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Abrahamic religions are the monotheistic faiths emphasizing and tracing their common origin to Abraham[1] or
recognizing a spiritual tradition identified with Abraham.[2][3][4] They are one of the three major divisions in
comparative religion, along with Indian religions (Dharmic) and East Asian religions (Taoic).
The three major Abrahamic religions are, in order of appearance, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Judaism
regards itself as the religion of the descendants of Jacob, the grandson of Abraham. Christianity began as a sect of
Judaism in the 1st century CE (known as Jewish Christianity) and evolved into a separate religion with distinctive
beliefs and practices, notably its replacement of the Jewish idea of an exclusive ethnic religious community (a
common notion which is not entirely correct, see Bnei Noah and Conversion to Judaism) with an inclusive,
universal community, the Christian Church. It replaced the idea of simple monotheism with a Triune God who is
simultaneously one and three (different branches of Christianity have different interpretations). Islam was
founded by Muhammad in the 7th century CE upon the teachings in the Qur'an. It retained the inclusiveness of
Christianity, but reverted to simple monotheism with a central, but not divine, prophet.
The three religions have been intertwined throughout their histories. They are considered inextricably linked to
one another because of a 'family likeness' and a certain commonality in theology: all three claim to be
monotheistic (although both Judaism (see Shituf) and Islam dispute Christianity's right to this description[citation
needed]
), and conceive God to be a transcendent Creator-figure and the source of moral law.[5] The sacred narratives
of all three of these religions feature many of the same figures, histories and places in each, although they often
present them with different roles, perspectives and meanings.
Although the three major religions are defined by common beliefs, Christianity and Islam divided into several
different branches based on details of doctrine and practice. Of course, Judaism also has several branches, such as
Orthodox Judaism, Reform Judaism, and Conservative Judaism as well as lesser ones such as Samaritanism and
Karaite Judaism. The different religions, and some of the branches within the same basic religion, have been in
bitter conflict with each other to the extent of war and bloodshed. The branches, and some conflicts, remain in
existence.
As of the early twenty-first century there were an estimated 3.8 billion followers of these three Abrahamic
religions, It is estimated that 54% of the world's population consider themselves adherents of the Abrahamic
religions, about 30% of other religions, and 16% are non-religious.[6][7]
The Bahá'í Faith is sometimes listed as Abrahamic.[8]
All the major Abrahamic religions claim a direct lineage to Abraham.
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Abraham is recorded in the Torah as the ancestor of the Israelites through his son Isaac, born to Sarah
through a promise made in Genesis.[Gen. 17:16][10] All variants of Judaism through the early twentieth
century (prophetic, rabbinic, reform, and conservative) were founded by Israelite descendants.
The basic text of Christianity is the Bible, the first part of which, the Old Testament, is a modified form of
the Jewish Hebrew Bible, leading to the same ancestry claim as above.
Muslims have a tradition that Muhammed, as a Mecca-region Arab, descends from Abraham's son
Ishmael.
Importance of Jerusalem
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Judaism: Jerusalem became Judaism's holiest city in 1005 BCE when David established it as the capital of
Israel, and his son Solomon built the First Temple on Mount Moriah. Since the Hebrew Bible relates that
Isaac's sacrifice took place there, Mount Moriah's importance for Jews pre-dates even these prominent
events. Jews pray in its direction, thrice daily pray for its restoration and the rebuilding of the Holy
Temple (the Third Temple) on Mount Moriah, close the Passover service with the wistful statement "Next
year in Jerusalem," and recall the city in the blessing at the end of each meal. Jerusalem has served as the
only capital of all five Jewish states that have existed in Israel since 1400 BC (the United Kingdom of
Israel, the Kingdom of Judah, Yehud Medinata, the Hasmonean Kingdom, and modern Israel). It has been
majority Jewish since about 1852 and continues through today.[20][21]
Christianity: The Romans destroyed the Second Temple in 70 and expelled the Jews from the area in 135.
There has been a continuous Christian presence there since.[22] William R. Kenan, Jr., professor of the
history of Christianity at the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, writes that from the middle of the
fourth century to the Arab conquest in the middle of the seventh century, the Roman province of Palestine
was a Christian nation with Jerusalem its principal city.[22] According to the New Testament, Jerusalem
was the city Jesus was brought to as a child to be presented at the Temple[Luke 2:22] and for the Feast of the
Passover.[Luke 2:41] He preached and healed in Jerusalem, ceremonially cleansed the Temple there, held the
Last Supper in an "upper room", possibly the Cenacle, there the night before his death on the cross, was
arrested in Gethsemane. The six parts to Jesus' trial—three stages in a religious court and three stages
before a Roman court—were all held in Jerusalem. His crucifixion at Golgotha, his burial nearby, and his
resurrection and ascension and prophecy to return all are said to have occurred or will occur there.
Islam: Jerusalem, the city of David and Christ, became a very holy place to Muslims, like Mecca and
Medina. The Al-Aqsa mosque, which translates to "farthest mosque" in sura Al-Isra in the Qur'an, and its
surroundings (Jerusalem) as "the holy land". The first Muslims did not pray toward Mecca, but toward
Jerusalem. Another reason for its significance is its connection with the Miʿrāj[23] (the Prophet
Muhammad’s ascension to heaven).[24][25]
God
Main article: God in Abrahamic religions
All the Abrahamic religions are monotheistic. The Christian God is at the same time an indivisible Trinity, a view
not shared by the other religions.
[edit] Judaism
Main article: God in Judaism
The Shield of David, more commonly known as the Star of David (or Magen David), is a generally recognized symbol of the
Jewish community and of Judaism.
Jewish theology is based on the Hebrew Bible, where the nature and commandments of God are revealed through
the writings of Moses, the Torah, the writings of the prophets, psalmists and other ancient canonized scriptures,
together with the Torah known as the Tanakh. Additionally, it usually has a basis in its Oral Law, as recorded in
the Mishnah and Gemora that form the Talmud.
This Supreme Being is referred to in the Hebrew Bible in several ways, such as Elohim, Adonai or by the four
Hebrew letters "Y-H-V (or W) -H" (the tetragrammaton), which observant Jews do not pronounce as a word. The
Hebrew words Eloheynu (Our God) and HaShem (The Name), as well as the English names "Lord" and "God",
are also used in modern-day Judaism. The latter is sometimes written "G-d" in reference to the taboo against
pronouncing the tetragrammaton.[41]
The word "Elohim" has the Hebrew plural ending "-īm", which some Biblical scholars have taken as support for
the general notion that the ancient Hebrews were polytheists in the time of the patriarchs; however, as the word
itself is used with singular verbs, this hypothesis is not accepted by most Jews. Jews point out other words in
Hebrew used in the same manner according to the rule of Hebrew Grammar, denoting respect, majesty and
deliberation, similar to the royal plural in English and ancient Egyptian, and the use of the plural form "vous" for
individuals of higher standing in modern French. Jewish Biblical scholars and historical commentary on the
passage also suggest that Elohim in the plural form indicates God in conjunction with the heavenly court, i.e., the
Angels. The pre-Christian era, early CE-period Kabbalistic and later in the European Chasidic movements after
the Baal Shem Tov, such as Breslov and Chabad, all indicate the use of Elokim as denoting the multidimensional
existence of God on, in, and through every possible dimension of the created existence. See Likutei Moharan and
the Tanya, as well as the Zohar, Bahir, and the Kabbalistic texts of Sefer Yitzirah, Sefer Refayim, and Sefer
Malachim, to name a few. Including the writings of the Ramchal (R. Moshe Chaim Luzzatto), Drech HaShem and
others such as the Rashbi (R. Shimon bar Yochai, author of the Zohar) all explain the use of the Elokim as a
pluralistic singularity, one essence sustaining all levels of creation from the mundane physical to the sublime and
Holy spiritual.[42]
[edit] Christianity
Main article: God in Christianity
The Christian cross (or crux) is the best-known religious symbol of Christianity; this version is known as a Latin Cross.
Christians believe that the God worshiped by the faithful Hebrew people of the pre-Christian era has always
revealed himself as he did through Jesus; but that this was never obvious until the Word of God (the divine
Logos) became flesh and dwelt among us (see John 1). Also, despite the fact that the Angel of the Lord spoke to
the Patriarchs, revealing God to them, it has always been only through the Spirit of God granting them
understanding, that men have been able to later perceive that they had been visited by God himself. After Jesus
was raised from the dead—according to Christian scriptures—this ancient Hebrew witness of how God reveals
himself as Messiah came to be seen in a very different light. It was then that Jesus' followers began to speak
widely of him as God himself,[John 20:28] although this had already been revealed to certain individuals during his
ministry. Examples were the Samaritan woman in Shechem and Jesus' closest apostles[43]
This belief gradually developed into the modern formulation of the Trinity, which is the doctrine that God is a
single entity (YHWH), but that there is a "triunity"[citation needed] in God, which has always been evident albeit not
understood. This mysterious "triunity" is hypostatic; that is, there are three hypostases (personae in Latin) or
"persons" of the Godhead (though this is a often misleading English rendering). In the traditional Christian
concept, God the Father (the Source) has only revealed himself through his eternal Word (who was incarnated in
human history as Jesus Christ). The three different hypostases are not "Gods" because they are one, and share the
same Divine Nature; they are the one and the same God. The Father is the Begetter, the Son is the eternally
Begotten, and the Spirit eternally proceeds from both (in Catholicism and Protestantism) or from just the Father
(in Eastern Orthodoxy).
Non-trinitarian views have constructed various theological understandings, ranging from Binitarianism to
Modalism. Some non-trinitarians would understand that the three are not three but one playing three different
roles, in three different ages. In the Age of the Father, as Jehovah. In the Age of the Son, as Jesus. And finally in
the Age of the Holy Spirit, with a New Name, as the Second Coming of Christ. However, it should be noted that
some Christian denominations reject trinity and follow nontrinitarian beliefs, Jehovah Witnesses being but one of
them.
[edit] Islam
Main article: God in Islam
The word Allah written in Arabic.
There is only one God in Islam. Allah is the Arabic word for God, used by all Arabs of all faiths. Islamic tradition
also describes the 99 names of God. These 99 names describe attributes of God, including Most Merciful, The
Just, The Peace and Blessing, and the Guardian. Islamic belief in God is distinct from Christianity in that God
accepts no partners and has no progeny. This belief is summed up in chapter 112 of the Qur'an titled Al-Ikhlas,
which states "God is One, He is the Eternal, the Absolute. He does not beget nor was he begotten. And there is
none like Him".[Qur'an 112:1]
Muslims believe that the Jewish God is the same as their God, and that Jesus was a divinely inspired prophet and
was neither God nor His son. The Qur'an also draws a similitude between Jesus and Adam—the first human being
created by God—saying they were both 'created from dust' by God who said the simple word "Be" (Arabic,
'kun').[Qur'an 3:59] Thus, both the Torah and the Gospels are believed to be based upon divine revelation, but most
Muslims believe them to have been corrupted (both accidentally, through errors in transmission, and intentionally
by certain Jews and Christians over the centuries). Muslims revere the Qur'an as the final uncorrupted word of
God, or 'The Last Testament' as revealed through the last prophet, Prophet Muhammad. Muhammad is regarded
as the "Seal of the Prophets" i.e. the last in a long chain, and Islam as the final monotheist faith, perfect in all
respects as taught by the Qur'an.[Qur'an 5:3]
Religious scriptures
All these religions rely on a body of scriptures, some of which are considered to be the word of God—hence
sacred and unquestionable—and some the work of religious men, revered mainly by tradition and to the extent
that they are considered to have been divinely inspired, if not dictated, by the divine being.
[edit] Jewish
Main articles: Masoretic Text, Tanakh, and Bible
The sacred scriptures of Judaism are the Tanakh, a Hebrew acronym standing for Torah (Law or Teachings),
Nevi'im (Prophets) and Ketuvim (Writings). These are complemented by and supplemented with various
(originally oral) traditions: Midrash, the Mishnah, the Talmud and collected rabbinical writings. The Tanakh (or
Hebrew Bible) was composed between 1,400 BCE, and 400 BCE by Jewish prophets, kings, and priests. The
Hebrew text of the Tanakh, and the Torah in particular, is considered holy, down to the last letter: transcribing is
done with painstaking care. An error in a single letter, ornamentation or symbol of the 300,000+ stylized letters
that make up the Hebrew Torah text renders a Torah scroll unfit for use; hence the skills of a Torah scribe are
specialist skills, and a scroll takes considerable time to write and check.
[edit] Christian
Main articles: Old Testament, New Testament, and Bible
The sacred scriptures of most Christian groups are the Old Testament, which is largely the same as the Hebrew
Bible, and the New Testament. The latter comprises four accounts of the life and teachings of Jesus (the Four
Gospels, traditionally attributed to his apostles Matthew and John, and the later converts Mark and Luke), as well
as several other writings by the apostles (such as Paul). They are usually considered to be divinely inspired in
some sense, and together comprise the Christian Bible. Thus, Christians consider the fundamental teachings of the
Old Testament, in particular the Ten Commandments, as valid (see Biblical law in Christianity for details).
However, they believe that the coming of Jesus as the Messiah and saviour of humankind as predicted in the Old
Testament would shed light on the true relationship between God and mankind by restoring the emphasis of
universal love and compassion (as mentioned in the Shema) above the other commandments, also de-emphasising
the more "legalistic" and material precepts of Mosaic Law (such as circumcision and the dietary constraints and
temple rites). Some Christians believe that the link between Old and New Testaments in the Bible means that
Judaism has been superseded by Christianity as the "new Israel",[44] and that Jesus' teachings described Israel not
as a geographic place, but rather an association with God and promise of salvation in heaven, a revisionist
position rejected by Jews.
A Bible handwritten in Latin, on display in Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire, England. This Bible was transcribed in Belgium in
1407 for reading aloud in a monastery.
The vast majority of Christian faiths (generally including Catholicism, Orthodox Christianity, Anglicanism and
most forms of Protestantism) derive their beliefs from the conclusions reached by the First Council of Nicaea in
325 in a document known as the Nicene Creed. This describes the belief that God (as a Trinity of distinct persons
with one substance) became human on earth, born as Jesus pursuant to the Old Testament scriptures, was
crucified by humanity, died and was buried, then was resurrected on the third day to rise and enter the Kingdom
of Heaven and "sit at the right hand of" God with a promise to return. Christians generally believe that faith in
Jesus is the way to achieve salvation and to enter into heaven, and that salvation is a gift given by the grace of
God.
Some Christians recognize that the Gospels were passed on by oral tradition, and were not set to paper until
decades after the death of Jesus, and that the extant versions are copies of those originals. Others, however, think
that the Gospels are actually contemporary accounts of the life of Jesus, despite much evidence to the contrary.
Indeed, the version of the Bible considered to be most valid (in the sense of best conveying the true meaning of
the word of God) has varied considerably: the Greek Septuagint, the Syriac Peshitta, the Latin Vulgate, the
English King James Version and the Russian Synodal Bible have been authoritative to different communities at
different times. In particular, Christians usually consult the Hebrew version of the Old Testament when preparing
new translations, although some believe that the Septuagint should be preferred, as it was the Bible of the Early
Christian Church, and because they believe its translators used a different Hebrew Bible to the ones that make up
the current Masoretic Hebrew text, as there are some variant readings of the Dead Sea Scrolls confirmed by the
Septuagint. In the same sense that the Jewish mystics viewed the Torah as something living and existing prior to
any written text, so too do Christians view the Bible and Jesus himself as God's "Word" (or logos in Greek),
transcending written documents.
The sacred scriptures of the Christian Bible are complemented by a large body of writings by individual
Christians and councils of Christian leaders (see canon law). Some Christian churches and denominations
consider certain additional writings to be binding; other Christian groups consider only the Bible to be binding
(sola scriptura).
[edit] Islamic
"Muhammad" in a new genre of Islamic calligraphy started in the 17th century by Hafiz Osman.[45]
Main articles: Qur'an and Origin and development of the Qur'an
Islam's holiest book is the Qur'an, comprising 114 suras ("chapters of the Qur'an"). However, Muslims also
believe in the religious texts of Judaism and Christianity in their original forms, albeit not the current versions
(which they believe to be revised or changed). According to the Qur'an (and mainstream Muslim belief), the
verses of the Qur'an were revealed from God through the Archangel Jibrail to the Prophet Muhammad on separate
occasions. These revelations were written down during Muhammad's lifetime and also memorized by hundreds of
hafiz. These multiple sources were collected into one official copy in 633 AD, one year after his death. Finally,
the Qur'an was given its present order in 653 AD by the third Caliph.
The Qur'an mentions and reveres several of the Israelite prophets, including Moses and Jesus, among others (see
also: Prophets of Islam). The stories of these prophets are very similar to those in the Bible. However, the detailed
precepts of the Tanakh and the New Testament are not adopted outright; they are replaced by the new
commandments accepted as revealed directly by God (through Gabriel) to Muhammad and codified in the Qur'an.
Like the Jews with the Torah, Muslims consider the original Arabic text of the Qur'an as uncorrupted and holy to
the last letter, and any translations are considered to be interpretations of the meaning of the Qur'an, as only the
original Arabic text is considered to be the divine scripture.[46]
Like the Rabbinic Oral Law to the Hebrew Bible, the Qur'an is complemented by the Hadith, a set of books by
later authors recording the sayings of the prophet Muhammad. The Hadith interpret and elaborate Qur'anic
precepts. Islamic scholars have categorized each Hadith at one of the following levels of authenticity or isnad:
genuine (sahih), fair (hasan) or weak (da'if).[47]
By the ninth century, six major Hadith collections were accepted as reliable to Sunni Muslims.
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Sahih al-Bukhari
Sahih Muslim
Sunan ibn Majah
Sunan Abu Dawood
Jami al-Tirmidhi
Sunan an-Nasa'ii
Shia Muslims, however, refer to other authenticated hadiths instead.[48] They are known collectively as The Four
Books.
The Hadith and the life story of Muhammad (sira) form the Sunnah, an authoritative supplement to the Qur'an.
The legal opinions of Islamic jurists (Faqīh) provide another source for the daily practice and interpretation of
Islamic tradition (see Fiqh.)
The Qur'an contains repeated references to the "religion of Abraham" (see Suras 2:130,135; 3:95; 6:123,161;
12:38; 16:123; 22:78). In the Qur'an, this expression refers specifically to Islam; sometimes in contrast to
Christianity and Judaism, as in Sura 2:135, for example: 'They say: "Become Jews or Christians if ye would be
guided (to salvation)." Say thou (O Muslims): "Nay! (I would rather) the Religion of Abraham the True, and he
joined not gods with Allah." ' In the Qur'an, Abraham is declared to have been a Muslim (a hanif), not a Jew nor a
Christian (Sura 3:67).
[edit] End times and afterlife
Main article: Eschatology
In the major Abrahamic religions, there exists the expectation of an individual who will herald the time of the end
and/or bring about the Kingdom of God on Earth; in other words, the Messianic prophecy. Judaism awaits the
coming of the Jewish Messiah; the Jewish concept of Messiah differs from the Christian concept in several
significant ways, despite the same term being applied to both. The Jewish Messiah is not seen as a "god", but as a
mortal man who by his holiness is worthy of that description. His appearance is not the end of history, rather it
signals the coming of the world to come.
Christianity awaits the Second Coming of Christ, though Full Preterists believe this has already happened. Islam
awaits both the second coming of Jesus (to complete his life and die) and the coming of Mahdi (Sunnis in his first
incarnation, Shi'a as the return of Muhammad al-Mahdi).
Most Abrahamic religions agree that a human being comprises the body, which dies, and the soul, which is
capable of remaining alive beyond human death and carries the person's essence, and that God will judge each
person's life accordingly after death. The importance of this and the focus on it, as well as the precise criteria and
end result, differs between religions.[citation needed]
[edit] Judaism
Main article: Olam Haba
Judaism's views on the afterlife ("the World to Come") are quite diverse. This can be attributed to the fact that
although there clearly are traditions in the Hebrew Bible of an afterlife (see Naboth and the Witch of Endor),
Judaism focuses on this life and how to lead a holy life to please God, rather than future reward, and its attitude
can be mostly summed up by the rabbinical observation that at the start of Genesis, God clothed the naked (Adam
and Eve); at the end of Deuteronomy, he buried the dead (Moses) and the Children of Israel mourned for 40 days
before getting on with their lives.[citation needed]
[edit] Christianity
Main article: Christian eschatology
Christians have more diverse and definite teachings on the end times and what constitutes afterlife. Most
Christian approaches either include different abodes for the dead (heaven, hell, limbo, purgatory) or universal
reconciliation in which all souls are made in the image of God. A small minority teach annihilationism, the
doctrine that those persons who are not reconciled to God simply cease to exist.[citation needed]
[edit] Islam
Main article: Islamic eschatology
In Islam, God is said to be "Most Compassionate and Most Merciful" (Qur'an 1:1, as well as the start of all suras
but one). However, God is also "Most Just"; Islam prescribes a literal Hell for those who disobey God and
commit gross sin. Those who obey God and submit to God will be rewarded with their own place in Paradise.
While sinners are punished with fire, there are also many other forms of punishment described, depending on the
sin committed; Hell is divided into numerous levels.
Those who worship and remember God are promised eternal abode in a physical and spiritual Paradise. In the
Qur'an, Heaven is divided into two levels, with the higher level of Paradise being the reward of those who have
been outstandingly virtuous. For example, the higher level might contain the prophets and those killed when
fighting for Allah (martyrs).
Upon repentance to God, many sins can be forgiven, on the condition that they are not repeated, as God is
supremely merciful. Additionally, those who believe in God, but have led sinful lives, may be punished for a
time, and then eventually released into Paradise. If anyone dies in a state of Shirk (i.e., associating God in any
way, such as claiming that He is equal with anything or denying Him), this is not pardonnable—he or she will
stay forever in Hell.
Once a person is admitted to Paradise, this person will abide there for eternity
Violent conflicts
This section requires expansion.
[edit] Between Abrahamic religions
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The Crusades were ultimately unsuccessful attempts by Christians to conquer what was perceived by Christians as
the Holy Land from its Muslim inhabitants. In passing, it also had a unilateral conflict between Christians and Jews,
with many Jews massacred by traveling Crusaders.
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The Spanish inquisition was an attempt by the Christian Catholic church in Spain to suppress or expel Jews and
Muslims. Openly Jewish and Muslim people were expelled rather than killed, but many submitted to forced
conversion to Catholicism to avoid expulsion. The Inquisitors often did not trust the converts, and persecuted
them cruelly for being secret adherents of their original religions, which was often true but sometimes fabricated.
Jewish forced converts were known as "anusim," or sometimes by the pejorative "morrano (pig)."
[edit] Between branches of the same Abrahamic religion
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The Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604) was due to religious conflict between Catholic and Protestant Christians, and
economic causes.
There have been many violent conflicts between the Sunni and Shi'a branches of Islam; see Shi'a–Sunni relations.
o After the 2003 invasion of Iraq by a western coalition there was armed conflict between branches of Islam,
with fighting and bombings, even of mosques.