Download Mammals of Manitoba - Manitoba Forestry Association

Mammals of Manitoba
Manitoba has a great diversity of mammals, reflecting the wide diversity of ecosystems
within this large province. Manitoba contains prairie, parkland, boreal forest, and tundra.
Over 89 mammal species live within these terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and the
coastal waters of the Hudson Bay.
This document is designed to give a brief overview of many of the important mammal
species living within Manitoba. The document is by no means an exhaustive list of all
the species within the province, as many of the small mammals (e.g. rodents, bats,
shrews, and moles) are not included. Each entry aims to give a brief description of the
appearance and size of the organism, some life history characteristics, as well as any
unique features of the specific species. There is also a short section describing some of
the important ecosystem roles of each species, any management issues it may be facing,
and its current population status. Tracks are included for a few species as they may be a
way of identifying the species presence in the wild.
O.C. Friesen, B.Sc. (hons), M.Sc.
January 2013
Order Soricomorpha (Solenodon, Shrews, and Moles)
Star-nosed mole (Condylura cristata)
Star-nosed moles are one of the most distinct
mammalian species. They have hairless noses that are
ringed by a unique „star‟ made of 22 pink, flesh
tentacles. The „star‟ is bilaterally symmetrical, with 11
appendages per side, measuring between 1-4 mm
long. They are stout, with roughly cylindrical bodies.
As they are fossorial (adapted for digging and life
underground) mammals, they have heavily-built
forelimbs, with broad feet and large claws. Their hair is
short, dense, and course.
Size – Adults weigh between 35-75 g and range in length between 0.175-0.204 m.
Lifespan – 3-4 years (estimate)
Diet –Primarily on invertebrates, such as earthworms, and aquatic species such as
leeches, and aquatic insects (e.g. larvae of caddisflies, midges, dragonflies, and
damselflies, etc.). Occasionally aquatic crustaceans and small fish.
1
Denning and Habitat – Star-nosed moles are found in varied habitat, all characterized
by moist soil. They prefer areas of poor drainage, including coniferous and deciduous
forests, clearings, wet meadows, marshes, peatlands, and banks of streams, lakes and
ponds.
Predators –Owls, hawks, domestic dogs and cats, fox, skunks, weasels, fishers, minks,
bullfrogs, and largemouth bass
Life History – Star-nosed moles mate in the early spring, with 2-7 young (five on
average) being born in late spring – early summer. If the first litter is unsuccessful, a
female may mate again producing a litter as late as July. The young are independent at
30 days and reach maturity at 10 months. Star-nosed moles appear to be seasonally
monogamous, pairing up as early as autumn.
Distribution –
Special features – Star-nosed moles are a fossorial mammal, digging a network of
tunnels throughout moist soil. The tunnels can extend as much as 270 m along the edge
of suitable habitat. Star-nosed moles are semi-aquatic, so many of their tunnels open
under the surface of a stream or lake. They are well adapted for swimming, with
forelimbs used as paddles. They are commonly active throughout the winter, burrowing
through the snow and even swimming under the ice of frozen ponds. The tentacles on
the nose assist the star-nosed mole in finding prey. Typically, if the moles are foraging,
the tentacles are constantly being used to feel around the surroundings, moving so
quickly they appear as a blur (touching as many as 12 objects per second). The tentacles
are so supersensitive, they can identify prey in under half a second.
Ecosystem Role – Star-nosed moles provide food for a number of carnivores within a
wetland ecosystem as well as being important predators of aquatic invertebrates. They
also tunnel extensively underneath the moist ground providing aeration to plants that
may otherwise be stuck in anoxic (without oxygen) soil.
2
Management Issues – Star-nosed moles are a relatively common species and very
inconspicuous. They inhabit wet areas and humans do not generally impact them
directly. However, as the star-nosed mole is dependent on wetlands for its survival, the
ongoing destruction or alteration of wetlands may threaten this species in the future.
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened
Species – Least Concern
Order Chiroptera (Bats)
Brown Bat (Eptesicus fuscus)
Brown bats (also known as the big brown bat) are medium
sized bats with large skulls, broad noses and fleshy lips. Their
ears are rounded and the tragus (prominence on the inner
side of the external ear, important in echolocation) is broad
with rounded tip. Their fur coloration depends on the
location and subspecies, with the dorsal side raging from
pink tans to chocolates and the ventral fur lighter from pink
to olive. The face, ears, wings, and tail membrane are all
black.
Size – Adults weigh 23 g (average) and ranges in length
between 0.11-0.13 m long. Its wingspan is around 0.33 m
long.
Lifespan – Up to 19 years (males longer lived than females)
Diet – Insects, primarily beetles, but also moths, flies, wasps, flying ants, and
dragonflies.
Denning and Habitat – Located in cities, towns, and rural areas but sometimes located
within heavily forested regions. They require stable, highly insulated areas to hibernate.
They often can take up residence in barns, silos, churches, storm sewers, copper mines,
tree hollows, natural caves, or openings in rock ledges.
Predators – Owls and falcons. Young bats are vulnerable to snakes, raccoons, and cats.
Life History – Female brown bats form maternity colonies in the spring to rear their
young, ranging from 5-700 animals at one time. Females usually give birth to twins, but
a single pup may occur depending on their geographic location. Males will roost alone
and in small groups during this period. After the young are reared (late summer) both
sexes will return to roosting together. Females often return to the same colony year
after year.
3
Distribution –
Special features – Brown bats will hibernate during the winter in order to preserve
energy and fat so they can survive. As with other bat species, they will use echolocation
not only to navigate as they fly but also to capture their flying insect prey. Brown bats
will emit a stream of calls through their mouths, with the duration and interval of each
call and between calls varying depending on their activity at the time.
Ecosystem Role – Brown bats are important insectivorous bats, consuming high
amounts of agricultural and nuisance pests. They consume the corn root worm, which is
one of the most important agricultural pests in the United States.
Management Issues – Humans may conflict with this species when they enter human
dwellings. Brown bats also can be carriers of the rabies virus that can be spread to
humans. The fungal disease, “white-nose syndrome” has been threatening many species
of North American bats, including the brown bat. The fungus (Geomyces destructans)
grows best in cold humid conditions similar to bat wintering habitat (bat hibernacula).
Mortality rates at some locations have reached close to 90%
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Least Concern
Eastern Red Bat (Lasiurus borealis)
Red bats are fast medium sized flying bats that live throughout the Americas. Their fur
ranges from a brick brown to a yellowish red with white at the tips, giving the red bat a
frosted appearance. The white tips are more prominent in female bats giving males a
more red appearance. The head of the red bat is relatively small and heavily
constructed.
4
Size – Red bats weigh between 7-13 g and range in length
between 0.09-0.12 m. The wingspan is between 0.36-0.46 m.
Lifespan – unknown
Diet – Insectivorous, capturing insects such as moths, beetles,
ants, and flies, while flying.
Denning and Habitat – Forested regions, and other regions that
are moderately populated by humans. Red bats use hollow trees
to hibernate and areas with dense foliage for roosting sites.
Predators – Raptors, blue jays, and opossums
Life History – Mating occurs once annually in late summer and
early fall. Fertilization of the egg does not take place until spring.
Females have one annual litter 1-5 young with an average of 2.
The young learn to fly and forage alone at about five weeks old.
Distribution –
Special features – Red bats are a mainly solitary migratory species, moving north in the
spring and migrating south in the fall. They also hibernate to preserve energy and fat
stores during the winter. Red bats use echolocation to locate their prey, using both
broadband and narrow band calls.
Ecosystem Role – Red bats are important insect consumers, helping control their
populations.
Management Issues – Red bats rarely move into homes, which is the cause of many
issues with human populations and other bat species. Red bats have not reported to be
5
affected by the “white-nose syndrome” however this may change which could result in
decreasing populations.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Least Concern
Order Rodentia (Beavers, Porcupines, Mice, Lemmings, Voles, Gophers,
Squirrels, etc.)
Beaver (Castor canadensis)
Beavers are a primarily aquatic rodent. They have a waterproof,
rich, glossy, reddish brown or blackish brown coat. The beaver is
also a well-known fur-bearer.
Size – Adults weigh between 13-32 kg, and measure about 0.91.17 m long (tail 0.3 m tail)
Lifespan – 10-20 years
Diet – Bark of trembling aspen tree, willows, birch and black
poplar, roots, pond lilies, and other aquatic plants.
Denning and Habitat – Slow, winding streams and small lakes
with soft banks. Willows, aspen and other deciduous trees are
necessary for food. Lodges or houses are constructed from mud
and sticks (as with dams). They are often either surrounded by
water, on island, or found on the banks of lakes or streams.
Beavers spend many months (up to six) under the ice. During this period their activity is
restricted to under the ice. Lodges or houses also provide protection and warmth for the
colony during the winter.
Predators – Wolves, coyotes, and bears are the major predators. Young are vulnerable
to wolverines, lynx, fishers, and otters.
Life History – Beavers mate for life, and will only take another mate if the first mate
dies. Beaver colonies usually contain 2-12 members, with one breeding pair and a
number of yearlings and kits. Young are born in spring. Young beavers may leave as
early as one year but often forced out by their parents if they have not left by the age of
two. They often make a colony of their own and first breed around their third year of
life, depending on the quality of the environment. Beavers are also primarily nocturnal
and travel good distances from their homes to find food.
6
Distribution –
Special features – The beaver‟s tail is used in water as a rudder. If the beaver becomes
scared it may slap the water with its tail, warning all beavers in the vicinity of the
danger. This behavior may also drive away any potential predators. Beavers can make
large habitat changes by cutting down trees and constructing dams. The dams are
constructed with sticks and branches and sealed with mud and stones. Beavers cut
down an average of 216 trees per year with trees measuring up to 0.4 m in diameter. As
beavers may need to spend months under the ice, they store these foods under the ice
for access during the winter.
Beavers, as rodents, have two large incisors on both the top and bottom of their jaws.
These teeth are covered with enamel and are constantly growing. Beavers gnaw on the
bark of trees and grind their teeth, which helps keep these teeth worn down. Beavers
also have some adaptations that allow them to move underwater. They have transparent
eyelids that cover their eyes, valves in the ears and nose that can close, and a flap
closing behind their incisor teeth to prevent water from entering while they swim.
Beavers also have two oil glands beneath their skin on their lower bellies. They comb
this oil into their fur to make it waterproof They also have two castor glands, which they
use to produce a scent that they deposit on their scent mounds to mark territorial
boundaries.
Ecosystem roles – Beavers will maintain wetlands, which can slow down floodwaters.
They help prevent erosion and raise the water table, assisting in purifying the water.
After leaving their homes, the beaver dams decay and meadows often appear.
Management Issues – Beaver dams can lead to flooding of homes, roads, railways, and
agricultural lands. Overabundance can lead to an increased risk of water borne diseases
such as Giardia (commonly known as beaver-fever)
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Least Concern
7
Tracks –
Front Print: Length 6.5-10 cm; Width 5-9 cm
Hind Print: Length 13-18 cm; Width 8.5-13 cm
Straddle: 15-28 cm
Stride: Walking 7.5-17 cm
Muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus)
Muskrats are a water-adapted rodents found within the
wetlands. This large robust rodent has a flat and scaly tail. Their
fur is dense and traps air underneath, helping with insulation
and buoyancy. Muskrats have valves (like flaps) to close off their
nostrils, ears, and mouth underwater traveling and feeding.
Size – Adults weigh 680-1800 g and are between 0.41-0.62 m
long.
Lifespan – 2-3 years
Diet – Water plants, including cattail and bulrush roots, stalks,
crayfish, and clams.
Denning and Habitat – Wet environments, such as marshes,
slow streams, ditches, ponds and lakes. Bank burrows are used
for shelter and their nests, made from vegetation.
Predators – American minks, raccoons, foxes, otters, coyotes, owls, harriers, , and snakes
Life History – Muskrats mate twice a year, in spring and fall with young being born a
month later in late spring and late fall. The litter size has on average six kits.
Distribution –
8
Special features – Muskrats are well adapted to their aquatic lifestyle. Although their
feet are not webbed, their hind feet have special hairs to make swimming easier. They
can also conserve oxygen through the limiting of blood to essential organs, staying
underwater for up to 17 minutes. As with all rodents, they have two large incisors on
both the top and bottom of their jaws. These teeth are covered with enamel and are
constantly growing. Muskrats wear the teeth down through chewing.
Ecosystem Role – Muskrats are very abundant in areas of good habitat, making them
important prey for many predators. They also graze on vegetation, affecting the
structure of plant communities.
Management Issues – High densities of muskrats, due to high reproductive rates, can
be detrimental to their environment (e.g. plant communities). High densities can also
result in water contamination with parasites such as Giardia spp.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Least Concern
Porcupine (Erethizon dorsata (dorsatum))
Porcupines are a very distinctive large rodent species with a coat
of sharp spines, known as quills. They use their quills to defend
and camouflage themselves from predators. Overall, porcupines
appear dark brown to black with bands of yellow on their dorsal
guard hairs and quills and a white fringe on the quills within the
black area. The quills extend from the head to the tail but only
on the dorsal surface.
Size – Males are larger than females. Mass ranges from 5-14 kg
and they range in length between 0.6-0.9m long.
Lifespan – 6-7 years
Diet – Generalist herbivores, with variation in diet seasonally
Denning and Habitat – Variety of habitats. Within its extensive
range it is found within varied climates, elevation, including
tundra forests, and deserts. Porcupines spend their winters within rock dens or trees.
Predators – Fishers, cougars, lynx, bobcats, coyotes, gray wolves, wolverines, and owls
Life History –Porcupines breed once annually, in late fall. In the spring, a female has a
single offspring. The young leave their mothers after five months, but are not mature
until 25 months for females and 29 months for males. The female provides the sole
parental care.
9
Distribution –
Special features – Porcupines are nocturnal. They are distinguished with quills, or
modified hair, with microscopic barbs on the tip. They are generally around 0.08 m long
and each individual has approximately 30 000 quills. Porcupines have unique chewing
muscles, with the large masseter muscles passing through large infraoribital foremen.
They are also adapted to live within the trees, including large claws and unique palms.
The palms and soles of their fore and hind limbs are naked with a pebbly surface
allowing for increased friction while climbing.
Ecosystem Role – Porcupines are herbivores and affect the structure of plant
communities.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Least Concern
Collared Lemming (Dicrostonyx richardsoni)
Collared lemmings are small stocky fossorial rodents
found within the tundra regions, living in tunnels in the
soil. They go through two annual molts, where all of
their fur is replaced. During the winter, they grow a
long, thick white coat helping them maintain their
temperature and remain unseen in the snow. During
the summer they remain brown with a black line down
the centre of their dorsal side and a lighter brown on
their ventral side.
© O.C. Friesen
Size – Adults weigh between 30-90 g and are 0.065-0.1 m long (spine length).
Lifespan – 1 year
10
Diet – Herbivorous, consuming plants, especially willows, but also including berries,
flowers, and the roots of other plants
Denning and Habitat – Tundra habitats, in dry areas, avoiding areas with high
moisture. They burrow to create tunnels in which they live and breed. They create nests,
made from grasses that they use during the winter and are placed beneath the snow or
inside a snow bank. They also make use of latrines, or areas in which they defecate,
away from their main nests.
Predators – Arctic fox, snowy owls, golden eagle, bald eagle, ermines, wolves, jaegars,
weasels, gulls, wolverines, polar bears, and red fox
Life History – Collared lemmings may breed several times (generally 2-3 times per
year) within their breeding season (January-September), depending on weather. After a
19-21 day gestation, a litter of 1-11 young (average 3) are born. It is thought that both
males and females provide some parental care to the young, due to the extreme climate
they live in. The young are weaned at 15-20 days. Females are mature after 40 days, and
males after 85 days.
Distribution –
Special features – As one of the few rodents (and the most abundant) living within the
tundra, they are an important food source for many of the predators living within the
region. They are active throughout the year, and during the summer active throughout
the day, reflecting the long hours of sunlight in an arctic summer. They are also well
known for their population boom crash cycles every 3-4 years. Collared lemmings also
have specialized large forked digging claws on their forefeet.
Ecosystem Role – Collared lemmings are an important prey source (sole rodent species
in many regions) for predators within the tundra and may affect the population
11
dynamics of other species within the region they inhabit. For example, population cycles
of collared lemmings are often reflected in arctic fox population dynamics.
Management Issues – It has been suggested that the population cycles of this species
have been dampened in recent years due to changes in the climate. If this continues it
may be very detrimental to predators that rely on this important food source such as
arctic fox and snowy owl, potentially reducing their populations or causing a shift in
their diet.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Least Concern
Northern Pocket Gopher (Thomomys talpoides)
Northern pocket gophers are a rodent species highly
adapted to their fossorial, or tunneling, lifestyle. They
have thick tapering bodies with short limbs and strong
claws, loose skin, and highly reduced ears and eyes.
They have short grayish brown to brown to yellowish
brown fur.
Size – Adults range in mass between 60-160 g with
females being slightly smaller. They range in length
between 0.165-0.265 m long.
Lifespan – 1-2 years
Diet – Generalist herbivores, including roots, corms, rhizomes, stems.
Denning and Habitat – Large range of habitats, from mountain meadows, tundra,
grasslands, steppe, and agricultural fields. They are a fossorial rodent and live in tunnels
underground. Their habitats need to be absent of large canopy cover, have abundant
ground cover, and have well drained soils.
Predators – Badgers, coyotes, skunks, weasels, owls, bobcat, foxes, snakes, and hawks
Life History – Mating occurs once annually in the early spring with young being born in
late spring. The female exclusively performs parental care. Northern pocket gophers
have one annual litter of 4-7 young (average 5). The young are weaned by day 40.
Young disperse after 2 months and reach maturity in 3-6 months.
12
Distribution –
Special features – Northern pocket gophers are well adapted to their solitary fossorial
life. Their senses of touch and smell are heightened, with their vision and hearing
remaining very poor. They create elaborate tunnel networks (up to 150 meters) with the
top level used to store feces and the lower level used as a nesting and food storage
area.
Ecosystem Role – Northern pocket gophers improve the productivity of a site. They
help turn over soil within their region. Northern pocket gopher burrowing activities
aerate and loosen soils, move organic material into the subsoil (improving fertility),
deepen the soil profile, increase the water holding capacity of the soil and improve the
soils biological, chemical, and physical aspects. It increases the density and diversity of
plant species in their range. They also can be a significant food source for predators.
Management Issues – Northern pocket gophers are considered to be „vermin‟ by many
farmers as they can consume large amounts of plant materials from their fields. Their
mounds can also dull the blades of machinery. They have also been known to re-route
irrigation water, sometimes leading to localized flooding. Their holes are also
considered detrimental to livestock grazing within that region.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Least Concern
Plains Pocket Gopher (Geomys bursarius)
Plains pocket gophers are a pale brown to black fossorial rodents that are highly
adapted to its life underground. Their skull is heavily reinforced and they have strong
jaw muscles. They have long tails with very little hair and large foreclaws that grow
rapidly.
13
Size – Adult mass ranges between 300-450 g. They are
between 0.18-0.36 m long.
Lifespan – 2-3 years (estimate, little information
available)
Diet – Generally herbivorous, feeding primarily on
underground roots and tubers
Denning and Habitat – Open to sparsely wooded
regions, preferring sandy soils (range limited by soil type)
Predators – Owls, coyotes, red foxes, and other mesopredators
Life History – Plains pocket gopher populations often have skewed sex ratios, with
almost four times as many females as males. Mating begins in early spring. Each litter
consists of 1-4 young. Females mature within their first year, but males mature the
following year.
Distribution –
Special features – Plains pocket gophers are primarily solitary and territorial. They dig
burrows that are shallow in the summer, but deeper in the winter. The piles of soil that
are left nearby an excavation can help locate plain pocket gopher burrows. They are
also well adapted to their fossorial life history with enlarged claws and reduced eyes
and ears.
Ecosystem Role – The burrowing activity of the plains gopher can assist in aerating soil
and may improve drainage, providing some flood control.
Management Issues – Plains pocket gophers are often considered pests by farmers as
well as in suburban areas where they could affect lawns.
14
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Least Concern
Eastern Gray Squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis)
Eastern gray squirrels are a frequently seen gray rodent in
southern Manitoba. Found mostly within the trees, they are
commonly seen running between trees, jumping from branch to
branch, chasing or following individuals, and making a racket
sitting in trees. They are mostly gray with long bush tails.
Size – Adult gray squirrels weigh between 338-750 g and are
between 0.38-0.53 m long.
Lifespan – 12-13 years
Diet –Nuts, flowers and buds of oaks, hickory, pecan, walnut, and
beech tree species. They will also eat seeds, bulbs, or flowers
from maple, mulberry, hackberry, elm, bucky, horse chestnut
trees, cedar, hemlock, and pine or spruce as well as fungi. Insects
may be eaten in the summer and can be particularly important
for juveniles. They may also eat bird eggs and nestlings as well as
frogs.
Denning and Habitat – Mature continuous woodlands with diverse understory
vegetation. Densities are the highest in forests with trees such as oaks and walnuts that
produce foods that survive the winter. Gray squirrels occupy two different home types,
one within a tree that is permanent and a nest of leaves and twigs on the trees that are
temporary.
Predators –American mink, weasels, red fox, bobcats, gray wolves, coyotes, lynx, and
raptors
Life History – Female gray squirrels mate twice a year, in winter and in spring.
Gestation lasts 2 months and females have 2-8 (average 3) offspring per litter. Females
mature shortly after 1.25 years but it only takes males 11 months to mature. If a
dominant male is in the region it may delay maturity of young males up to 2 years.
Young are weaned at 10 weeks.
15
Distribution –
Special features – Gray squirrels are adapted to an arboreal life, having long tails that
assist in balance and communication. Dominance hierarchies form during the breeding
season between males. They do not hibernate but their activity levels change
throughout the seasons. Gray squirrels also cache seeds and other foods to assist in
surviving the winter.
Ecosystem Role – Gray squirrels are important seed predators. Their seed-caching
activities may also assist in dispersing tree seeds. They also can help distribute truffle
fungal spores as they eat truffles. They also serve as important prey themselves and are
hosts to a variety of parasites including ticks, fleas, lice, and roundworms.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Least Concern
Red Squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus)
Red squirrels are deep red tree squirrels, with strong territorial
aggressive behavior and a smaller body size. A white eye ring is
present year round and ears become tufted during the winter.
They have a smaller and flatter tail than most other tree squirrels
with a band of black extending its entire length. Their ventral side
is white or cream.
Size – Adult red squirrels range in mass between 197-285 g and
are between 0.27-0.39 m long.
Lifespan – 5-6 years
16
Diet – Varies extensively with habitat and the presence or absence of mast foods (e.g.
seeds from trees). They commonly consume seeds of conifers and other tree types but
are also known to eat insects, bird eggs, nestlings, young snowshoe hares, fungi, and
plants.
Denning and Habitat – Northern boreal forests, abundant with conifer seeds, fungi,
and interlocking canopies. They are also able to live in suburban and urban settings as
long as food resources and interlocking canopies are present.
Predators – Snakes, raptors, martens, fishers, weasels, mink, red fox, coyotes, lynx
Life History – Red squirrels have between 1-2 mating breeding seasons annually,
depending on their geographic location. Populations in the south and east generally
have up to two litters a year, one in spring and the other in late summer. Gestation lasts
about a month and the litter size ranges between 1-8 (average of 4). Lactation occurs
for the first 2 months, after which the young are independent. Males do not help out
with the raising of the young. Reproductive success is highly dependent on resource
abundance. Red squirrels live in a resource-pulse system due to masting years by many
species of trees (such as white-spruce). Many species of trees only release seeds every
few years (in synchrony, called a mast year) leading to years with a large abundance of
seeds available to red squirrels. In non-mast years food resources are low leading to
higher reproductive failure and smaller litter sizes.
Distribution –
Special features – Red squirrels are larder hoarders. In late summer to autumn they
harvest cones and store them in one or more middens, which they will defend from
competitors.
Ecosystem Role – Red squirrels are important in dispersing seeds and fungi throughout
the forest through caching activities. They assist porcupines in feeding during the winter
by peeling away the bark of lodgepole pines.
17
Management Issues – Red squirrel pelts and meat are harvested and sold by humans.
They are currently the third-most commonly harvested furbearer in Canada. They also
have feeding habits that lead to conifers growing multiple tops, reducing their timber
value although increasing suitable nest sites for other arboreal rodents and birds. They
also may cause damage to human property by nesting in homes and gnawing on
household items.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Least Concern
Richardson Ground Squirrel (Spermophilus richardsonii)
Richardson‟s ground squirrels are a tan, small ground squirrel
found in the prairie regions of North America. Living in colonies
of burrows, this social species are hibernators, only active
throughout the spring and summer periods.
Size – Adult males range between 440-745 g pre-hibernation and
290-500 g post-hibernation. Females range between 330-590 g
pre-hibernation and 120-290 g post-hibernation. Males measure
0.28-0.33 m and females between 0.26-0.32 m long.
Lifespan – 2-4 years
Diet – Seeds, nuts, grains, bulbs, green vegetation, insects and
other small invertebrates
Denning and Habitat – Richardson‟s ground squirrels live in
open plains with short grasses.
© wildlifenorthamerica.com
Predators – Raptors, red fox, weasels, badgers, and coyotes
Life History – Females have one litter per year. Mating occurs after hibernation in late
spring. Young are born a month later, and litters have typically 3-11young (average 6-8).
The young reach adult size and maturity after 11 months.
18
Distribution –
Special features – Richardson‟s ground squirrels create large complex burrows, with
several chambers and many entrances. They hibernate for seven months a year, from
early fall to spring. Adult males are the first to enter hibernation (early summer) and the
first to emerge.
Ecosystem Role – Richardson‟s ground squirrels serve as an important food source as
well as assisting in the recycling of soil nutrients.
Management Issues – In many regions where agriculture is present, Richardson‟s
ground squirrels consume grain and other forage crops and are considered pests. They
also carry fleas that have been known to transmit the bacterium that causes the bubonic
plague.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Least Concern
Thirteen-Lined Ground Squirrel (Spermophilus tridecemlineatus)
Thirteen-lined ground squirrels are small slender
ground squirrels distinguished with alternative
longitudinal stripes of dark brown and tan from the
neck to the end of the tail.
Size – Adult mass ranges between 110-140 g and are
between 0.17-0.31 m long.
Lifespan – 2-4 years
Diet – Omnivorous, consuming the seeds of plants
19
such as weeds, corn, and wheat as well as insects, small vertebrates, bird eggs, and
carrion
Denning and Habitat – Open areas with short grasses and well-drained sandy or loamy
soils (for burrows). Mowed lawns, golf courses, cemeteries, pastures, parks, and the
roadsides are often common habitats.
Predators – Raptors (such as hawks), snakes, coyotes, and red foxes
Life History – Females mate once a year in spring shortly after arising from hibernation.
The litter size averages 9 young.
Distribution –
Special features – Thirteen-lined ground squirrels are distinguished by their “thirteen
lines” consisting of either seven broad dark brown stripes alternating with six thin tan
bands or seven narrow yellow stripes alternating with six broader dark brown stripes.
They have short ears and a thin tail. Thirteen-lined ground squirrels are diurnal and dig
burrows, both shallow and deep and complex. They are not colonial but may live in
complex proximity. They also hibernate in the winter.
Ecosystem Role – Thirteen-lined ground squirrels eat seeds and foliage, strongly
impacting plant communities. They are also an important prey for many predators. They
assist in the recycling of soil nutrients through their burrowing.
Management Issues – Thirteen-lined ground squirrels can cause damage to agricultural
crops, through the consumption of plants and seeds such as corn, wheat, oats, and
sunflowers.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Least Concern
20
Order Lagomorpha (Rabbits, Hares, and Pika)
Eastern Cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus)
Eastern cottontail rabbits are small rabbits with dense, buffy
brown underfur and longer coarse grey and black-tipped guard
hairs. Their ventral fur is white. They have a short tail with a
white-underside. They have distinctively large eyes for their size.
Size – Adults weigh between 0.8-1.53 kg and are between 0.40.5 m long.
Lifespan – 2-3 years
Diet – Grasses, wild strawberry, clover, garden vegetables,
woody plant parts, including twigs, bark and buds of oak,
dogwood, sumac, maple and birch.
Denning and Habitat – Edge habitats including meadows,
orchards, farmlands, hedgerows, and low deciduous trees.
Females create nests in a hollow beneath a shrub, log, or in tall
grass.
Predators – Raptors (hawks, owls), red fox, coyotes, and weasels
Life History – Females have multiple litters a year (up to seven) but on average have 34. Breeding occurs from late winter to fall. Litters are born a month after breeding and
the size ranges from 1-12 (average of 5). Young receive parental care only from the
female although the care is minimal. Weaning occurs between 16-22 days and young
disperse in around seven weeks. Young become mature at around 2-3 months.
Distribution –
21
Special features – Eastern cottontails are solitary and tend to be very intolerant of each
other. They also have very good senses of sight, smell, and hearing assisting in predator
detection and avoidance. They are crepuscular and nocturnal and are active all winter.
They are also very quick and can reach speeds of up to 30 km/hr. Vocalizations of the
eastern cottontail can include very distinct distress cries. As the majority of its diet is
cellulose and complex carbohydrates, eastern cottontails as with many rabbits and
hares, use caecal fermentation to digest their food. They must reingest their fecal pellets
(after going through their digestive system once) to reabsorb their nutrients.
Ecosystem Role – Eastern cottontails are an important food source for many predators
and serve to recycle nutrients within the environment.
Management Issues – Eastern cottontails are abundant and edible making them an
important game species, being hunted for sport, meat, and fur. They also can cause a lot
of damage while foraging for food. They are considered pests to many gardeners and
farmers during the summer. In the winter they become a threat to trees, and a pest to
orchardists, foresters, and the landscaper.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Least
Concern
Tracks –
Front Print: Length 2.5-3.8 cm; Width 2-3.3 cm
Hind Print: Length 7.5-9 cm; Width 2.5-3.8 cm
Straddle: 10-13 cm
Stride: Hopping 18-90 cm
Snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus)
Snowshoe hares are a common hare species found throughout
northern North America. An important food source for many
predators, snowshoe hares may be best known for their
population cycles that impact and are mirrored by Canada lynx.
Snowshoe hares have two coats, a grizzled rusty or greyish
brown with a white belly during the summer and almost entirely
white except for eyelids and blackened ear tips in the winter.
Size – Adults weigh between 1.43-1.55 kg, with males being
slightly smaller than females. They measure between 0.413-0.518
m long.
Lifespan – 4-5 years
22
Diet – Variable, includes grasses, forbs, bluegrass, brome, clovers, as well as new growth
of birches, and willow.
Denning and Habitat – Open fields, fence rows, swamps, cedar bogs, boreal forest,
coniferous lowlands, edges of the tundra, pastureland.
Predators – Fox, coyotes, gray wolves, lynx, bobcats, and minks. Red squirrels depredate
young hare.
Life History – Female snowshoe hares breed throughout their breeding season, from
early spring to late summer, having a litter almost every month. Gestation lasts 36 days.
Litters are between 1-7 young (average 2-4). Young are born well developed. The
female is the only caregiver and they disperse after a month. Young become mature
within a year.
Distribution –
Special features – Snowshoe hares are typically solitary. They are well adapted to their
northern habitat and the snow. The soles of their feet are well adapted for living in the
snow, as they are densely furred, with stiff hairs on their hindfeet. As with other rabbits
and hares, snowshoe hares reingest certain feces. Most of their digestion occurs in their
hindguts, the food must cycle through their digestive system twice.
Ecosystem Role – Snowshoe hares are important prey animals. They are the primary
food source for lynx, particularly in the northern regions of their range. Lynx populations
crash when snowshoe hare densities are low.
Management Issues – Snowshoe hares are hunted and trapped for their pelt and
occasionally for their meat. Snowshoe hares may be damaging to trees especially in
years of high density.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Least Concern
23
Order Carnivora (Bears, Canids, Felids, Mustelids, Skunks, Seals, Walrus, etc.)
Black Bear (Ursus americanus)
Black bears are generally black in color, but may range to lighter
brown (sometimes blonde). Black bears are a wide-ranging
mammal in Canada, only avoiding cities although they have
been well adapted to living near humans. Black bears are thick
set, bulky animals. The adult black bear has a moderate-sized
head with a straight facial profile and a tapered nose with long
nostrils. Unlike other animals, the lips of a black bear are not
attached to their gums allowing black bears to use them with
great dexterity. The eyes are small and ears are rounded. The tail
is not noticeable and very small. The feet are well furred with five
curved claws
Family – Ursidae
Size – Adult males weigh 47-409 kg. Females weigh 39-236 kg.
Males are between 1.4-2.0 m long and females are between 1.21.6 m long (spine length)
Lifespan – 10-15 years
Diet – Emerging grasses, sedges and weeds, insects (e.g. ants, beetles, wasps, bees, etc.),
leaves from trembling aspen, berries (i.e. strawberries, service berries, pin cherries, and
blueberries)
Denning and Habitat – Heavily forested areas, dense bush and wooded mountains.
They often den at the base of fallen trees, beneath roots, under a tree stump,
overturned log, or a hole in a hillside
Predators – Older bears can often threaten young bears, as well as wolves and lynx
Life History – Mating occurs in the early summer with the young born in mid-January
and early February. The average litter size is 2-3 young. Black bears take 3-5 years to
reach maturity Young black bears are very small at birth (0.15-0.2 m and 0.2-0.3 kg) but
increase their weight substantially (x100) within two months. They remain with their
mother until they are 16-17 months old. Females are full grown by 5 years whereas
males often continue to grow until 7.
24
Distribution –
Special features – Black bears are generally crepuscular, although feeding and
breeding activates may alter this. Black bears are also good swimmers and fast runners.
They are primarily solitary, except for the close bond between the female and her young
cubs and pairing for mating. Black bears go through seasonal lethargy during the winter
period in which they do not eat and subsist entirely on stored fat. They may lose up to
30% of their pre-denning mass.
Ecosystem Roles – Black bears effect the population of insects and fruits within a
region. They assist in dispersing the seeds in the plants they eat.
Management Issues – Black bears are quite comfortable around humans. Due to this
ease they may become a problem, as they are not easily scared off. In any encounter,
the human should slowly back away, making noise. Leaving food and litter around may
attract the bears.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Least Concern
Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus)
Polar bears are large white predatory bears living in the circumpolar Arctic. They are one
of the world‟s largest carnivores and are considered to be a marine mammal since they
hunt seals on the sea ice. Polar bears are large and stocky, with a relatively small head
and an elongated neck. Their fur has a white appearance but may appear yellowish
during the summer.
Family – Ursidae
25
Size – Adult male polar bears weigh between 300-800 kg and
females weigh between 150-300 kg. Males are can be as long as
2.5 m long and females range between 1.8-2 m long. Male polar
bears can measure up to 1.6 m in height.
Lifespan – 25-30 years
Diet – Carnivorous, hunting predominantly ringed seals. They
often only consume only the blubber, leaving the muscle and
remainder of the carcass for scavengers, such as arctic fox. They
will also hunt bearded seals, harp seals, hooded seals, walruses,
and beluga. Polar bears will scavenge on sea birds and their eggs,
small mammals, fish and scavenges on seals, walruses, or whales.
They will occasionally consume some vegetation or berries but
these foods are not considered to be important.
Denning and Habitat – Pack ice on the Arctic Ocean serves as the primary habitat for
polar bears. Polar bears will travel onto land or islands during the summer period while
the ice is gone. They will dig temporary day beds in the permafrost to cool down
during the summer period. Females will create winter dens in the snow or soil layers
close to the coast.
Predators – As a top predator, the only predators to polar bears are other polar bears
and humans
Life History – Polar bears only feed during the winter when the sea ice is present.
During the rest of the year, polar bears live on their stored fat. Females breed yearly
unless they have young with them. Mating occurs in late winter to early spring.
Implantation is delayed, so young are born almost 190-260 days later. Pregnant females
make a winter den in the snow or dirt in late fall. Females have between 1-3 cubs
(average two) are born during the winter. The female and her young emerge in MarchApril, and move to the sea ice so the female can hunt. Females provide all the parental
care for the young. Cubs will remain with their mother for 2-3 years and do not reach
maturity until they are 5-6 years old.
Distribution –
26
Special features – Polar bear skin is black and the fur is clear, and lacks pigment. Their
forepaws are very broad and assist the bears in swimming. The soles of the feet are
furred for insulation and traction for their life on sea ice.
Ecosystem Role – Polar bears serve as the top carnivore in the arctic. Remains of the
seal kills that they leave unconsumed are a very important food source for younger
bears and arctic foxes. Arctic fox populations are influenced by the extent of hunting by
polar bears. The more successful the bears are at hunting the more food there is for
arctic fox to scavenge, which increases their survival over winter.
Management Issues – Polar bears have historically been used by First Nation
communities as a source of fur, meat, and medicines. Some hunting is still permitted.
They also can be possibly dangerous to humans. Encounters leading to death are rare.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Vulnerable
Arctic Fox (Vulpes lagopus)
Arctic foxes are a small white fox, with a short legs and
a fluffy tail. They are well adapted to living in cold
climates, with a thick white fur during the winter, and
brown, light gray and black during the summer. Arctic
foxes have two different colour morphs, the “blue” and
“white”, with the “white” being more common in
Manitoba. In the winter, “blue” moults from chocolate
brown in the summer to lighter brown tinged with
blue in the winter.
Family – Canidae
Size – Adults weigh between 3.14-3.58 kg and are between 0.548-0.578 m long.
Lifespan – 3-4 years
Diet – Lemmings, migratory birds, eggs, ringed seals, caribou, and carcasses
Denning and Habitat – Arctic and alpine tundra, usually in coastal areas
Predators – Red fox, wolverines, golden eagles, gray wolves, and brown bears
Life History – Both parents participate in taking care of their cubs. Breeding occurs in
March and young pups are born in spring (May). Litter size ranges widely dependent on
geography and food availability but can range between 5-8, with up to 25 being born in
one litter in some locations. Arctic foxes can have the largest litter sizes of any
27
mammals. They use complex dens that may be over a hundred years old and are easily
recognizable due to the enriched vegetation. Lactation lasts for 8-10 weeks and cubs
leave the den in early August. Foxes reach maturity at 10 months.
Distribution –
Special features – Arctic fox are generally solitarily (other than the breeding season),
and when food is abundant they will cache the food for later use. Arctic foxes have
many physical adaptations to living within the arctic environment. Their fur has the best
insulative properties among all mammals. They further conserve body heat by the fur on
their soles of their feet, small ears, short noses, and the ability to reduce blood flow to
the peripheral regions of their bodies.
Ecosystem Role – Arctic foxes are commonly considered ecosystem engineers. Their
dens provide areas of enriched soils (due to defecation providing additional nutrients),
increasing the diversity of arthropods and other small mammals within this region.
Additionally, arctic fox scavenge on the sea ice, bringing in nutrients and energy from
the marine ecosystem.
Management Issues – The fur of the arctic fox is valued in the fur industry and arctic
fox are commonly trapped.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Least Concern
Red fox (Vulpes vulpes)
Red foxes are an important mesopredator, with the largest range of any living land
mammal. Most commonly, they have very distinctive red fur, with white ventral hair, and
black tipped ears, legs, and tails. Although this is the most common colour variant, two
28
other variations occur. Cross foxes have reddish brown fur with a black stripe down the
back and across the shoulders. Silver foxes are strong silver to nearly black.
Family – Canidae
Size – Adult body mass ranges from 3-14 kg and body length from
0.46-0.9 m long, with males often being larger than females
Lifespan – 4-8 years
Diet – Opportunistic, consuming a wide variety of food items
including invertebrates, mammals, and birds as well as fruit and
other vegetation. They can also scavenge on carcasses if available.
Denning and Habitat – Variety of habitats including forest, tundra,
prairie, desert, mountains, pastureland, farmland, and urban areas.
They prefer mixed habitat, with shrub and woodland. Foxes use
underground dens during the breeding period.
Predators – Golden eagles, cougars, coyotes, and gray wolves
Life History – Red foxes often live solitarily, but can form a pairs, and can group up to
six (mostly females with one male) depending on the habitat. Mating occurs in the
winter with young being born in spring. Juveniles disperse between 6-12 months in the
fall, but the date varies based on sex, with males dispersing earlier and further. Lactation
lasts for a month and cubs are fully weaned at 6-8 weeks. Foxes are mature in 9-10
months. The litter size varies between 6-8 young but is dependent on resources and
geography. Both males and females provide care.
Distribution –
29
Special features – Red foxes have good endurance and can run for several kilometers if
needed. They are able to run at top speeds up to 48km/h and jump fences over two
meters high. They also can swim well and pounce on their prey with great precision.
Ecosystem Role – Red foxes are important in keeping small mammal populations, such
as rodents and rabbits, in control. This is further advantageous to the control of the
bacterium that causes lyme disease. It requires small rodents in its life cycle and red fox
reduce the density of rodents so that the bacterium is reduced in the environment.
Management Issues – Red fox are often considered a pest, especially among farmers,
for taking their livestock and poultry. They also carry the rabies virus that can be
transmitted to humans.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Least Concern
Coyote (Canis latrans)
Coyotes are a mid-sized canine, often confused with grey wolves,
red wolves, and domestic dogs. Differences in the diameter of
their hindfoot pad, ear length, track size, pelage, and behavior
are methods to distinguish this canine from others. Coyotes
appear slender with a long and narrow pointed nose. They have
large pointed ears, slender legs, small feet, and a very bushy tail.
There is a large range in colour from a pure grey to a red, but
the tip of the tail is generally black. The fur texture and colour
varies geographically.
Family – Canidae
Size – Males weigh around 15.8 kg with females weighing
around 13.7 kg. Coyotes range between 0.73-0.94 m long.
Lifespan – 10-12 years
Diet – Opportunistic, generalist predator that has been known to eat a variety of food
items including fruit, insects, large ungulates (particularly young during fawning) and
livestock
Denning and Habitat – Almost all available habitats, including prairies, forests, deserts,
mountains, as well as tropical ecosystems. Coyotes have been found to be able to
occupy urban areas, as seen with a group that lives within urban Chicago, IL, U.S.A.
Coyotes often den in brush-covered slopes, steep banks, rock ledges, thickets and
hollow logs. There may be more than one entrance to the den and have interconnecting
tunnels. Dens may be used from year to year.
30
Predators – Wolves, cougars, bears, and golden eagles
Life History – Coyotes mate in mid winter. Pups are generally born 2 months later, in
early spring. The size of the litter (average of 6, usually ranging between 1-9) is strongly
affected by food availability. Pups emerge from the den after three weeks. Generally, the
parents and often other associates, such as siblings from previous years, care for the
young. Pups are weaned at about 5-6 weeks and reach adult size in about 9 months.
Distribution –
Special features – Coyotes usually hunt alone or with their mate, with more than two
occasionally uniting to capture larger prey. This group hunting is usually observed in
late summer and early fall. Coyotes directly and indirectly compete with both wolves
and cougars. Wolves often may kill coyotes and coyotes will be seen avoiding areas and
habitats used by them. Direct competition for food and space with wolves, along with
this predation, may limit coyote numbers in some areas. Alternatively, in some regions
coyotes may not tolerate bobcats and red foxes, particularly when food is rare. The
abundance of food in the region may lead to more tolerance.
Ecosystem Role – Coyotes assist in keeping many small mammal populations in check.
If populations of these mammals are allowed to become too large it can result in
habitat degradation, and increases in pathogen populations (often leading to higher
disease, e.g. lyme disease).
Management Issues – Coyotes may be a threat to farmers and hunters, depredating
both livestock and big game species. Coyotes are also still harvested as furbearers.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Least Concern
31
Tracks –
Front Print: Length 6-8 cm; Width 4-6 cm (hind
print slightly smaller)
Straddle: 10-18 cm
Stride: Walking 20-40 cm; Trotting 43-58 cm;
Galloping/Leaping 80-300 cm
Gray Wolf (Canis lupus)
Gray wolves are a large canid species native to the wilderness
and remote areas of North America, Eurasian, and northern
Africa. It is the largest canid species and has a large head, narrow
chest, long legs, straight tails, and large paws. This large species
is well adapted to hunting large prey and lives in large social
groups. They range in colour, from pure white to coal black.
Commonly they usually appear light tan or cream mixed with
brown, black, and white.
Family – Canidae
Size – Adult males weigh between 20-80 kg and vary in length
between 1.27 -1.52 m. Adult females are often smaller, weighing
between 16-55 kg and are between 1.37-1.52 m in length.
Lifespan – 8-9 years
Diet – Large ungulates, particularly white-tailed deer, elk, moose, and caribou. Wolves
will also eat smaller prey, such as beaver, snowshoe hare, small rodents, grouse, other
birds, fish (especially salmon on the west coast of North America), marine mammal
carcasses, crabs, mussels, as well as vegetation and berries.
Denning and Habitat – Variety of habitats, including tundra, forest, prairie,
pastureland, rangeland, and arid landscapes. They will dig dens underground during the
breeding season for the female and pups.
Predators – Wolves are large top predators, and only face predation from other wolves
and humans.
Life History – Gray wolves live in social groups called packs, with the dominant pair the
only members that breed. The pair is monogamous although if one dies another
individual will take over. Breeding occurs in the winter and early spring. Pups are born
two months later and litter size ranges from 1-14 (average 6-7). The pups remain in the
den for 8-10 weeks, with the females staying with their pups for the first 3 weeks. Pups
are cared for by the entire pack. Until they are 45 days old, the pups are regurgitated
32
food by other pack members. After 45 days the pups start to feed on meat provided by
pack members. Pups reach maturity after two years, although many males are not
mature until three years.
Distribution –
Special features – Wolves live in social packs, with a mating pair and generally consists
of many of their young from previous years and their current litter. Most of these packs
have complex social structures. Wolves risk injury and death as they attempt to kill large
prey. If the prey is healthy they may be able to escape wolf predation. The risk to the
wolves increases with the size of the prey.
Ecosystem Role – Wolves are important top predators. The reintroduction of wolves
into Yellowstone National Park demonstrated how the lack of wolves in an ecosystem
leads to a trophic cascade impacting vegetation, shorelines, as well as prey populations.
Management Issues – Livestock farmers consider wolves‟ pests. Wolves have been
known attack and consume livestock, although proper management and intervention
reduce interactions. Further, many hunters fear reduction in large ungulate populations
due wolf predation reducing the population they are able to hunt. This has led to many
conflicts between wolves and humans. Wolves can also be a threat to domestic dogs.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Least Concern
Raccoon (Procyon lotor)
The agile, adaptable raccoon is quite distinguishable with black mask coloration over its
eyes, and a bushy tail with black rings. Their forepaws look like slender human hands,
making the raccoon very dexterous. Raccoons are stocky in build and range from grey
to reddish brown to bluff.
33
Family – Procyonidae
Size – Adults weigh between 1.8-10.4 kg and are between 0.60.95 m long. Males are slightly larger than females.
Lifespan – 5-6 years
Diet –Omnivorous and very opportunistic. They consume fruits
and nuts, as well as invertebrates (e.g. crayfish, clams, and
insects) and vertebrates (e.g. rodents, frogs, fish, and bird eggs).
Denning and Habitat – Variety of habitats, and live comfortably
around humans. They need easy access to water and prefer to
live in wooded areas but have also been found in pastureland,
rangeland, suburban and urban areas. They build dens in trees
but also use other areas such as woodchuck burrows, deserted
buildings, etc.
Predators – Coyotes, gray wolves, large hawks, owls and snakes
Life History – Raccoons have one litter of 3-7 young (average 4) per year. Mating
occurs between February–June, with most mating in March. Young are born after 2
months and are weaned after 70 days. The young remain with their mother during their
first winter, and are independent in the following spring.
Distribution –
Special features – Raccoons are primarily nocturnal and solitary. They are very agile
and climb easily. They also can swim well. Raccoons also have highly developed tactile
senses. Their forepaws are particularly sensitive. They also have a keen sense of hearing,
and excellent night vision.
34
Ecosystem Role – Raccoons can impact the population size of their primary prey items,
including species such as crayfish, clams or insects, impacting community composition.
Management Issues – Raccoon pelts are harvested and are a source of income in some
regions. They also can be a nuisance to farmers, causing damage to their orchards,
cornfields, and chicken yards. They can also carry the rabies virus and other parasites
that can be transmitted to humans.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Least Concern
Tracks –
Front Print: Length 5-7.5 cm; Width 4.5-6.5 cm
Hind Print: Length 6-9.5 cm; Width 5-6.5 cm
Straddle: 8.5-15 cm
Stride: Walking 20-45 cm
Bobcat (Lynx rufus)
Bobcats are medium sized cats, with fur of various shades of buff
and brown with dark brown or black stripes and spots on some
parts of their bodies. Bobcats got their name because of their
short tails, which are tipped in black like their ears. Their ears
also have short tufts along with ruffs of hair on the side of the
head, almost giving the appearance of sideburns. Bobcats are
primarily solitary and very shy. They will often climb trees to
escape from predators, pursue prey, or take a rest.
Family – Felidae
Size – Adults weigh between 4-15 kg, 0.65 – 1.05 m long
Lifespan – 12-15 years
Diet – Strict carnivores, including hares, rabbits, small mammals
(e.g. squirrels, mice, moles, shrews, chipmunks), porcupines,
mink, skunks, muskrats, birds and their eggs, snakes, fish, crustaceans, and insects. In
rare occasions they may be able to get a weakened deer.
Denning and Habitat – Variety of habitats. Dens are often under logs, root depressions
under fallen trees or brush piles, or caves, crevices, or recesses.
Predators – Cougar and coyotes. Red fox, adult male bobcats, large owls, and hawks
can take young kittens.
35
Life History – Bobcat mature after about one year. Mating occurs in the late winterearly spring with the young born in early spring. Males and females only associate for a
short period of time and both may have multiple partners (promiscuous mating system).
There is an average of 2-3 kits per litter. Young bobcats disperse during their first winter
at about eight months old.
Distribution –
Special features – Bobcats are found in southern regions, but are not found as far
north as lynx due to a lack of large snowshoe-like footpads, which would give them
better mobility on the snowy ground. Bobcats are larger than a house cat although
slightly smaller than their closely related lynx. They resemble a lynx but their legs are
shorter and their feet are less hairy. Bobcats have a very good sense of smell but also
rely on their eyesight and hearing for survival and hunting. They will stalk (a stealthy
pursuit of something) their prey. Bobcats are mainly nocturnal and are very good
climbers. They may also be active at dusk. They are territorial and use urine, feces, and
anal gland secretions to indicate their home range.
Ecosystem Roles – Bobcats are predators for multiple species of birds and mammals
Management Issues – Bobcats may sometimes consume chickens, pigs, sheep, and
calves in agricultural areas.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Least Concern
Tracks –
Front Print: Length 4.5-6.5 cm; Width 4.5-6.5 cm (hind
print slightly smaller)
Straddle: 10-18 cm
Stride: Walking 20-40 cm; Running 120-240 cm
36
Canada Lynx (Lynx canadensis)
Canada lynx are a medium size cat with varying colouration, but
normally yellowish-brown. The upper parts of their body may
have a frosted grey look and the underside may be more buff.
Many individuals have dark spots. They have very small tails that
are often ringed and tipped in black. Lynx have triangular ears
tipped with tufts of long black hairs. Their paws are quite large
and furry, adapted for moving through the snow.
Family – Felidae
Size – Adults weigh between 4.5-17.3 kg and range from 0.67 to
1.07 m long. Males are often slightly larger.
Lifespan – 5-7 years
Diet – Lynx are strict carnivores. They are snowshoe hare
specialists, but will alternatively feed on red squirrels, as well as
grouse, ptarmigans, waterfowl, rabbits, chipmunks, mice, skunks, porcupines, eggs, and
fish when available and necessary.
Denning and Habitat – Mature forests with dense undergrowth, but have been found
in open forests, rocky regions or tundra. They make dens in hollow trees, holes in rocks,
under logs, stumps and fallen timber.
Predators – Wolverines, other lynx, cougars, wolves, and coyotes
Life History – Lynx mate in late winter with young born in spring. Lynx have a litter of
between 1-5 kits but on average 2-3 kittens. Kits consume primarily milk for the first five
months, although meat is supplemented into the kitten diet as early as one month.
Males do not participate in parental care. The young kits will remain with their mother
until the following winter and many times siblings will remain with each other for a
while after separation from their mother. Females will breed or the first time after 21
months, and males after 33 months.
Distribution –
37
Special features – Lynx are primarily solitary and appear to be somewhat territorial.
Although female home ranges may overlap, males occupy very distinct areas. Lynx
primarily hunt visually but also have well-developed hearing. They primarily nocturnal
and prey are generally stalked. Females have been known to hunt in cooperation with
their kits, increasing their success. Lynx are well adapted to hunting in their northern
range. They have long, muscular legs and large furry feet with toes that spread out
giving them extra mobility on the snow. They are also powerful fighters and good
swimmers, travelling high in the water.
Ecosystem Role – As important predators, lynx are important in regulating the
populations of their prey. This is particularly obvious in the population cycles of lynx
and snowshoe hares.
Management Issues – Lynx rely heavily on snowshoe hare. If the population of prey
crashes within a region, many lynx die of starvation.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Least Concern
American Marten (Martes americana)
American martens are a long slender mustelid, with long and
shiny brown fur. Their heads are generally grey, the legs and tail
can be dark brown or black, with a cream coloured patch on
their chest. They have large eyes and their ears are rounded and
cat like.
Family – Mustelidae
Size – Male weigh between 0.47-1.3 kg and females weigh
between 0.28-0.85 kg. Males measure between 0.36-0.45 m and
females between 0.32-0.40 with their tails adding between 0.150.23 m.
Lifespan – 5 years (although seen up to 12 in the wild)
Diet – Small mammals, including rabbits, mice, voles, and
squirrels, birds, fruits, nuts, and insects.
Denning and Habitat – Mature northern forests. They are closely associated with
lodgepole pine, spruce, Douglas fir, and mixed hardwood forests. They are mostly found
in structurally complex, mature forests and at many elevations wherever this habitat
exists. They are found to den in hollow trees, crevices, or vacant ground burrows.
Predators – Large owls, hawks, fishers, Canada lynx, bobcats, coyotes, wolves
38
Life History – Breeding occurs in the summer period. Martens have delayed
implantation of the fertilized eggs, which does not occur until February. The young kits
are born in early spring. Litter size averages about 3 kits. Young are weaned after 42
days and full size is reached around 3.5 months after birth. Sexual maturity is reached
between 15-24 months of age. The involvement of the male in raising the young is
unclear although some males have been seen with another adult females and immature
animals, presumably their offspring.
Distribution –
Special features – American martens have a very good sense of smell, sight, and
hearing. They are by nature very curious. Males tend to be more active during the
evening while females are more active during the day. Throughout most of the year
martens are solitary. Although martens can climb trees quite easily, they generally hunt
and travel on the ground. Their claws are sharp and curved and well adapted to this
lifestyle. Although martens are able to swim and dive well, swimming is not common. In
the winter they have been known to tunnel under the snow, in the subnivian layer,
hunting for prey.
Ecosystem Role – American martens may assist in structuring the forest community,
through impacts on prey populations.
Management Issues – The American martin is very sensitive to timber harvest of their
mature forest habitat.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Least Concern
39
Badger (Taxidea taxus)
Badgers are a stocky build with a flattened body
and short legs. Their fur on the back ranges from
grayish to red, on the ventral side a buff colour and
a very distinct face, with black and white stripes.
Family – Mustelidae
Size – Adults weigh between 4-12 kg and are
between 0.52-0.88 m long.
Lifespan – 5-9 years
Diet – Pocket gophers, ground squirrels, moles, marmots, prairie dogs, woodrats,
kangaroo rats, deer mice, and voles are their most common prey. They will also eat
ground nesting birds, burrowing owls, lizards, amphibians, carrion, fish, skunks, insects,
and some vegetation.
Denning and Habitat – Dry, open grasslands, fields, and pastures. They dig into soil to
create burrows and dens.
Predators – Golden eagles, bobcats, cougars, coyotes
Life History – Badgers breed once annual in late summer or early fall. The embryos
pause development until winter at which time they well implant and resume
development. Young are born 6 weeks later. Litter size ranges between 1-5 offspring
(average 3) that are born in early spring. Young are weaned after 2-3 months and
disperse at 5-6 months. Females are mature at 4 months, but males are not mature until
they are 2 years old.
Distribution –
40
Special features – Badgers are primarily solitary and nocturnal. They are not
hibernators but spend a lot of the winter in torpor cycles lasting around 29 hours.
Badgers dig well and are well adapted to this lifestyle. They have large forelimbs that
allow them to tunnel through the soil. They create burrows in the ground for sleeping as
well as in pursuit of prey.
Ecosystem Role – Badgers prey upon many small prey items within their ecosystem,
helping to control rodent populations, kill venomous snakes, and eat insects. Their
burrows also help provide shelter to other species.
Management Issues –Badgers consume many rodent pests, reducing the transmission
of pathogens and damage to crops. However, badger burrows may present a hazard to
horses, cattle, and other livestock who may break their legs by stepping into badger
holes.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Least Concern
Tracks –
Front Print: Length 6.5-7.5 cm; Width 5.8-7 cm (hind
print slightly smaller)
Straddle: 10-18 cm
Stride: Walking 15-30 cm
Fisher (Martes pennanti)
Fishers are a medium to dark brown mustelid with gold to silver
hoariness on their head and shoulders as well as black legs and
tails. They are a secretive and rarely observed mammal. Fishers
are agile and fast tree climbers and are well known for their
ability to walk or run down trees. They live a solitary life, using
resting sites, such as logs, hollow trees, stumps, brush piles, and
nests of branches throughout the year.
Family – Mustelidae
Size – Male adults weigh between 3.6-5.4 kg and are about 0.91.2 m long. Female adults are smaller, and weigh between 2.02.5 kg and are about 0.75-0.95 m long.
Lifespan – 4-5 years
41
Diet – Fishers are predators that eat small mammals (e.g. mice, shrews, and squirrels),
porcupines, snowshoe hares, carrion, birds and their eggs, insects, amphibians, and
sometimes other carnivores. They also may feed on fruits and berries, including
beechnuts and apples.
Denning and Habitat – Coniferous forests but also live within mixed and deciduous
forests. They prefer habitats that have high canopy closures and many hollow trees for
their dens. Fishers use hollow trees and logs, holes in rocky ledges, old porcupine dens,
and cavities in the snow as den sites.
Predators – Cougars, lynx, bobcat, wolverines, coyotes, other fishers, and golden eagles
Life History – Fishers breed in late winter and early spring but suspend development of
the embryos for 10-11 months, resuming development in the winter following mating.
Fishers have between 1-6 young per litter, with an average litter size of three. Young
begin to be weaned at 8-10 weeks but often may nurse for up to 16 weeks. Young
disperse at five months. Healthy females will mate within their first year. Males do not
breed until they are two years old. Females reach their adult size within five months
whereas males take one year to reach this size. Males do not assist in the raising of the
young. Fishers are active throughout the day, and may be good swimmers.
Distribution –
Special features – Fishers are known for their ability to prey on porcupine, which they
kill by attacking their face and head over and over again. They waste very little of the
porcupine, eating everything but the skin, large bones, feet, and intestines. They are also
well adapted to walk and run on trees. Their hind feet can be turned so their claws can
better grip on the trees, similar to many species of squirrels. They also have short, heavy
legs, sharp claws, and a long, bushy tapering tail that assists in balance. Fishers also
have large feet, allowing them to walk on top of the snow. They have pads on each of
42
their toes, and the middle portion of each foot. The heavy fur on their feet helps protect
them during the winter.
Ecosystem Role – Fishers are important predators within their ecosystem. They often
compete with foxes, bobcats, lynx, coyotes, wolverines, as well as martens and weasels.
Fishers also hunt porcupines and help control porcupine populations, reducing habitat
degradation that may happen with high porcupine populations (e.g. damage to trees
through debarking and killing trees).
Management Issues – Fishers are very aggressive hunters, and when food sources
become scarce, they can prey on domestic pets, such as cats and small dogs.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Least Concern
American Mink (Neovison vison)
American minks are weasel like brown mustleids, with short legs,
long necks and trunks and small sharply pointed faces with small
ears.
Family – Mustelidae
Size – Adult females weigh between 0.7-1.1 kg while males are
slightly larger from 0.9-1.6 kg. Body length also reflects this
difference with females between 0.46-0.575 m long and males
between 0.58-0.70m long.
Lifespan – 9-10 years
Diet – Crayfish, frogs, shrews, rabbits, mice, muskrats, fish, ducks,
and other waterfowl
Denning and Habitat – Forested regions in close proximity to
water
Predators – Coyotes, bobcats, snakes, and raptors
Life History – American minks mate once annually, during the winter months. Young
are born in the late spring with litter sizes ranging between 1-8 individuals. Young are
weaned at 6 weeks and remain with their mother until the fall. They reach maturity after
10 months.
43
Distribution –
Special features – Minks have thick fur with oily guard hairs that waterproof the coat.
Combined with partially webbed toes, they are well adapted to the mink‟s semi-aquatic
life.
Ecosystem Role – American minks are important predators for small mammals.
Management Issues – Mink pelts have been used in the fur industry for years. Although
much of the mink now on the market comes from ranching, some free-ranging mink are
still trapped.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Least Concern
River otter (Lontra canadensis)
River otters are a dark brown semi-aquatic mammal with long
streamlined bodies, thick tails and short legs. They have wide
rounded heads, nostrils that can be closed underwater, and small
ears.
Family – Mustelidae
Size – Adults range between 5-14 kg and are between 0.89-1.3 m
long
Lifespan – 8-9 years
Diet – Mainly aquatic organisms, including amphibians, fish,
turtles, crayfish, crabs, other invertebrates, birds and their eggs,
and small terrestrial mammals. Occasionally aquatic plants.
44
Denning and Habitat – Freshwater and coastal marine habitats, including rivers, lakes,
marshes, swamps, and estuaries. River otters build dens in the burrows of other
mammals or natural hollows, such as under logs or riverbanks. Dens have entrances
underwater and a tunnel leading to a nest chamber.
Predators – Bobcats, coyotes, raptors, American alligator
Life History – Breeding occurs once a year in late winter or early spring. Young are born
2 months later, although river otters can delay implantation for up to a year. Young can
be born between November to May, with most born in spring. Litter size ranges
between 1-6 young (average 2-3). They are weaned at 3 months and leave at about 6
months. Maturity is reached at 2-3 years old.
Distribution –
Special features – River otters are well adapted to their aquatic life. Their fur is dense
and soft, helping insulate the otters in water. They have webbed feet with claws.
Ecosystem Role – River otters are important predators of aquatic invertebrates and fish.
Management Issues – River otter fur is a desirable resource and they are trapped as an
important income source in some communities.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Least Concern
45
Striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis)
Striped skunks are an easily recognizable small carnivore that are
known for their scent glands that are used as an anti-predator
defense. They have black fur with a white strip that begins on the
forehead and travels down the sides of the back, merging at the
tail.
Family – Mephitidae
Size – Adults weigh between 1.2-5.3 kg and between 0.58-0.8 m
long.
Lifespan – 2-3 years
Diet – Variety of foods, including insects, small mammals, birds
and their eggs, crustaceans‟, fruits, grasses, leaves, buds, grains,
nuts, and carrion. Insects make up a majority of the diet,
including bees and ants.
Denning and Habitat – Open areas with a mixture of habitats, including woods,
grasslands, pastureland, and rangeland. Suburban areas can also be suitable. They use
burrows made by other animals or natural burrows, such as tree stumps or buildings.
They can dig their own dens if necessary.
Predators – Great horned owls, red-tailed hawks, and other raptors
Life History – Striped skunks mate once a year in late summer. Young are born about 2
months. Litter size ranges between 5-6 young. They spend a 6 weeks in the den with
their mothers, leaving their mother after one year. They are weaned after 2 months.
Striped skunks reach maturity after 10 months. Females are the sole caregivers.
Distribution –
46
Special features – Striped skunks are primarily nocturnal, sleeping during the day. They
become inactive during the winter, with females not emerging from their winter dens
until the spring and males occasionally emerging when temperatures are mild. Females
den together during the winter, with six females and their young.
Ecosystem Role – Striped skunks eat large numbers of insects, helping control their
insect populations.
Management Issues –Striped skunks are often kept as pets, though it is illegal in many
places. Skunks also can be detrimental to crops and have been known to raid chicken
pens. They also carry the rabies virus that can be transmitted to humans and pets.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Least Concern
Tracks –
Front Print: Length 3.8-5.6 cm; Width 2.5-3.8 cm
Hind Print: Length 3.8-6.5 cm; Width 2.5-3.8 cm
Straddle: 7-11 cm
Stride: Walking 6.5-20 cm
Ringed Seal (Pusa hispida)
Ringed seals are a common seal throughout the Arctic, and an
important prey source for polar bears. They have silver gray
bellies, and their dorsal side is pale grey with dark spots
surrounded with pale coloured rings. They lack ear pinnae, has a
small head and plump body. Ringed seals have small front
flippers with claws that are more than 2 cm thick.
Family – Phocidae
Size – Adults weigh between 65-95 kg and are between 1.4-1.5
cm long, with females slightly smaller than males.
Lifespan – 25-30 years
Diet – Saffron cod, arctic cod, and invertebrates such as shrimps,
amphipods, and euphausiids
Denning and Habitat – Habitat that freezes to stable ice during
the winter. They make lairs in the snow and ice to protect themselves from predators
and shelter. They live in ice cover areas by maintaining breathing holes and cracks in the
ice.
47
Predators – Polar bears, arctic foxes (particularly young are vulnerable), and humans
Life History – Females breed once a year in early spring. They have delayed
implantation until fall and young are born 240 after that. Ringed seals have one pup per
year and females mature after 6 years.
Distribution –
Special features – Adult ringed seals are generally solitary except for loose feeding
aggregations in the summer. In late spring, ringed seals haul out onto the sea ice and
bask in the sun. They molt during this period.
Ecosystem Role – Ringed seals are an important food source for humans, dogs, arctic
fox, and polar bears.
Management Issues – The ringed seal is used by First Nations, the Inuit, for fuel and
clothing.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Least Concern
Order Cetacea (Baleen and Toothed Whales)
Beluga (Delphinapterus leucas)
The white whale, more commonly known as the beluga, is an Arctic whale well adapted
to its life in the northern seas. Belugas have milk white skin, although they are born gray
and their colour gradually fades with age. They lack a dorsal fin but have a shallow ridge
along their back. They have narrow appendages and a melon shaped head.
48
Family – Monodontidae
Size – Adults weigh between 1350-1500 kg and are between 3.04.6 m long.
Lifespan – 25-30 years
Diet – Smelt, flatfish, flounder, sculpins, salmon, cod, and
invertebrates including crab, shrimp, clams, worms, octopus, and
squid
Denning and Habitat – Inlets, fjords, channels, bays, and the
shallow waters of the arctic seas. They are found at the mouths of
river during the summer, where they feed, socialize, or deliver
their offspring.
Predators – Killer whales and polar bears
Life History – Belugas reproduce once every 2-3 years. They mate in late winter and
early spring. Gestation lasts over fourteen months, although some of this time may be
due to delayed implantation. A single calf is born in the early summer. The calf is
completely dependent on its mother‟s milk for up to a year, but is not weaned until 1.52 years. Females are mature after 4-7 years and males after 7-9 years.
Distribution –
Special features – Belugas are well adapted to life in the Arctic, with a number of
anatomical and physiological characteristics. They have thick blubber (up to 10 cm thick)
helping them survive the cold temperatures. Their melon-shaped head is the center for
echolocation. Beluga also aggregate in herds of hundreds to thousands of individuals.
The exact way the belugas group is uncertain but age and sex seem to be involved.
49
Ecosystem Role – Belugas consume a large number of fish, and provide some
regulation of fish populations.
Management Issues – Belugas are a source of food and income for many northern
communities. They are also popular attraction with ecotourists, bringing in tourism
money for small northern communities.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Near threatened
Order Artiodactyla (Even-toed ungulates)
Bison (Bison bison)
Bison are a large species of ungulate that has been historically
found across the prairies of North America. They are the largest
terrestrial animal in North America. They were an important food
and resource for many First Nations but were hunted to near
extinction by the European settlers. Bison have a shoulder hump
and huge head. Their fur is brown and longer in the front than in
the rear. It has black horns curving upwards and inwards ending
in a sharp tip. Its hooves are black and circular.
Family – Bovidae
Size – Adults weigh between 318-900 kg with adult males
ranging in length between 3.6-3.8m and 2.13-3.18m in females.
Lifespan – 15-20 years
Diet – Grazers, primarily grasses but if needed other vegetation
Denning and Habitat – Prairies, including grasslands and open savannas.
Predators – Gray wolves and cougars
Life History – Bison breed once yearly, in late summer to fall. Gestation lasts around
285 days and young are born in spring. Bison only have one calf. The calf is able of
walking and running within a few hours of their birth. Calves are weaned by the end of
the first year. Females mature in 2-3 years and males in 3 years although they do not
breed until they are around 6 years old. Females are the sole caregivers.
Distribution – Small regions throughout the plains of Canada and the United States
50
Special features – Bison live in large groups arranged according to sex, age, season,
and habitat. Cow groups are composed of females, males under three years, and a few
older males. Other males either live individually or in groups up to 30.
Ecosystem Role – Historically, huge herds of bison lived on the prairies of North
America. Their grazing and other activities influence the plant community composition.
They have been considered a keystone member of North American prairie communities.
Management Issues – Bison have once served as an important meat source and hides.
Today they are often farmed as a source of meat. They also carry and transmit
pathogens that can cause diseases in infected domestic cattle if transmitted.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Near threatened
Caribou (Rangifer tarandus)
Caribou are a medium sized ungulate that live in the arctic
tundra and boreal forest regions. Their colour varies by
subspecies, region, sex, and season from a very dark brown in
the summer to nearly white. Caribou are distinguished by both
sexes having antlers. The belly, neck, and above the hooves are
white. Their hooves are large, broad, and concave. Mature males
have large complex antlers where cows and younger animals
have simple small antlers.
Family – Cervidae
Size – Adults range between 55-318 kg and are 1.5-2.3 m long,
however males are much larger than females.
Lifespan – 10-15 years
Diet – Grazing herbivores, including lichen, willow, birches,
mushrooms, cotton grass, sedges, and numerous other
vegetation
Denning and Habitat – Arctic tundra and subarctic boreal forest
Predators – Gray wolves, bears, and humans
Life History – Caribou breed once annually in October. A single calf is born 228 days
later, commonly in spring. Caribou occasionally have twins but it is rare. Calves are
weaned after 45 days. They become independent in the fall. Females become mature at
between 16-28 months. Males become mature after 2 years.
51
Distribution –
Special features – Caribou migrate twice annually, often over 5000 km a year. They also
form large groups, with groups being larger during the summer.
Ecosystem Role – Caribou can dramatically impact vegetation communities through
their foraging activities. They are also an important prey species from large predators,
including wolves, especially during the calving season.
Management Issues – Caribou have been used for their meat, fur, and antlers.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Least Concern
Elk (Cervus elaphus)
Elk are one of the largest species of deer. They range in colour
from dark brown in the winter to tan in the summer. Their head,
neck, belly, and legs are darker. Elk have a long head with large
ears and antlers on males. They have a dark shaggy mane that
hangs from their neck to the chest.
Family – Cervidae
Size – Adult females weigh between 171-292 kg and males
weigh between 178-497 kg. Adults are between 1.6-2.7 m long.
Lifespan – 20 years
Diet – Browsers, including grasses, sedges, forbs, woody growth
(cedar, wintergreen, hemlock, sumac, jack pine, red maple,
52
staghorn, and basswood), dandelions, aster, hawkweed, violets, clover, and mushrooms
Denning and Habitat – Open woodlands and dense unbroken forests, coniferous
swamps, clear cuts, aspen-hardwood forests
Predators – Gray wolves, bears, coyotes, cougars, and bobcats
Life History – Elk breed once a year when nutrition is adequate. Mating occurs in the
fall. Gestation lasts between 240-262 days. Generally, only one calf is born although
twins are rare. Calves will be weaned after 60 days. Males do not contribute to parental
care. They reach maturity at 16 months but males do not mate until they are 3 or older.
Distribution –
Special features – Elk live in summer herds that are matriarchal and dominated by a
single cow. Seasonal migrations do occur. During the fall, bulls form harems that they
defend. In the spring these groups separate based on sex with females and bulls
forming their own summer groups.
Ecosystem Role – Elk affect the plant communities through their browsing activities
and are an important prey source for large predators such as gray wolves.
Management Issues – Elk are valued as a source of food and fur but also for tourism.
They are also considered to be pests by many farmers. Their overbrowsing can cause
damage to trees and agricultural crops. Elk have also been suggested to transmit
pathogens to livestock.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Least Concern
53
Moose (Alces americanus)
Moose are the largest member of the deer family and one of the
largest land mammals in North America. Males are much larger
than females and have elaborate, widened antlers that can
measure 2 meters in total width. Moose have thick brown fur
that ranges between light brown to almost black. Moose have a
long head with a long nose and upper lip and long legs. They are
also distinguished by a flap of skin on their throat.
Family – Cervidae
Size – Adult males weigh between 360-600 kg and females
weigh between 270-400 kg. Males are between 2.5-3.4 m long
and females are 2.4-3.1 m long.
Lifespan – 8-12 years
Diet – Twigs, bark, roots, shots of woody plants, willows, aspens, water plants, water
lilies, pondweed, horsetails, bladderworts, burred, conifers, and balsam fir
Denning and Habitat – Forested regions with lakes, ponds, and swamps and snow
cover during the winter
Predators – Gray wolves, bears, and humans
Life History – Moose breed once yearly in the fall. Gestation lasts for 8 months with
young born in late May and early June. Females most often have a single calf although
twins are not uncommon. Calves mature by 2 years but are not fully-grown until 4-5
years.
Distribution –
54
Special features – Moose are crepuscular but can be active throughout the day. They
are good swimmers and can move swiftly on land. North American moose generally do
not migrate. They are generally solitary although the calf and mother have strong
bonds.
Ecosystem Role – Moose browsing can have dramatic effects on plant community
composition. Overlap between moose and white-tailed deer can be detrimental to
moose populations as white-tailed deer carry a brain worm parasite that can be fatal to
moose.
Management Issues –Moose have been hunted for meet and sport. In many regions,
including Manitoba, moose populations have been substantially decreasing.
Anthropogenic alterations to the environment and poaching have been cited as reasons
for this decline.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Least Concern
White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus)
White-tailed deer are brown with white fur located on a band
behind the nose, circles around the eyes, inside the ears, and over
the chin and throat, upper insides of legs and beneath the tail.
Males have antlers that are shed every winter. Young white-tailed
deer are spotted with white and lose their spots by their first
winter.
Family – Cervidae
Size – Adults weigh between 57-137 kg and range between 160220 cm long. Males are larger.
Lifespan – 2-3 years (up to 10)
Diet – Vegetation, including buds, twigs of maple sassafras,
poplar, aspen, and birch, as well as shurbs. White-tailed deer are
also known to eat song birds.
Denning and Habitat – Variety of terrestrial habitats, from woods to grasslands,
pasturelands, rangeland, brush areas, and deserts
Predators – Gray wolves, cougars, coyotes, bears, and humans
Life History – White-tailed deer breed annually, in the fall. After around 200 days
females have around 2 fawns (rarely 3-4), although females in their first year of breeding
55
generally have one. Fawns are weaned at 8-10 weeks. Young males leave after one year
but females often stay for up to two years. Females are the sole caregivers.
Distribution –
Special features – White-tailed deer are good swimmers and do not migrate. White
tailed deer are considered solitary but do graze together in herds up to hundreds of
thousands. White-tailed deer females leave their fawns in a hiding place while they
forage. They may leave their fawns for up to four hours at a time.
Ecosystem Role – White-tailed deer grazing can influence plant communities,
especially when they are abundant. They can be the cause of death for large numbers of
trees. They are also important prey source for many large predators.
Management Issues –White-tailed deer are an important meat source and are hunted
for sport. They can be destructive to crops, vegetable gardens, fruit trees, and other
plants when they live near humans. White-tailed deer also serve as hosts for many
different types of pathogens, including the tick that carries the bacterium that causes
Lyme disease.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Least Concern
Tracks –
Front and Hind Print: Length 5-9 cm; Width 4-6.5 cm
Straddle: 13-25 cm
Stride: Walking 25-50 cm; Galloping 180-450 cm
56
References
Photos provided by:
ARKive, Wildscreen. < http://www.arkive.org>
Maps provided by:
IUCN 2012. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.2.
<http://www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 17 October 2012.
The document was complied using the following references (please note – you are
NOT responsible for anything in the following documents)
Anderson, R. 2002. "Castor canadensis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web.
<http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Castor_canadensis/>
Bartalucci, A. and B. Weinstein 2000. "Alces americanus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web.
<http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Alces_americanus/ >
Bruening, S. 2002. "Spermophilus richardsonii" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web.
<http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Spermophilus_richardsonii/ >
Ciszek, D. 2002. "Lynx rufus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web.
<http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Lynx_rufus/>
Chesemore, D. L. 1968. Notes on the food habits of Arctic foxes in northern Alaska.
Canadian Journal of Zoology 46:1127–1130. doi: 10.1139/z68-161.
Dewey, T. 2003. "Odocoileus virginianus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web.
<http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Odocoileus_virginianus/>
Ellis, E. 1999. "Martes americana" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web.
<http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Martes_americana/>
Ellis, E. 2003. "Lontra canadensis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web.
<http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Lontra_canadensis/>
Felcher, C. 1999. "Pusa hispida" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web.
<http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Pusa_hispida/>
Fox, D. 2007. "Vulpes vulpes" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web.
<http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Vulpes_vulpes/>
57
Fox, D. and T. Murphy 2002. "Lynx canadensis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web.
<http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Lynx_canadensis/>
Fur Institute of Canada. 2005. Furbearers of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
Gajda, A. M., and R. J. Brooks. 1993. Paternal Care in Collared Lemmings (Dicrostonyx
richardsoni): Artifact or Adaptation? Arctic 46:312–315.
Gunderson, A. 2009. "Ursus maritimus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web.
<http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Ursus_maritimus/>
Kronk, C. 2007. "Ursus americanus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web.
<http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Ursus_americanus/>
Kurta, A. and R.H. Baker. 1990. Eptesicus fuscus. Mammalian Species. 356:1-10
Lawniczak, M. 2002. "Sciurus carolinensis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web.
<http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Sciurus_carolinensis/ >
Linzey, A.V. & NatureServe (Hammerson, G.) 2008. Dicrostonyx richardsoni. In: IUCN 2012. IUCN
Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>
Long, S. 2003. "Thomomys talpoides" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web.
<http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Thomomys_talpoides/ >
Middlebrook, C. 2007. "Vulpes lagopus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web.
<http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Vulpes_lagopus/>
Mikita, K. 1999. "Sylvilagus floridanus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web.
<http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Sylvilagus_floridanus/>
Mulheisen, M. and K. Berry 2000. "Eptesicus fuscus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web.
<http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Eptesicus_fuscus/ >
Myers, P. and J. Hatchett 2000. "Lasiurus borealis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web.
<http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Lasiurus_borealis/>
Newell, T. 2000. "Ondatra zibethicus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web.
<http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Ondatra_zibethicus/ >
Newell, T. and A. Sorin 2003. "Bison bison" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web.
<http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Bison_bison/>
58
Paquet, P. C., and L. N. Carbyn. 2003. Gray Wolf. Pages 482–510 in G. A. Feldhamer, B. C.
Thompson, and J. A. Chapman, editors. Wild Mammals of North America: Biology,
Management, and Conservation, 2nd edition. John Hopkins University Press,
Baltimore/London.
Petrella, S. 1999. "Spermophilus tridecemlineatus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web.
<http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Spermophilus_tridecemlineatus/
>
Poloskey, T. 2000. "Dicrostonyx groenlandicus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web.
<http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Dicrostonyx_groenlandicus/ >
Reiter, M.E. and Andersen, D.E. 2011. Arctic foxes, lemmings, and Canada Goose nest
survival at Cape Churchill, Manitoba. The Wilson Journal of Ornithology. 123(2):266276
Reiter, M., and D. Andersen. 2008. Trends in Abundance of Collared Lemmings Near
Cape Churchill, Manitoba, Canada. Journal of Mammalogy 89:138–144.
Rhines, C. 2003. "Martes pennanti" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web.
<http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Martes_pennanti/>
Roth, J. D. 2002. Temporal variability in arctic fox diet as reflected in stable-carbon
isotopes; the importance of sea ice. Oecologia 133:70–77. doi: 10.1007/s00442-0021004-7.
Rubin, C. 2012. "Tamiasciurus hudsonicus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web.
<http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Tamiasciurus_hudsonicus/ >
Schlimme, K. 2003. "Neovison vison" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web.
<http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Neovison_vison/ >
Senseman, R. 2002. "Cervus elaphus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web.
<http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Cervus_elaphus/>
Shefferly, N. 1999. "Taxidea taxus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed December
30, 2012 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Taxidea_taxus/
Shefferly, N. 2000. "Rangifer tarandus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web.
<http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Rangifer_tarandus/>
Shefferly, N. 2007. "Lepus americanus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web.
<http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Lepus_americanus/>
Shump, K.A. and Shump, A.U. 1982. Lasiurus borealis. Mammalian species. 183:1-6
59
Sillero-Zubiri, C., M. Hoffmann, and D. W. Macdonald (Eds.). 2004. Canids, foxes, wolves,
jackals, and dogs. Pages 1–430, 2nd edition. IUCN/SSC Canid Specialist Group,
Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK.
Smith, J. 2002. "Canis lupus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web.
<http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Canis_lupus/>
Teeter, K. 2000. "Geomys bursarius" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web.
<http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Geomys_bursarius/>
Tokar, E. 2001. "Canis latrans" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web.
<http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Canis_latrans/>
Weber, C. 2004. "Erethizon dorsatum" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web.
<http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Erethizon_dorsatum/ >
Wilke, C. 2001. "Mephitis mephitis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web.
<http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Mephitis_mephitis/>
Williams, S. 2002. "Delphinapterus leucas" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web.
<http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Delphinapterus_leucas/>
Wilson, D.E. and Reeder, D.M. (editors). 2005. Mammal Species of the World. A
Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.), Johns Hopkins University Press,
2,142 pp. < http://www.bucknell.edu/msw3/>
Zera, S. 2004. "Condylura cristata" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web.
<http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Condylura_cristata/>
60