Download Between the Wars - Petal School District

Between the Wars Lecture Notes
2014-2015
The Paris Peace Conference offered a small beacon of hope in the League of Nations. More than 40 nations
eventually joined the League. Members promised to take common action against any aggressor state. As time
soon revealed, the League was powerless to prevent war.
From Russia to the Soviet Union
Revolutions in Russia
Unlike most of Western Europe, Russia was a backward land dominated by nobles, priests, and an
autocratic czar. Much of the country’s majority peasant population endured stark poverty and oppression.
Many Russians pressed for a constitution and social change, but Czar Nicholas II blocked attempts to limit
his authority. He relied on his secret police and other enforcers to impose his will.
Major Dates to Remember
1894-1917- Czar Nicholas II reigns over Russia
1904-1905- Russo-Japanese War; Japan wins
1905- Revolution breaks out in St. Petersburg after Bloody Sunday
1905- General strike led by worker groups called Soviets
1905- October Manifesto; Czar promises to create a Constitutional Government
1906- Czar creates the Duma then dissolves it later that same year
1907- Czar brings back the Duma until 1912
1912- A new Duma elected
1914- World War I begins
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Revolution of 1905
By 1905, a series of events in Russia led to the implementation of Communism by 1920.

Russo-Japanese War (1905) - Russia suffered a humiliating defeat by Japan- The loss exposed a
corrupt and inefficient Russian government spurring almost all of the discontented groups in
the country to action.

January 22, 1905 (“Bloody Sunday”) military troops loyal to Czar Nicholas II shot at a group of
unarmed strikers on their way to deliver a petition to the czar. The incident triggered the
Revolution of 1905.
The revolutionary movement eventually failed to succeed for three main reasons:

The army remained loyal to the Czar and thus would not overthrow the regime of Nicholas II.

The French, bound to Russia by military alliance, lent money to support the government.

The revolutionary groups remained divided in their goals.
Impact of WWI
WWI quickly strained Russian resources. By 1915 many soldiers did not have rifles or
ammunition. In the same year, Russian casualties amounted to 2 million. In a patriotic gesture, Nicholas
II went to the front to take personal charge of the war. This was a huge mistake. The czar was no more
competent than many of his generals. Worse, he left domestic affairs to the charge of the Czarina,
Alexandra.
Alexandra came to rely on the advice of Gregory Rasputin, an illiterate peasant and selfproclaimed “holy man.” By 1916, Rasputin’s influence over Alexandra reached new heights and weakened
confidence in the government. Fearing for the monarchy, a group pf Russian nobles killed Rasputin on
December 29, 1916.
Collapse of the Monarchy
By March 1917, disasters on the battlefield combined with food and fuel shortages on the home front
led the Russian people to launch demonstrations against the war as well as the economic and social
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conditions in Russia. Military and domestic failures produced massive causalities, widespread hunger,
worker strikes and disorganization in the army. Most Russians were fed up with the war and many soldiers
were deserting.
In St. Petersburg (Petrograd) workers were going on strike. Marchers went through the streets
shouting “Bread Bread.” Troops refused to fire on the demonstrators leaving the government helpless.
Finally, on the advice of military and political leaders, the czar abdicated on March 15. Before long the
Bolsheviks, a radical socialist political group took charge. The leader of the Bolsheviks was V.I. Lenin.
Lenin and the Bolsheviks
Lenin Time Line
1870-1924 Birth-death
1893- Studied law in St. Petersburg
1895- Arrested for Revolutionary Activities; Exiled to Siberia
1900- Released then moved to Switzerland (17 years)
1902- What is to be Done? - Lenin claims that Revolution must be led by an elite group of professional
revolutionaries (Bolsheviks)
1903- Formed Bolshevik political party. Two Principles guide party activities: elitism and revolution
through worker and peasant unity
Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov took the name Lenin when he became a revolutionary. When he was 17, his
brother was arrested and executed for plotting to kill the czar. As a young man, Lenin read the works of
Karl Marx and spread Marxian ideology to other workers. A rival of Lenin’s once stated:
“There is no other man who is absorbed by the revolution 24 hours a day who has no other
thoughts but the thought of revolution and who even when he sleeps dreams of nothing but the
revolution.”
As Russia stumbled into revolution in March 1917, Germany saw a chance to weaken its enemy by
helping Lenin return home. Seizing the opportunity to defeat the Russian provisional government,
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Germany rushed the Bolshevik leader to the Russian frontier in hopes of forcing the Russian army to
withdraw from World War I.
Lenin adapted Marxist ideas to fit Russian conditions. Marx predicted that the working class
would spontaneously rise to overthrow capitalism; however, Russia did not have a large working class. To
combat this problem, Lenin called for an elite group of professional revolutionaries to overthrow the
provisional government and establish a “dictatorship of the proletariat”. Though this elite revolutionary
party represented a small percentage of socialists, Lenin gave them the name Bolsheviks, meaning
“majority.” Lenin threw himself in to the work of furthering the revolution. He was assisted by Marxist
revolutionary, Leon Trotsky. Together, they promised “Peace, Land, and Bread.”
The November (October) Revolution
“Peace, Land and Bread” speech by Lenin

Peace: end the war, even if Russia lost territory and gained soldier support

Land: turn over all land to the peasants immediately

Bread: for months Petrograd had been without enough food -Lenin promised to restore food
supplies to the cities.
In November 1917, squads of Red Guards (armed factory workers) attacked the provisional
government. In just a matter of days Lenin’s forces overthrew a provisional government that had no
support due to its decision to continue fighting in World War 1.
The Bolsheviks ended private ownership of land and distribute land to peasants and workers were
given control of the factories and mines. The Bolsheviks created a new red flag with an entwined
hammer and sickle. The hammer and sickle symbolized union between peasants and workers.
In addition, the new Bolshevik government signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 1918). The
treaty pulled Russia out of World War I and gave Germany vast stretches of western Russia.
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The Russian Civil War
During the night of 16–17 July, Nicholas, Alexandra, their children, their physician, and three servants were
taken into the basement and executed at 2:33 A.M. on the morning of July 17. The bodies of Nicholas and his
family, after being soaked in acid and burned, were long believed to have been disposed of down a mineshaft
at a site called the Four Brothers. Their remains were later found in 1991 and reburied by the Russian
government following a state funeral
For 3 years civil war raged between the “reds” (communists) and the “whites”
(counterrevolutionaries loyal to the czar). The Allied powers intervened on behalf of the whites hoping they
would overthrow the Communists and support the fight against Germany. In the long run, the Allied
invasion fed Communist distrust of the West.
War Communism
Trotsky turned the Red Army into an effective fighting force. He used former czarist officers under
the close watch of commissars (communist party officials assigned to the army to teach party principles and
ensure party loyalty. Trotsky’s passionate speeches roused soldiers to fight, so did the order to shoot every
tenth man if units performed poorly. The revolutionary government took over industry, banks, and
transportation. They forced rural peasants to feed the city workers and army. Peasants were drafted
into the military or as factory workers. Bolsheviks suppressed any opposition. By 1921 the
Communists defeated their foes but Russia was in chaos.
Building the Communist Soviet Union
The new government united much of the Old Russian Empire in the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics (USSR) or Soviet Union. In 1922, the Communists produced a constitution that seemed both
democratic and socialist. In theory power, resources, and means of production belonged to workers and
peasants. Reality, on the other hand, differed greatly from theory in the Soviet Union. The Communist
party, not the people, reigned supreme. Like the Russian czars, the party used the army and secret
police to enforce its will.
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Economy: New Economic Policy (NEP)
Peace, Land and Bread was not enough. Workers went on strike and peasant farmers resisted
grain requisitions. The Red Army violently crushed rebellions. Facing collapse in 1921, Lenin allowed
some capitalist ventures. The government still controlled large industries, however, small businesses
reopened for private profit. Peasants could sell surplus grain for profit. Consequently, the country side
stabilized and industrial production increased. The NEP transformed Russia into a land of small farms
and private businesses
Stalin Gains Power
Lenin’s sudden death in 1924 set off a power struggle among communist leaders. Trotsky and
Stalin vied for Soviet rule. Joseph Djugashvili took the name Stalin in 1900 meaning “man of steel.” Stalin
spent time in prison and in Siberian exile for organized robberies. In the 1920s, Stalin became general
secretary of the Communist party and used the position to build loyalty among communist officials
who owed their jobs to him.
As early as 1922, Lenin expressed doubts about Stalin: “Comrade Stalin ….has concentrated an
enormous power in his hands; and I am not sure that he always knows how to use that power with sufficient
caution.” To Lenin, Stalin was “too rude.” Lenin urged party officials to choose a successor“…more
tolerant, more loyal, more polite, and more considerate to comrades.”
When Lenin died, Stalin and Trotsky fought hard for Lenin’s position. With brilliant political
cunning, Stalin put his own supporters into top jobs and isolated Trotsky within the party. Stripped of party
membership, Trotsky fled in 1929. Still Trotsky criticized Stalin. In 1940, a Stalin assassin murdered
Trotsky in Mexico.
Stalin’s Soviet Union
5 Year Plans: build up heavy industry, transportation, and farm output. Stalin created a command
economy where government owned all businesses and made all economic decisions
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Stalin’s rule marked a return to “pure” communism. In a process called collectivization, Stalin
forced peasants to give up their private plots and live on either state owned farms or collectives (large
farms owned and operated by peasants as a group). Peasants could keep their personal belongings, but all
farm animals and implements were to be turned over to the collective. Peasants tried to resist but the
government killed farm animals, destroyed tools, and burned crops. Stalin brutally enforced the
collectivization policy.
“I am an old Bolshevik. . . I worked in the underground against the czar and I fought in the civil war.
Did I do all that in order that I should now surround villages with machine guns and order my men to fire
indiscriminately into crowds of peasants? Oh, no, no!”
In addition, Stalin sought to destroy the kulaks or wealthy Russian peasants. The government
confiscated their land and sent them to labor camps. Stalin killed thousands of kulaks who resisted or
simply worked them to death.
Collectivization took a horrendous toll. Angry peasants often grew just enough to feed themselves.
In response the government seized all the grain leaving the peasants to starve. This ruthless policy
combined with poor harvest led to a terrible famine. Between 5 and 8 million people died in the Ukraine
alone.
The Great Purge
Stalin had obsessive fears that rival party leaders were plotting against him so in 1934 he
launched the great purge. He and his secret police cracked down especially hard on party activists from the
early days. His net soon widened to target army heroes, industrial managers, writers, and ordinary citizens
who were charged with all types of crimes.
Between 1936 and 1938, Stalin arranged several “show trials” where former communist leaders
confessed to all types of crimes after being tortured. Secret police files reveal that at least 4 million people
were purged during the Stalin years. The purges increased Stalin’s power. All citizens became aware of
Stalin’s power and the consequences of challenging it.
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Totalitarian Control
He turned the Soviet Union into a totalitarian state. A totalitarian state occurs when a one party
dictatorship attempts to regulate every aspect of its citizen’s lives. Stalinist propaganda also revived
extreme nationalism. The government controlled headlines in the communist party newspaper called
Pravda or Truth.
In accordance with the ideas of Marx, atheism or the belief that there is no god became official
state policy. The communist party seized religious property and converted churches into offices and
museums. Many priests and other religious leaders were killed or died in prison camps. The
government censored all of the arts – including paintings, music, and literature.
Western Democracies
A hopeful spirit of peace went out several times following WWI.

One particular incident was the Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928. Almost every independent nation
signed this agreement, promising to “renounce war as an instrument of national policy.”

The great powers pursued disarmament with the reduction of armed forces and weapons. Many
nations attended the Washington Naval Conference where powers such as Britain, France, Japan,
and the U.S. signed treaties and agreed to reduce the size of their navies. However, they failed to
agree on limiting the size of their armies.

Many people put their hopes in the League of Nations. In 1926 Germany joined the League and then
the Soviet Union.
In the 1920’s Europe made a shaky recovery. The United States emerged from the war as the world’s
leading economic power. American loans and investments under the Dawes Plan backed the recovery in
Europe. As long as the American economy was healthy the global economy was relatively prosperous.
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Britain Battles the Depression
Even though Britain won the war, it lost much of its overseas trade because German u-boats wreaked
havoc on British shipping. The government remained deeply in debt to the United States, British factories
lacked modern technology and needed upgrading, and the country faced coal shortages and economic unrest.
By the 1920s, British unemployment rose significantly while worker wages remained low. In
1926 a general workers strike affected many different industries at the same time. The strike lasted
nine days and involved 3 million workers.
France Pursues Security
The French economy recovered fairly rapidly, thanks in part to German reparations and
territories gained from Germany such as Alsace and Lorraine. France’s chief concern after the war
became securing its borders against Germany. France never forgot the German invasions of 1870 and
1914 so to prevent a third invasion, France built massive fortifications along the border called the
Maginot Line. The Maginot Line offered a sense of security – a false one. The line provided no protection
for France when Germany again invaded in 1940.
United States Prosperity and Depression
The U.S. stayed out of the League of Nations after World War I because many in the government
feared that it would lead us into future conflicts. Many Americans wanted to be isolationists.
Labor unrest was only one of the ingredients that mixed a Nativist fear in 1919 that became known as
the Red Scare. (Red refers to the color of the Bolshevik flag). A communist revolution in the United States
was extremely unlikely, but fearful Americans faced a flurry of ‘terrorist acts’ most notably 38 bombs mailed
to prominent individuals. (Holmes, Palmer, Rockefeller, etc.)
Fear, anger and uncertainty led swiftly to a hunt for terrorists by Attorney General Mitchell
Palmer. In January 1920, Palmer ordered a series of raids that resulted in 6,000 ‘subversives’ arrested.
Most were immigrant Jews, Slavs associated with unionism. Some had communist and socialist connections,
about 500 were deported.
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In time the Red Scare lost credibility because of the loss of credibility by Palmer himself. He
warned that radicals were planning on celebrating the Bolshevik Revolution with a nationwide wave of
violence on May 1, International Worker’s Day. State militias, police, national guardsmen all readied.
Nothing happened. The public mood turned, the Red Scare died down, and so did the presidential
aspirations of Mitchell Palmer.
Anti-foreign hysteria did get a final jolt with the arrest of Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti.
Practicing anarchists from Italy, they were arrested for robbery and murder in Massachusetts. At their trial,
anarchism was used as evidence against them – evaded the draft, voiced anti-Americanism, owned guns –
etc. they were sentenced and executed. Historically, their trial symbolizes short-comings in the American
judicial system.
In the wake of the world war and the Red Scare, Americans wanted to simply return to ‘normalcy.’
Return to Normalcy became a mandate to turn away from Progressive activism and foreign involvement.
“Normalcy” described America’s desire to:

Return to its beloved policy of isolationism

Forget about spreading democracy or chasing grand schemes of world peace

Forget about fixing the ills of society and move away from reform and progressive movements

Concentrate on their own individual problems and be left alone

People were extremely cynical of the world situation and war results. They were pessimistic and
distrustful.
With a return to normalcy, it was assured that the U.S. was to return to its policy of isolation – but the
policy ‘had’ to be modified to deal with the post-war new world order.
In 1924, the United States again stepped out of the policy of isolationism concerning the payment
of Germany’s war debt. Germany owed Britain and France war reparations for damages according to
Article 232 of the Treaty of Versailles. Britain and France borrowed money from the U.S. to help fight the
war – to make the ‘collectable process’ more difficult, Germany was bankrupt and politically unstable.
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The American loans to Britain, France, and other allies made the U.S. the world’s greatest creditor nation
and the U. S. wanted its money. American, Charles Dawes headed a committee to work out an international
plan to enable Germany to afford to pay its war debts.
The Dawes Plan cycle

The U.S. would loan Germany money to rebuild and pay reparations to Britain and France

The money Britain and France were paid would be paid to the U.S. for war debts

The cycle created a movement of money that eased tensions
The 1920s would soon become the Roaring 20s. They were a time of celebration, extreme
prosperity, automobiles, artistic growth, etc. The Roaring 20s came to a screeching halt on October 29,
1929 when the stock market crashed and started the Great Depression.
The effects of the stock market crash of 1929 were swift and severe. Millions faced unemployment as
25% of the country was unemployed.
“A cigar stock at the time was selling for $115 a share. The market collapsed. I got a call from the
company president. Could I loan him $200 million? I refused, because at the time I had to protect my own
fences, including those of my closest friends. His $115 stock dropped to $2 and he jumped out of the window
of his Wall Street office….On wall street the people walked around like zombies…You saw people who
yesterday rode around in a Cadillac lucky now to have carfare. One of my friends said to me, ‘if things keep
on as they are we’ll all have to go begging’ I asked, ‘who from?”
In 1932 the nation elected Franklin D. Roosevelt to lead them out of the depression. He promised a New
Deal for Americans.
“The only thing we have to fear is fear itself”
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Fascism in Italy
Rise of Mussolini
In 1919 Italian nationalists were outraged by the Paris peace treaties. As one of the victorious allies,
Italy had expected to gain territory on the Adriatic. Instead these lands became part of the new Yugoslavia.
In Italy disorders multiplied. Inspired partly by the revolution in Russia, peasants seized land and workers
went on strike or seized factories. The government, split into feuding factions, seemed powerless to end the
crisis. Into the turmoil stepped Benito Mussolini.
He came from one of Italy’s lower classes but was a powerful, charismatic speaker. However, during
WWI, Mussolini rejected the socialism of his youth for intense nationalism. He appealed to Italy’s
wounded pride, fear of economic collapse, and fear of communism. In 1919 he organized veterans
and other discontented Italians into a new political party he called the Fascist Party. (Fasces = a bundle
of sticks wrapped around an ax – a symbol of authority in ancient Rome.)
To Fascists, the individual was unimportant except as a member of the state. Men, women, and
children were bombarded with slogans glorifying the state and Mussolini. Mussolini promised to end
corruption and replace turmoil with order. He also spoke of reviving Roman greatness, pledging to turn the
Mediterranean into a “Roman lake” once again
He organized his supporters into black shirted “combat squads.” He rejected democracy and
proposed more violent means as his “Black Shirts” broke up socialist rallies, smashed leftist presses, and
attacked farmer’s cooperatives. Through intimidation and terror he ousted many elected officials. Many
Italians accepted this because they also had lost faith in the constitutional government.
In 1922 the Fascists held a “March on Rome” in which thousands of Fascists swarmed into the
capital. Fearing Civil War King Victor Emmanuel III asked Mussolini to form a government as prime
minister.
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Mussolini’s Italy
By 1925 Mussolini assumed even more power and took the title Il Duce (The Leader). He
suppressed rival parties, muzzled the press, rigged elections, and replaced elected officials with Fascists
supporters. Mussolini’s critics were thrown into prison or exile or executed. Secret police and
propaganda bolstered the regime.
To help the economy he brought it under state control. However, he preserved capitalism. Production
increased but workers were forbidden to strike and wages and working conditions lagged behind. He built
highways, drained swamps and turned them into farm land. He tried to increase the population by taxing
bachelors and limiting women’s jobs so that women could stay at home and help the Italian population grow.
(Women with more than 14 children given a medal by Mussolini himself.)
To fascists, the individual was unimportant except as a member of the state. Men, women, and
children were bombarded with slogans glorifying the state and Mussolini. Shaping the young was a
major Fascist goal. Mussolini and his followers worked to toughen children and teach them strict military
discipline. They marched in parades and chanted slogans such as “Mussolini is always right.” By the 1930s,
a generation of young soldiers stood ready to back Il Duce’s drive to expand Italian power.
What is Fascism?

rooted in extreme nationalism.

glorifies action, violence, discipline, and above all blind loyalty to the state.

antidemocratic

reject Enlightenment faith in reason and the concept of equality and liberty

a citizen’s purpose is to serve the state

pursue aggressive foreign expansion

favor Social Darwinist views and view war as a necessary and noble struggle for survival

sworn enemies of socialists and communists
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How are Communism and Fascism different?

Communists hope for international change; fascists pursue nationalist goals.

Communism is based on a socialist economy and seeks international revolution. It appeals to
workers and promises a classless society.

Fascism is nationalistic, appeals to the middle class, preserves social classes and defends private
property.

Both violently oppose each other
Mussolini built the first real totalitarian state Mussolini’s Italy shared the same basic features as
Hitler’s Germany and Stalin’s Soviet Union:

single party dictatorship

state control of the economy

use of police spies and terror to enforce the will of the state

use of schools and the media to indoctrinate and mobilize citizens

strict censorship and government control of the media

unquestioning obedience to a single leader
Hitler and the Rise of Nazi Germany
The Weimar Republic
In 1919 German leaders drafted a constitution in the city of Weimar. It created a democratic
government known as the Weimar Republic. The constitution set up a parliamentary system led by a
chancellor or prime minister. It gave women the right to vote and included a bill of rights. The new
government came under constant criticism from all sides. Critics longed for another strong leader such as
Bismarck or the Kaiser. Germans of all classes blamed the Weimar Republic for the hated Versailles
Treaty. In their anger they looked for scapegoats. Many blamed German Jews for economic and political
problems.
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Inflation
In 1923 when Germany fell behind in reparations payments France occupied the coal rich Ruhr
Valley. Ruhr Germans turned to passive resistance refusing to work. To support them, the German
government printed huge quantities of paper money. This move set up inflation that spiraled out of control.
The German mark became almost worthless. An item that cost 100 marks in July 1922 cost 944,000 marks
by August 1923.
Adolf Hitler
Hitler was born in Austria in 1889; he was rejected at the age of 18 from art school. While living in
Vienna he developed a fanatical anti-Semitism that would later play a major role in his rise to power. Later
moved to Germany and fought in the German army during WWI. Like many ex soldiers, he despised the
Weimar government and felt betrayed by the outcome of the war.
In 1919 he joined an extremist group and within a year was its leader. This party was the National
Socialist German Worker’s Party or Nazi Party. Like Mussolini he organized followers into fighting squads
known as “Storm Troopers” that battled against their political enemies.
Beer Hall Putsch
In 1923 Hitler burst into a beer hall in Munich and attempted to start a revolutionary takeover of
Germany. The movement failed and he was arrested for treason and sent to prison. While in prison, Hitler
wrote Mein Kampf (My Struggle). It would late become the basic book of Nazi goals and ideology.
The book reflected his obsessions.

Extreme nationalism

racism

anti-Semitism
According to Hitler, Germans belonged to a superior “master race” of Aryans (light skinned
Europeans whose greatest enemies were the Jews. He claimed that Germany had not lost the war but had
been betrayed by a conspiracy of Marxists, Jews, corrupt politicians, and business leaders. To restore
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German greatness he urged Germans everywhere to unite into one great nation. Germany must
expand to gain Lebensraum or living space. In order to do this Germany needed a strong leader or
Fuhrer. Hitler was determined to be that leader.
The Road to Power
After less than a year Hitler left prison. The Great Depression played right into Hitler’s hands. As
unemployment rose, Nazi membership grew to over 1 million. Hitler promised to end reparations, create
jobs, and defy the Versailles Treaty and rearm Germany.
The government at the time was paralyzed by divisions. Both Nazis and Communists were gaining
influence in the Reichstag (German Parliament) Fearing the growth of communism, conservatives turned to
Hitler. Although they despised him they thought they could control him. With this extra support he was
elected chancellor in 1933 through legal democratic means.
Within a year he was master of Germany. He suspended civil rights, destroyed the socialists and
communists, and disbanded other political parties. Germany was now a one party state. Nazi flags with
their swastikas waved everywhere. Hitler moved on to purge his own party, brutally executing Nazis he
feared were disloyal.
Hitler’s Third Reich
Hitler appealed to nationalism by recalling past glories. Reich = Empire

First Reich = Holy Roman Empire

Second Reich = Germany created by Bismarck

Third Reich = Hitler’s Germany in which the German master race would dominate Europe for 1,000
years
Nazis controlled all areas of Germany life from government to religion to education. Elite black uniformed
SS troops enforced the Fuhrer’s will. His secret police, the Gestapo, rooted out opposition. Most Germans
did not worry about this repression because they were excited by Hitler’s achievements and the end of
unemployment.
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Economic Policy
To combat the Great Depression he launched huge works programs – like the U.S.

Building the autobahn (highways).

Rearmed Germany – demand for military hardware stimulated business and helped eliminate
unemployment.

Like Mussolini he preserved capitalism. However, he brought big business and labor under
government control.
Social Policy

Nazis indoctrinated young people with their ideology.

In camps and other settings, the Hitler Youth pledged absolute loyalty to Germany and undertook
physical fitness programs to prepare for war.

“Pure blooded Aryans” women were rewarded for having more children.
The Arts

Nazis sought to purge or purify German culture.

They denounced modern art – corrupted by Jews.

Condemned jazz music – created by Africans

Glorified German myths recreated in operas by Richard Wagner.

At public bonfires Nazis burned books of which they disapproved.
Churches

Hitler despised Christianity as “weak” and “flabby”.

To control churches he combined all Protestant sects into a single state church.

Some religious leaders courageously denounced Hitler:
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Campaign against the Jews
Hitler set out to drive Jews from Germany. In 1935, the Nuremberg Laws placed severe
restrictions on Jews. (They were prohibited from marrying non-Jews, attending or teaching at German
schools, holding government jobs, practicing law or medicine, or publishing books) Nazis beat and robbed
Jews and roused mobs to do the same. Many German Jews including the brilliant scientist, Albert Einstein,
fled the growing menace and sought refuge in other countries.
Kristallnacht
On November 7, 1938, a young Jew, whose parents had been mistreated in Germany shot and wounded a
German diplomat in Paris. Hitler used the incident as an excuse to stage an attack on all Jews.
Kristallnacht, or the “night of broken glass” took place on November 9 and 10. Nazi led mobs
attacked Jewish communities all over Germany, shouting “Revenge for Paris! Down with the Jews!”
They smashed windows, looted shops, and burned synagogues. Many Jews were dragged from their homes
and beaten in the streets. Hitler was not concerned with the world opinion – he even made Jewish victims
pay for the damage. Before long, Hitler and his men were making even more sinister plans for what
they called the “final solution” – the extermination of all the Jews.
Looking ahead to the 1930s, Germany became Europe’s second fascist state. Germans of all classes
responded to Hitler’s hypnotic speeches and programs. Despite the warnings of some courageous Germans,
most individuals ignored the ugly side of Nazi rule. While Hitler won absolute power at home, he moved
boldly to expand Germany’s power in Europe.
Nationalist Reactions in Japan
In 1926 Hirohito became emperor of Japan. According to Japanese tradition he was a living god
and the nation’s supreme authority. The Great Depression rippled across the Pacific in 1929, striking
Japan with devastating force. Unemployment Japanese cities soared.
Economic disaster fed the discontent of the leading military officials and extreme nationalists or
ultranationalists. They condemned politicians for agreeing to western demands to stop overseas expansion.
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As the crisis worsened nationalists demanded renewed expansion. An empire in Asia would provide much
needed raw materials as well as an outlet for Japan’s rapidly growing population.
Nationalists set their sights on the Chinese province of Manchuria. This region was rich in
natural resources. In 1931 Japanese army officers blew up tracks on a Japanese railroad line in Manchuria
claiming that the Chinese had committed the act. In “self defense” the army attacked Chinese forces.
The Japanese military then conquered all of Manchuria and set up a puppet state. When the League of
Nations condemned the actions, Japan simply withdrew from the League.
In the early 1930s ultranationalists won popular support throughout the country. Members of
“patriotic” societies assassinated a number of politicians and business leaders. Civilian government survived
but by 1937 it was forced to accept military domination. This new military government ended most
democratic freedoms, revived ancient warrior values, and built a cult around the emperor.
In 1937 the Japanese attacked China again. As airplanes bombed Chinese cities Japanese troops
overran eastern China. After a lengthy siege Japanese troops marched into the city of Nanjing on December
13. After the city’s surrender, the Japanese killed hundreds of thousands of soldiers and civilians and
brutalized still more. The cruelty and destruction became known around the world as the “rape of Nanjing”
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