impact of the disease should be known to common people, etc.
Treatment:
For children: antiwar syrup of Albendazole or Hebendazole.
For adult: tabs of Albendazole, Mebendazole, Piperizine.
Tuuberculosis:
Tuberclosis (T.B) is one of the very common communicating diseases, especially in
village areas. It is said that more people died of T.B then other diseases in Nepal. Before
1960s T.B is the most dangerous diseases because of unknown treatment. From 19601970 yrs. Are called golden year of diseases, because most of the treatment of the
diseases were discovered.
Symptoms of the disease:
Based upon the symptoms T.B is categorized in to two types.
1.Pulmonary T.B:
Gradually low fever raises to 105-106o F, increases in the chest pain, continuous
coughing, body weight drastically looses, patient body looks skinless, appearances of fine
holes in the lungs and at the coma, heart beat increases, pulse rate increases, fresh blood
releases continuously in the sputum finally dies.
2.Extra pulmonary T.B:
a.Skin T.B: Change the colouration of skin wrinkling skin, skin damages etc.
b.Muscular T.B: Frequent muscular cramps, muscles damages due to tuber cluing
chemical secreted by the agent.
c.Blood T.B: Fever ups and downs, no. of RBCs Reduces, lead anaemia, etc.
d.Abdominal T.B: Undigestion, gastro intestinal problem, stomach pain etc
e.Brain T.B: loss of memory, Thinking dullness, body lethargy.
f.Bone T.B: low production of RBCs and WBCs, slow fracture heal up, etc.
Causative agent:
The main cause of T.B is due to Bacillus tubercle commonly known as Mycobacterium
tuberculosis of the enterobacteacea group. It is common in man but in other domestic
animals infected by M.bovis.
Modes of infection:
T.B is highly infectious diseases which can easily transmitted through any infective media
such as infected food materials, vegetables, water, milk, patients belonging infected
sputum, etc.
Incubation period:
Depending upon the site of infection incubation period of the bacteria changes, the
average time period is about 4-6 weeks.
Control measures:
1.Due to infectious diseases, patient should be keep in isolation.
2.The belongings of the patient should be sterilized well.
3.Disease can be conform by skin inflammatory test.
4.Patient should keep in rehabilitation or completely in rest.
5.Patient should take BCG vaccine.
Treatment:
T.B can be cured completely either in primary stage or in secondary stage. If the patient
is in primary stage, medicines are given at least for 9 months and in secondary stages
medicine should given 18 month regularly on the basis of age, weight of the body.
Major medicines:
Refampsin capsule, Isonex tab., Ethambutol tab, pyraginamide tab, streptomycin
injection.etc
AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome):
It means with the loss of body immunity after the birth whose exact fact and treatment
unknown. It is believed that an AIDS disease was transmitted by certain green monkeys
found in central Africa. The first AIDS patient was found in Haiti, later in 1981 AIDS patient
was identified in loss Angle USA. From European countries and after 1985 reported from
Asian countries. In Nepal First AIDS patient was declared in 1988 from Biratnagar
quarantine office.
General symptoms shown by the AIDS patient by checking the test in the blood
1.Unexplained long term fever-low or high
2.Unexplained loss of body weight.
3.Change in voice nature.
4.Appearence of glands in the body.
5.Appearence of white or pink spots in around the mouth cavities or in the abdominal
region.
6.Maximum dancing night sweating and thirst.
7.Unexplained long term nagging cough.
Symptoms shown by the confirmed AIDS patient called ARC diseases.
Patients enter into ARC when damages T lymphocytes of the blood.
1.Diarrhoea or dysentery.
2.fever low or high frequently.
3.Suceptive to any diseases due to loss of body immunity.
4.Partial body paralysis sometimes whole body paralysis, dull memory, body lethargy,
etc.
5.loss of body weight.
Mode of infection:
1.Person having the habit of polysex.
2.Person having the habit of homosex.
3. Person having the habit of drug addiction.
4.Transfusion of infected blood.
5.Use of single needle or operating equipment for several times.
Causative agents: Main causes of AIDS is virus, named as human immune virus(HIV),
Human T-lymphocyte virus HTLV, Human lymphodenopathy associated virus HTLAV etc.
Control measures:
1.Stop polysex and homosexual habit.
2.Check the blood before transfusion.
3.Use of sterilized equipments.
4.Give up drug addication.
5.Use condom during sex with unknown person.
Treatment:
Still there are no such drugs yet discovered which can completely cure AIDS. The drug
available in the market are only to extend lifespan.
Available Drugs: Azidothymidine(AZT) or Zidovudine, Rebavarium.
Didonosine(DDS) and Zalcitabine.
Non communicable diseases
Cancer:
Hippocrate was the first who gave the word karkinos or cancer diseases. Later karkinos
word change in to carcinomes which means cancer in the epithelial tissue. Cancer is non
communicable but most dangerous diseases after AIDS. Cancer is mainly two types;
1.Benign cancer:
It is not dangerous cancer in which cells grows within limited area by connective tissue.
At the place of growth may or may not have pain. In this type cell never migrate from one
organ to the next. It is not fetal.
2.Malignant cancer :
Malignant cancer is commonly called as true cancer which also called tumor. On the basis
of the site, cancer can be classified in to following types;
A.Carcinomas cancer: Cancer in epithelial tissue.
B.Leucomias Cancer: Blood cancer.
C.Sarcomas cancer: Cancer in the bone muscles etc.
D.lymphomas cancer: cancer in the lymph nodes or vessels.
Symptoms:
Early symptoms can hardly seen because primary stage of cancer do not exposes serious
symptoms. Major symptoms are appears in secondary stages.
The symptoms shown by secondary stage of cancer
a.Blood cancer:
Body temperature raises, swelling of body, body looks pale coloured, Similarly anaemia
disease, no of RBCs reduce, etc.
b.Abdominal cancer:
Appearances of malignant tumor, gastro intestinal problem, nausea, vomiting, dysentery,
diarrhea etc.
c.Lungs cancer:
Development of chest pain, coughing, Nagging or dry, development of fine pores in the
lungs, lungs alveoli gradually filled with body lymph etc.
d.Brain cancer:
Mental retardness, slow body growth, abnormal size of the head, facial paralysis, check
body movement or locomotion, etc.
Causative agent:
Till now, there is no such exact fact which causes cancer in the various organs of the
body. There are many factors which causes are;
1.Smoking
2.Chewing of tobacco.
3.Physical Irritations or Injuries.
4.chemicals.
5.Ultraviolet Rays.
6.Viruses
7.Oncogenes.
Symptoms of cancer;
1.Any thickening or lump in the breast or elsewhere.
2.Any change in a mole or wart.
3.Any wound that does not heal.
4.Unusual bleeding or discharge.
5.Persistant cough or hoarseness.
6.Any change in normal bowel habits.
Diagnosis:
Cancer can be confirmed on the basis of certain pathological examinations. These include
biopsy, microscopic examination of body fluids, Blood studies and x-ray.
Preventive measures:
1.To give up smoking and chewing tobacco as theses increase the changes of cancer.
2.To protect the body from excessive exposure of x-rays, ultra-violet rays, sunlight, etc.
3.To be aware of possible dangerous symptoms mentioned above.
4.To have regular medical checkup after age of forty.
Treatment:
The treatment of cancer varies according to the nature of cancer. The common weapons
used to fight cancer are surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy.
Nutrition:
Nutrition is a process by which an organism obtains substances required for its proper
growth, maintenance and to provide energy for all the activates. Nutrition includes food
intake, absorption, assimilation, biosynthesis, energy metabolism, catabolism and
excretion.
Food or nutrient:
Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for the body. It is usually
of plant or animal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as fats, proteins, vitamins,
or minerals. The substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organism's
cells to provide energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth.
Functions of food:
Food provides our bodies with what they need to;
1.stay alive, be active, move and work;
2.build new cells and tissues for growth;
3.stay healthy and heal themselves;
4.prevent and fight infections.
Food of human consists of;
1.Carbohydrates:
Carbohydrates are one of the main types of nutrients. They are the most important source
of energy for your body. Your digestive system changes carbohydrates into glucose
(blood sugar). Your body uses this sugar for energy for your cells, tissues and organs.
Daily requirement of carbohydrates;
Normal
-
2400kcl/day
Pregnant -
2400+300kcl/day
Lactating -
2400+500kcl/day
Infants
-
90+110kcl/day
Function of carbohydrates;
Carbohydrates have five major functions within the body:
1.Energy supply, carbohydrates are the principle source of energy.
2.Avoiding the breakdown of amino acid for energy.
3.Avoiding ketosis from the breakdown of fatty acids.
4.Cellular and protein recognition.
5.Carbohydrates as building blocks.
6.Carbohydrates as reserve food as they stored in form of starch and glycogen.
2.Protein;
Proteins are large molecules consisting of amino acids which our bodies and the cells in
our bodies need to function properly. Our body structures, functions, the regulation of the
body's cells, tissues and organs cannot exist without proteins. The human body's
muscles, skin, bones and many other parts contain significant amounts of protein. In fact,
protein accounts for 20% of total body weight. Protein is broken down in to amino acids.
Amino acids:
Amino acids are biologically important organic compounds composed of amine (-NH2)
and carboxylic acid (-COOH) functional groups, along with a side-chain specific to each
amino acid. The key elements of an amino acid are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and
nitrogen, though other elements are found in the side-chains of certain amino acids. About
500 amino acids are known and can be classified in many ways
Characteristics of amino acid;
1.These are the basic unit of protein.
2.These are colorless, crystalline solids.
3.These are soluble in water and insoluble in organic solvents such as alcohol, acetone,
etc.
4.There are 20 types of amino acid in nature.
5.The simplest amino acid is glycine.
Categories of amino acids;
They are divided in to two classes.
1.Essential amino acids:
Essential amino acids cannot be made by the body. As a result, they must come from
food.The nine essential amino acids are: histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine,
phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine.
2.Nonessential amino acids:
"Nonessential" means that our bodies produce an amino acid, even if we don't get it from
the food we eat.They include: alanine, asparagine, aspartic acid, and glutamic acid.
Sources of protein:
The principle sources of proteins are both from plants and animals. In general the animal
proteins are superior to plants proteins. There are two groups;
a.First class protein: The protein containing all the types of amino acids. They are animal
protein like egg, meat.
b.Second class proteins: The protein do not containing all the types of amino acids. They
are plant protein.
3. Lipids or fats:
Lipids are a group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, fatsoluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E, and K), monoglycerides, diglycerides,
triglycerides, phospholipids, and others. The main biological functions of lipids include
storing energy, signaling, and acting as structural components of cell membranes. Lipids
have applications in the cosmetic and food industries as well as in nanotechnology.
Sources of fat:
Cooking oil, butter, ghee, oil seeds, milk, meat, cheese, eggs, etc.
Classification of lipids:
1. Simple
On hydrolysis gives fatty acids and alcohol (trihydric or monohydric).
Oils:
Unsaturated
fatty
acid
Fats:
Saturated
fatty
acids
Waxes:
Fatty
acids
+
mono
or
Simple
glyceride:
Contains
same
Mixed glyceride: Contains different fatty acids.
Lipids:
+
glycerol.
+
glycerol,
dihydric
alcohol.
fatty
acids.
.
2.
Compound
lipids:
(Complex
lipids):
On hydrolysis gives phosphoric acid, various sugars, sphingosine, ethanolamine and
serine in addition to fatty acids and glycerol.
a.Phospholipid: Fatty acids + glycerol + phosphoric acid + nitrogenous base.
e.g. Lecithin :Fatty acids + glycerol + phosphoric acid + choline
Cephalin: Fatty acids + glycerol + phosphoric acid + ethanolamine.
b. Glycolipids: Glycerol + fatty acid + Carbohydrates (on hydrolysis).
They are sub classified as galactosyl diglyceride, cerebrosides and sulpholipids.
c) Sphingophosphoiplds: Fatty acids + sphingosine + phosphoric acid + choline.
3) Derived Lipids: Hydrolytic products of simple and compound lipids
i)
Alcohols:
ii)
iii) Terpenoids
Functions of lipids:
1.Lipid provide energy fuel.
Glycerol
Fatty
and
other
sterol
acids
2.lipid act as thermal insulator.
3.Tryglycerides stored in adipose tissue as principle food reserve.
4.Lipids serve as solvents for fat soluble vitamins like A,D, E , and K.
5.They absorb mechanical impact around organs like eyeball preventing external shock.
6.Lipoprotein can prevent bacterial disease.
4.Vitamins:
A vitamin is an organic compound and a vital nutrient that an organism requires in limited
amounts. An organic chemical compound is called a vitamin.
Fat soluble vitamins:
The fat-soluble vitamins, A, D, E, and K, are stored in the body for long periods of time
and generally pose a greater risk for toxicity when consumed in excess than water-soluble
vitamins. Eating a normal, well-balanced diet will not lead to toxicity in otherwise healthy
individuals. However, taking vitamin supplements that contain megadoses of vitamins A,
D, E and K may lead to toxicity. The body only needs small amounts of any vitamin.
Vitamin A (Retinol):
Vitamin A, also called retinol, has many functions in the body. In addition to helping the
eyes adjust to light changes, vitamin A plays an important role in bone growth, tooth
development, reproduction, cell division, gene expression, and regulation of the immune
system.
Sources: Fish, liver oil, egg yolk, butter, cheese, milk, yellow and dark green leafy
vegetable, papaya, tomatoes , carrots, guava, mango, etc.
Deficiency: Night blindness, Xerophthalmia, Reaterded growth, loss of glandular
secretion, etc.
Vitamin D: Vitamin D plays a critical role in the body’s use of calcium and phosphorous.
It works by increasing the amount of calcium absorbed from the small intestine, helping
to form and maintain bones. Vitamin D benefits the body by playing a role in immunity
and controlling cell growth. Children especially need adequate amounts of vitamin D to
develop strong bones and healthy teeth.
Sources: Vitamin D is found in oily fish (e.g., herring, salmon and sardines) as well as in
cod liver oil. In addition to the vitamin D provided by food, we obtain vitamin D through
our skin which produces vitamin D in response to sunlight.
Difeciency: Rickets or rachitis, Osteomalacea, teeth tetany.
Vitamin E:
It is also known as beauty vitamin because it maintains germinal epithelium of gonads
for proper reproductive function. Vitamin E benefits the body by acting as an antioxidant,
red blood cells, and essential fatty acids from destruction.
Sources: About 60 percent of vitamin E in the diet comes from vegetable oil (soybean,
corn, cottonseed, and safflower). Vitamin E sources also include fruits and vegetables,
grains, nuts (almonds and hazelnuts), seeds (sunflower) and fortified cereals.
Deficiency: Reversible sterility in females, Sperm sterility in males, Macrocytic anaemina,
muscular dystrophy.
Vitamin K:
Vitamin K is naturally produced by the bacteria in the intestines, and plays an essential
role in normal blood clotting, promoting bone health, and helping to produce proteins for
blood, bones, and kidneys.
Sources: Good food sources of vitamin K are green, leafy-vegetables such as turnip
greens, spinach, cauliflower, cabbage and broccoli, and certain vegetables oils including
soybean oil, cottonseed oil, canola oil and olive oil. Animal foods, in general, contain
limited amounts of vitamin K.
Deficiency: Causes blood clotting, Hypoprothrombinaemia, Haemorrhage,
Water-Soluble Vitamins:
These types of vitamins require regular supply in the form of dietary sources or
supplements. These are nontoxic and easily absorbed into the body through the
gastrointestinal tract and then disseminated in the tissues. Water-soluble vitamins are
easily dissolved in water, it would be advisable not to overcook them and use the left over
cooking water as healthy options in soups and sauces.
Vitamin B 1 (thiamine): Part of an enzyme needed for energy metabolism, important to
nerve function.
Sources: Found in all nutritious foods in moderate amounts: pork, whole-grain or enriched
breads and cereals, legumes, nuts and seeds
Deficiency: Bery-bery, weight loss, weakness, nausea, constipation, etc.
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin): Part of an enzyme needed for energy metabolism; important for
normal vision and skin health.
Sources: Milk and milk products; leafy green vegetables; whole-grain, enriched breads
and cereals.
Deficiency: Cheilosis, Glossitis, Keratitis, Saborrhic dermatitis.
Vitamin B3: Part of an enzyme needed for energy metabolism; important for nervous
system, digestive system, and skin health.
Sources: Meat, poultry, fish, whole-grain or enriched breads and cereals, vegetables
(especially mushrooms, asparagus, and leafy green vegetables), peanut butter.
Deficiency: Pellagra
Vitamin B5: It act as cheek anti-dermatitis factor.
Sources: Widely distributed in foods.
Deficiency: Rare
Vitamin B6: Part of an enzyme needed for protein metabolism, helps make red blood
cells.
Sources: Meat, fish, poultry, vegetables, fruits.
Deficiency: Dermatitis, paralysis
Vitamin B7: It directly participated in the carboxylic rexn.
Sources: Liver, kidney, egg, yolk, milk, grains, etc.
Deficiency: Acne vugaris, anemia, nausea, etc.
Vitamin B9: It act s as the coenzymes for synthesis protein. Part of an enzyme needed
for making DNA and new.
Sources: Green leafy vegetable, cereals, liver, kidney, eggs, etc.
Deficiency: marcocytic anaemia.
Vitamin B12: Part of an enzyme needed for making new cells; important to nerve function.
Sources: Meat, poultry, fish, seafood, eggs, milk and milk products; not found in plant
foods.
Deficiency: pernicious anaemia.
Vitamin C:
Vitamin C is a water-soluble vitamin that is necessary for normal growth and
development. Water-soluble vitamins dissolve in water. Leftover amounts of the vitamin
leave the body through the urine. That means you need a continuous supply of such
vitamins in your diet.
Sources:
Cantaloupe, Citrus fruits and juices, such as orange and grapefruit, Kiwi fruit, Mango,
Papaya, Pineapple, Strawberries, raspberries, blueberries, cranberries, Watermelon, etc.
Deficiency: Anemia, Bleeding gums, Decreased ability to fight infection, Decreased
wound-healing rate, Dry and splitting hair, Easy bruising, Nosebleeds, Rough, dry, scaly
skin, Swollen and painful joints, Weakened tooth enamel.
Minerals:
Minerals are important for your body to stay healthy. Your body uses minerals for many
different jobs, including building bones, making hormones and regulating your heartbeat.
Macrominerals
Major minerals
Mineral
Function
Sources
Sodium
Table salt, soy sauce; large
Needed for proper fluid balance, nerve amounts in processed foods; small
transmission, and muscle contraction amounts in milk, breads,
vegetables, and unprocessed meats
Chloride
Needed for proper fluid balance,
stomach acid
Potassium
Needed for proper fluid balance, nerve Meats, milk, fresh fruits and
transmission, and muscle contraction vegetables, whole grains, legumes
Calcium
Important for healthy bones and teeth;
helps muscles relax and contract;
important in nerve functioning, blood
clotting, blood pressure regulation,
immune system health
Table salt, soy sauce; large
amounts in processed foods; small
amounts in milk, meats, breads,
and vegetables
Milk and milk products; canned
fish with bones (salmon, sardines);
fortified tofu and fortified soy
milk; greens (broccoli, mustard
greens); legumes
Important for healthy bones and teeth; Meat, fish, poultry, eggs, milk,
Phosphorus found in every cell; part of the system processed foods (including soda
that maintains acid-base balance
pop)
Found in bones; needed for making
Magnesium protein, muscle contraction, nerve
transmission, immune system health
Nuts and seeds; legumes; leafy,
green vegetables; seafood;
chocolate; artichokes; "hard"
drinking water
Sulfur
Occurs in foods as part of protein:
meats, poultry, fish, eggs, milk,
legumes, nuts
Found in protein molecules
Trace minerals (microminerals)
The body needs trace minerals in very small amounts. Note that iron is considered to be
a trace mineral, although the amount needed is somewhat more than for other
microminerals.
Trace minerals
Mineral
Function
Sources
Iron
Part of a molecule (hemoglobin) found in
red blood cells that carries oxygen in the
body; needed for energy metabolism
Organ meats; red meats; fish;
poultry; shellfish (especially
clams); egg yolks; legumes;
dried fruits; dark, leafy
greens; iron-enriched breads
and cereals; and fortified
cereals
Zinc
Part of many enzymes; needed for making
protein and genetic material; has a function
in taste perception, wound healing, normal Meats, fish, poultry, leavened
fetal development, production of sperm,
whole grains, vegetables
normal growth and sexual maturation,
immune system health
Iodine
Found in thyroid hormone, which helps
regulate growth, development, and
metabolism
Seafood, foods grown in
iodine-rich soil, iodized salt,
bread, dairy products
Selenium
Antioxidant
Meats, seafood, grains
Copper
Part of many enzymes; needed for iron
metabolism
Legumes, nuts and seeds,
whole grains, organ meats,
drinking water
Manganese
Part of many enzymes
Widespread in foods,
especially plant foods
Fluoride
Involved in formation of bones and teeth;
helps prevent tooth decay
Drinking water (either
fluoridated or naturally
containing fluoride), fish, and
most teas
Chromium
Works closely with insulin to regulate
blood sugar (glucose) levels
Unrefined foods, especially
liver, brewer's yeast, whole
grains, nuts, cheeses
Molybdenum Part of some enzymes
Legumes; breads and grains;
leafy greens; leafy, green
vegetables; milk; liver
Balanced diet:
A diet that consists of right amount of essential nutrients such as carbohydrates, proteins,
fats, vitamins, minerals, roughage and water required by the body is called balanced diet.
A balanced diet is important because your body’s organs and tissues need proper
nutrition to work effectively. Without good nutrition, your body is more prone to disease,
infection, fatigue, and poor performance. Children with a poor diet run the risk of growth
and developmental problems. Bad eating habits can continue for the rest of their lives a
person’s daily calorie intake should be based on age, gender, and physical activity level.
Men generally need more calories than women, and active people need more calories
than sedentary (inactive) people.
Malnutrition:
A term used to refer to any condition in which the body does not receive enough nutrients
for proper function. Malnutrition may range from mild to severe and life-threatening. It can
be a result of starvation, in which a person has an inadequate intake of calories, or it may
be related to a deficiency of one particular nutrient (for example, vitamin C deficiency).
Malnutrition can also occur because a person cannot properly digest or absorb nutrients
from the food they consume, as may occur with certain medical conditions. Malnutrition
remains a significant global problem, especially in developing countries.
Marasmus:
A rapid deterioration in nutritional status in a short time can lead to marasmus, one form
of acute malnutrition. Marasmus is the most common form of acute malnutrition in
nutritional emergencies and, in its severe form, can very quickly lead to death if untreated.
It is characterized by severe wasting of fat and muscle which the body breaks down to
make energy. Wasting can affect both children and adults.
Kwashiorkor:
Some children with acute protein-energy malnutrition develop oedema. Oedema is an
accumulation of fluid in the tissue, especially the feet and legs. Such children may not
lose weight when developing acute protein-energy malnutrition because the weight of this
excess oedema fluid counterbalances the weight of lost fat and muscle tissue. These
children may look fat or swollen. Such children have kwashiorkor.
Drug abuse:
Drug is chemical substances that alter the physiological state of a living organism. Drugs
are widely use in medicine. The study of drug is called pharmacology.
Causes of drug addiction:
1. A person may experiment because he or her friend suggests it.
2.To satisfy own curiosity.
3.For the feeling of relaxation.
4.To escape from a difficult situation.
5.In search of a more satisfying life.
Types of drugs:
According to the mode of action the psychotropic drugs are classified into two types;
a.Narcotics drugs:
It leads temporary feeding of cell being, freedom from anxiety, produces normal sleep
and relief from pain. The excess dose of these drugs lead rate of respiration reduces,
reduces, reduces cardio vascular activities etc.
b. Stimulant or antidepressant drugs:
These drug Commonly called as mood elevating drugs. The right dose of intake may
increase self confidence and mental alertness. The drug of these group can be called as
Amphitamins. Such as tea, coffee.
Control measures of Drug addiction:
1.Treatment and hospitalization.
2.Rehabilitation
3.Psychological treatment
4.Imlemention of the strict rules and regulation.
5.Education and awareness program.
Alcoholism (Alcohol addiction)
Ethyl alcohol and alcohol is among the most commonly substances by human. Alcohol is
manufactured by fermentation of sugar an organism like yeast.
Alcohol addiction: The prolonged use of alcohol may lead the dependence of the body on
it is called alcohol addiction.
The reasons of alcohol addiction are;
1.Feeling of independence.
2.Overcoming frustration, failures and disappointments.
3.Desire of Excitement and to do more work.
4.Relief from pain and worries.
5.Curiosity and use of drink in social, cultural and religious function.
Effects of alcohol drinks:
1.Ill-effects alcoholic drinks on individual and health:
Alcohol causes ill effects on various organs like on
a.Nervous system: Loss of will power, self control and judgment.
b.On stomach: Alcohol causes secretion of gastric juices which causes gastritis problem.
c.On liver: Liver changes alcohol in to highly toxic compound, which may the cause of
death.
d.On heart: It increases the blood pressure and adversely affect on function of hearth.
e.On kidney: Alcohl interferes with the normal functioning of nephrons in kidney.
f.Alcohol lowers the blood sugar level.
g.On reproduction: In women, it particularly affects the ovulation and menstrual cycle.
2.Ill-effects of alcoholic drinks on family:
Alcohol drinking has a socio-economic impact because excessive drinking or alcoholism
affects the family, growth and development of children adversely.
3.Ill-effects of alcoholic drinks on community or society:
Social crimes like corruption, rapes, accident, loss of social reputation and personality.
Symptoms of alcoholism:
1.Loss of will power, self-control, judgment and emotional control.
2.Visual problem like blurred vision , double vision and improper judgment of distances.
3.Leads to neuritis, amnesia, gastritis.
4.Increase the blood pressure and lower the sugar level.
5.In women it effect on menstrual cycle.
Control of alcoholism:
1.Treatment and hospitalization.
2.Rehabilitation
3.Psychological treatment
4.Imlemention of the strict rules and regulation.
5.Education and awareness program.
Smoking
The regular consumption of tobacco in form of either cigarette, or chewing causes
dependency on tobacco is called smoking. In Nepal 55% of total population consumes
tobacco. Among them 48% are below 15 years.
Tobacco contains highly poisonous alkaloid drug called nicotine. Its smoke contains
approximately 400 different chemicals. Such as formaldehyde, polycyclic hydrocarbons
like tar, carbon monoxide, etc.
Effect of Nicotine:
1.Stimulate the conduction of nerve impulses.
2.Stimulate adrenal medulla to secrete adrenaline hormone.
3.Increase rate of heart beat and blood pressure.
4.Increase constriction of blood vessels.
Effect of smoking:
Following diseases are associated with smoking
1.Cancer:Cigarete smoke contains chemical substances called carcinogens, which
causes cancer.
2.Bronchitis: When person smokes, a tiny particles in the smoke get stuck on the lining
of the trachea and bronchial tubes.
3.Emphysema: The breakdown of alveoli wall reduces alveolar surface of gaseous
exchange. Eventually, lung tissues destroy so much and finally the patient dies.
4.Asthma: It is more serious diseases, the walls of bronchioles contract and the tubes
become narrower. Breathing become diffucut.
5.Heart diseases: A chemical substance nicotine affects the heart, cause constriction of
peripheral blood vessels and increases heart beat.
Symptoms of smoking:
1.A nagging morning cough may be one of the sign of tobacco habit.
2.Shortness of breath, wheezing, etc.
3.Increases fatigue, decreases the smokers sense of smell and taste.
4.Dry mouth and lips and red eyes.
Treatment:
There are wide ranges of treatments like hypnotherapy, herbs, Acupuncture etc can help
a smoker quit the habit.
Community Health
Community health
Community is a collection of people living in a place within a particular environment. It
may be population of different caste, ages, sexes, and nationality. Community health
comprises activities of the people, for the people and by the people to identify the health
problems, their causes and solutions for the modification and better improvement in
personal and environmental health. The roles of community are: To provide facilities,
manpower, logistics support and possible funds, The community should help the authority
to decide the health priorities, Community may participate in decision making about its
health services, It form the organization to solve the existing problems, It formulate the
rules, regulations and ways for healthy living and practices.
Thus the main idea of community health is the participation of all members of the
community towards better health as much as possible. People should also aware of the
health problems in the society and be able to contribute to the solution of the problems.
We may summaries the importance of community health under following points;
1. Creation of healthy environment:
As we study Community health comprises activities of the people, for the people and by
the people to identify the health problems, their causes and solutions for the modification
and better improvement in personal and environmental health. In this process, the
idenitification of causes help to the organize the various activities as per the needs of the
society by the people which leads towards the solution of the problems. Thus the studies
of community health help to create healthy environment.
2. Development of healthy human resources:
The good health of the citizens based on the practice of the Hygienic habits. So, every
individual should have to understand the need and importance of personal hygiene and
their contributory roles in the maintenance and development of community health. The
practice of personal hygienic habit helps to maintain and uplift the standard of living.
3. Availability of health services;
Study of community health helps to identify the health problems and their causes in every
sector of the society. It also suggests the way to ensure the better health and healthy
environment services. Community health advocates the availability of health services as
a birth right of every individual.
4. Sentiment of social service:
Study of community health helps to identify the health problems cannot be solved by
individuals alone. It needs group efforts; it encourages the people to work as social
activists. It also motivates the social activities to gather the individuals and work in
organized form. This organized form help to established club, NGOs, INGOs which work
in the society.
Measure health problem of Nepal:
Nepal is country with the increasing population. It has various types of culture. More than
eighty percent of the people live in villages. People are economically backward. They lack
the knowledge of scientific principles of diseases and maintenance of health. The health
problems of the country are various and working out the health schemes efficiently
becomes difficult. In this context a critical analysis of the Nepalese community presents
some facts responsible for the poor standard of community health. Among the basic
requirements of the people, education is an important need. Knowledge, skill and
technology can develop through the media of education. It creates social, cultural, political
awareness in people and makes them advance. Education plays an important role in the
complete development of a human being. The education or literacy percent of Nepalese
population is still very low. 39.6 percent of total population is only literate. Education helps
to create social, cultural, political awareness whereas illiteracy does not help in
developing awareness regarding the consequences of over population growth,
environmental sanitation, superstition, hygienic habits, methods to present population
growth and such other ways of living and planning for the development. Therefore
illiteracy has been accepted as one of the major health problems of Nepal.
Communicable diseases are not regarded as serious health problems in developed
countries. In developing countries, however they are major health problems. The
diseases like malaria, tuberculosis, leprosy, diarrhea, dysentery, cholera, meningitis,
worm, typhoid, venereal diseases are the major causes of immature death in the rural
population. A study shows that about 45000 children of Nepal die annually from diarrhea.
HIV/AIDS and Hepatitis are widely spreading. However the prevalence of communicable
diseases is not so endemic today compared to the past. In fact a high death rate
communicable disease reflects a low level of community health.
The effects of population increase on health are:
a. The increased population demands more health services and facilities which is not
possible due to economic and political constraints.
b. The ever growing population has an adverse effect on national health facilities as well
as personal health of each individual.
c. The increased population needs huge resources to fulfill their basic needs as well as
additional needs, which deteriorates the environment and affect the health of an
individual.
d. Overpopulation creates unsafe environments and unsafe environment is the causes of
exposure to micro organisms, excessive radiation and health of an individual gets
deteriorated.
e. Nutritious food and balanced diet cannot be provided to every member of the society
in a poor country like Nepal. The lack of nutritious food and balanced diet is the cause of
several kinds of diseases.
Major roles of family in the solution of health problem areas;
1. Family may help to understand the fundamental behavior patterns of the society.
2. Family may help to protect and promote the health f a child or a helpless and old
member through proper care.
3. Family counseling may develop the understanding of healthy living and practices.
4. Family may manage the basic needs of their family members.
5. Family may set a norm of healthy living for the community.
6. Family may provide timely health care and treatment to their members.
7. Parents may teach quality education to their children for the social adjustment.
Basic forms of available health services in Nepal areas;
1. Preventive health services:
All those means, procedures, and ways adopted to safeguard people from the disease in
advance is known as preventive health services.
2. Promotional health service:
Promotional health services are those measures which intend to bring the improvement
in the present health of the people. The maternal-child health care, communicable
disease control programme, mid-day meal programme for the school going children,
vitamin A project, etc. are some examples of promotional health services.
3. Curative health services;
When treatment is given on the basis of diagnosis of the casualty after observation of
various signs and symptoms or complaints of the patients, it is known as curative health
service.
4. Health Centre:
It provides basic health services, treatment and preventive health services. There is less
number of beds for patients. There are 180 health centers.
5. Health posts:
There are 699 health posts. It provides minimum medical and preventive health services
to the people of the Ilaka through the medium level health workers. There is more number
of beds for patients.
Major health programmes of Nepal:
In, fact as health service is one the essential services for human beings; it has been
accepted as an integral part of human right. The major health programmes of Nepal, The
health aims and strategies of Three Year Interim Plan are:
1. To upgrade the level of sub-health posts in accordance with the destiny and
geographical remoteness to reach health post. To upgrade health institutions to primary
health centers wherever there isn’t one in an election area.
2. To give priority to all those who are socially, financially downcast; women, indigenous
people, dalits, muslims community, senior citizens and physically challenged in providing
basic health service free of cost.
3. To make provision such that the free health services provided by governmental and
private hospitals be made available to neighboring districts as well.
4. To make health services available to citizens in Far Western Region, Mid-Western
Region and marginalized area by developing the infrastructure and increasing health
service personnel.
5. To make alternative health services like ayurvedic medicine available to the citizens
according to their choices.
6. To continue the services related to the eye run by non-governmental organizations and
add more such programs for expansion.
7. To make child inoculation and nutrition more effective.
8. To increase the number of gynecologists in the district hospitals.