Download Emergency endotracheal intubation in children Author: Joshua

Emergency endotracheal intubation in children
Author:
Joshua Nagler, MD
Section Editor:
Anne M Stack, MD
Deputy Editor:
James F Wiley, II, MD, MPH
Contributor Disclosures
All topics are updated as new evidence becomes available and our peer review process is
complete.
Literature review current through: Oct 2016. | This topic last updated: Jun 29, 2015.
INTRODUCTION — Emergency endotracheal intubation may be performed in the prehospital
setting, as well as in emergency departments or other critical care settings. The need for
intubation may be immediately apparent, such as in cardiopulmonary arrest. In other
circumstances, the decision to intubate may result from dynamic assessment based on
progressive or anticipated deterioration despite maximal medical therapies and non-invasive
respiratory support.
Emergency intubation is inherently more difficult to perform than planned intubation in the
operating room. Patients are not prescreened and often had recent oral intake as opposed to
being in the fasted state (ie, nil per os [NPO]). In addition, rapid clinical deterioration may
compromise preparation time, and underlying illness or injury may make patients more
susceptible to the adverse physiologic effects of this procedure.
This topic will focus on the procedure of oral endotracheal (ET) intubation with traditional direct
laryngoscopy in children. Direct laryngoscopy and tracheal intubation in adults is reviewed
separately, as is videolaryngoscopy in children. (See "Direct laryngoscopy and endotracheal
intubation in adults" and "Devices for difficult endotracheal intubation in children", section on
'Video laryngoscope'.)
Basic airway maintenance techniques for children and adults that assess the need for airway
support, rapid sequence intubation, and the difficult pediatric airway are also discussed
separately. (See "Basic airway management in children" and "Basic airway management in
adults" and "Initial assessment and stabilization of children with respiratory or circulatory
compromise" and "Rapid sequence intubation (RSI) in children" and "The difficult pediatric
airway".)
INDICATIONS — There are numerous disease processes and clinical situations that may
necessitate intubation. (See "Emergency evaluation and immediate management of acute
respiratory distress in children".)
In the emergency department setting, the number of intubations performed on trauma and
nontrauma patients is approximately equal [1,2]. Specific indications for intubation fall into four
different categories:
●Inadequate oxygenation or ventilation – Patients who are unable to maintain adequate
oxygenation or ventilation require intubation. Respiratory failure may result from primary
pulmonary disease, or from other processes associated with respiratory compromise (table
1). (See "Emergency evaluation and immediate management of acute respiratory distress
in children", section on 'Evaluation'.)
Clinical evidence of respiratory failure includes:
•Poor or absent respiratory effort
•Poor color
•Obtunded mental status
Supporting data, such as noninvasive monitoring of oxygen saturation and end-tidal
carbon dioxide (EtCO2), or partial pressure of oxygen or carbon dioxide from blood
gas analysis can be helpful; however, endotracheal intubation should not be delayed
in patients with clinical evidence of respiratory failure in order to obtain such
measurements.
●Inability to maintain and/or protect the airway – Any child who cannot
maintain his/her airway requires endotracheal intubation. Patients in this category may
exhibit the following findings:
•Inability to phonate or produce audible breath sounds despite respiratory effort
(complete airway obstruction) (see "Emergency evaluation of acute upper airway
obstruction in children", section on 'Signs of airway obstruction')
•Inspiratory, obstructive sounds with partial airway obstruction that fail to improve
despite repositioning, airway maneuvers, or medical therapies (see "Emergency
evaluation of acute upper airway obstruction in children", section on 'Evaluation')
•Impaired mental status including head injured patients with a Glasgow Coma Score
(GCS) of ≤8 [3-5] and patients with systemic illness or poisoning because of the
increased risk of aspiration [6,7]. Patients with depressed mental status can be
assessed clinically for loss of protective airway reflexes. In particular, determining a
patient's ability to swallow and handle secretions provides the most reliable indication
of adequate airway protection. Studies suggest that swallowing and airway protective
reflexes may in fact be centrally integrated [8].
•Though commonly assessed, the gag reflex is a less useful indicator of airway status
for several reasons: (1) The gag reflex correlates poorly with GCS [9]; (2) A gag may
not be elicited in more than one third of healthy subjects [10]; (3) The absence of a
gag reflex in patients with prior neurological insults does not correlate with risk of
aspiration [11]; (4) Attempting to gag a patient to determine the need for intubation
increases the risk of vomiting in those whose reflex remains intact.
●Potential for clinical deterioration – Children whose condition will likely deteriorate,
such as those with thermal inhalation injuries or epiglottitis, require early intubation in a
controlled fashion. (See "Epiglottitis (supraglottitis): Treatment and prevention", section on
'Artificial airway' and "Emergency care of moderate and severe thermal burns in children".)
Other illnesses, such as severe anaphylaxis or asthma exacerbations, may initially be
treated with aggressive medical therapies. However, clinical response must be
continuously assessed, with a clear endpoint and plan for airway intervention if the patient
does not improve and respiratory failure is anticipated. (See "Anaphylaxis: Emergency
treatment", section on 'Airway management' and "Emergency airway management in acute
severe asthma", section on 'the decision to intubate'.)
Similarly, patients with sepsis may be intubated based on their anticipated course, as well
as to maximize oxygen delivery and relieve energy expenditure related to increased work
of breathing.
●Prolonged diagnostic studies or patient transport – Control of the airway through
intubation may be the safest alternative for some patients with combative or unstable
conditions who require prolonged diagnostic studies. This is particularly true during
computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging, where assessment and support of
the child's airway will be less accessible in the event of an acute change. Intubation is also
suggested for any patient at risk for deterioration prior to transfer to another facility.
Securing the airway prior to departure avoids the need for emergency advanced airway
management in a less controlled setting such as an ambulance or a helicopter transport.
CONTRAINDICATIONS AND PRECAUTIONS — Assessment and management of the airway
is always the first priority in caring for acutely ill or injured children. Thus, there are no absolute
contraindications for endotracheal intubation (ETI) by appropriately trained providers.
Relative contraindications are uncommon but do exist and primarily relate to the need to move
to a more controlled environment or to perform a surgical approach to the airway:
●In order to preserve airway reflexes and spontaneous respiratory efforts in case of a failed
intubation, rapid sequence intubation with neuromuscular blockade should be avoided in
patients who are known or expected to be difficult to intubate and difficult to ventilate with
bag and mask, without an appropriate back up plan in place. (See "Rapid sequence
intubation (RSI) in children".)
●Patients with a known or suspected laryngeal fracture should be intubated with caution
because of the risk of further disrupting a partial laryngeal transection, resulting in complete
loss of the airway.
●High-risk intubations (eg, epiglottitis) are most safely performed in the controlled
environment of the operating room whenever delay secondary to transport will not
compromise patient outcome (table 2).
●Although very rare, the unstable surgical patient (eg, penetrating trauma to the larynx)
deemed to require a surgical airway should not have airway efforts delayed by attempts at
direct laryngoscopy and ETI. (See"Needle cricothyroidotomy with percutaneous
transtracheal ventilation" and "Emergency cricothyrotomy (cricothyroidotomy)".)
ANATOMY — Anatomic features of the airways of infants and children that affect the approach
to intubation are reviewed in detail separately. (See "Emergency airway management in
children: Unique pediatric considerations".)
●Mouth and oropharynx – The lips define the entrance to the mouth. Immediately behind
the lips are the teeth extruding from the gingiva. The mouth is bound superiorly by the hard
and soft palate, laterally by buccal mucosa, and inferiorly by the tongue. The uvula hangs
down from the roof of the mouth in the midline, and the tonsils lie laterally just behind the
palatoglossal folds which define the entrance to the oropharynx (figure 1). The oropharynx
extends inferiorly to the epiglottis.
●Hypopharynx – Below the oropharynx is the hypopharynx which extends from the
epiglottis to the cricoid cartilage. The epiglottis attaches to the anterior aspect of the
hypopharynx and drapes over the glottis. At the junction of the base of the tongue and the
epiglottis is a space known as the vallecula. At the base of the vallecula lies the
hyoepiglottic ligament, which connects the epiglottis to the hyoid bone anteriorly (figure 2).
The larynx lies in the anterior portion of the hypopharynx, bounded laterally by the piriform
recesses. Posteriorly lies the origination of the esophagus. Distinguishing the esophagus
from the glottis is crucial during ETI. The esophageal opening has a puckered or ill-defined
shape, and has smooth, homogeneous soft tissue structures surrounding it (picture 1).
●Larynx – The larynx is defined anteriorly by the hyoid bone, the thyroid cartilage, the
cricothyroid membrane, and the cricoid cartilage. The arytenoid cartilages (cuneiform and
corniculate) make up the posterior aspect of the laryngeal inlet. These posterior cartilages
are important landmarks as they are the first structures visualized as the epiglottis is lifted
during laryngoscopy, and may be the only portion of the glottis visualized in some patients.
The aryepiglottic folds, which connect the arytenoids to the epiglottis, make up the lateral
borders of the laryngeal inlet. The true vocal cords originate below the epiglottic tubercle
anteriorly and connect with the arytenoids posteriorly. The vocal cords cover the entrance
to the trachea. An optimal laryngoscopic view will allow visualization of the entire length of
both vocal cords (picture 2).
●Trachea – The trachea begins at the base of the cricoid cartilage, and ends inferiorly at
the carina, which defines the bifurcation to the right and left mainstem bronchus.
PREPARATION — Success in airway management depends on careful patient assessment,
implementation of an appropriate endotracheal intubation (ETI) plan, and gathering and testing
of all necessary equipment.
Rapid assessment — The clinician should perform a focused assessment of the child's history
and physical findings to identify conditions and clinical features that will impact bag-mask
ventilation, laryngoscopy, and/orETI. Examples include:
●Congenital abnormalities associated with airway difficulties (eg, Pierre-Robin, TreacherCollins) (table 3) (see "The difficult pediatric airway", section on 'Causes of the difficult
pediatric airway')
●Known difficult ETI in the past
●Anatomic characteristics associated with difficult airway management, such as poor
mouth opening, large tongue or tonsils, small chin, short mandible, or decreased neck
mobility (see "The difficult pediatric airway", section on 'Identification of the difficult
pediatric airway')
Some clinicians advocate for the use of the Mallampati score (figure 3) or LEMON©
approach (table 4) although their use has not been validated in children (see "The difficult
pediatric airway", section on 'Identification of the difficult pediatric airway')
●Evidence of partial upper airway obstruction from infectious, traumatic, or inflammatory
etiologies (table 5)
Intubation plan — Rapid sequence intubation has been shown to be safe and effective in
children and should be planned for most emergency pediatric intubations [2,12]. (See "Rapid
sequence intubation (RSI) in children".)
However, in any child in whom laryngoscopy and intubation may be more difficult (table 5), an
alternative plan that involves assistance from specialists (anesthesiologists,
otolaryngologists) and/or intubation with sedation but without paralysis should be employed.
A contingency plan in the event of a failed intubation must be developed for all patients, ideally
before rapid sequence intubation is attempted. (See "The difficult pediatric airway", section on
'Alternative airway techniques'.)
The clinician in charge should clearly assign roles to each health care provider, including an
assistant to the person performing endotracheal intubation. (See 'Materials, equipment, and
personnel' below.)
Patient counseling/Informed consent — In most circumstances, emergency endotracheal
intubation is performed for life-threatening circumstances, and thus, consent is implied.
Whenever possible, the procedure should be explained to both the parents and the child prior to
intubation with emphasis on the indications for intubation and benefits of the procedure (eg,
correction of hypoxemia or protection of the airway to prevent aspiration).
Key components of the discussion include:
●Medications will provide sedation and pain control throughout the procedure.
●Endotracheal intubation may not be successful.
●The subsequent planned actions if the child cannot be successfully intubated.
Urgency of this procedure often precludes extensive discussion about minor risks, including the
possibility of oral or dental trauma and post-extubation throat discomfort.
Materials, equipment, and personnel — Functioning airway equipment in a full range of sizes
from neonate to adolescent/adult should be readily available wherever critically ill or injured
children receive medical care (table 6). Equipment should always be checked prior to
performing this procedure.
Preintubation supplies
●Personnel – Ideally, at least three practitioners are present during emergency intubation.
In addition to the laryngoscopist/intubator, an assistant can be utilized to hold cricoid
pressure (when used), pass equipment, and watch the monitor, and an additional provider
can be assigned to infuse medications when RSI is utilized. When possible, the
resuscitation leader should not be the provider performing the intubation. A respiratory
therapist, when available, can function as the assistant during intubation, and is particularly
helpful to assist with ventilator management after intubation.
●Monitoring equipment – Any patient undergoing endotracheal (ET) intubation should be
placed on continuous monitoring equipment including heart rate, respiratory rate, blood
pressure, and continuous oxygen saturation monitoring. Capnography should be employed
when available. (See "Carbon dioxide monitoring (capnography)", section on 'Clinical
applications for intubated patients'.)
●Oxygen supply – Supplemental oxygen must be available, either from a wall source or a
portable tank with a flow meter that allows at least 10 L/min.
●Suction – Wall suction or portable devices should be available. Pressures should be
limited to 80 to 120 mmHg to decrease the risk of trauma to airway mucosa. Yankauer or
wide-bore tonsil tip catheters are most appropriate for suctioning particulate matter (eg,
thick secretions and vomitus). Flexible suction catheters can be used for thin secretions in
the nose, mouth, and hypopharynx, as well as for deep suctioning through the ET tube.
●Bag and mask – Selecting an appropriately sized bag and mask for bag-mask ventilation
(BMV) is discussed separately. (See "Basic airway management in children", section on
'Bag-mask ventilation'.)
BMV can provide a temporizing means for oxygenation and ventilation while preparing for
intubation in the child in respiratory failure. In addition, children desaturate more quickly
than adults during rapid sequence intubation and may require assisted ventilation after
administration of sedatives or neuromuscular blockade agents and prior to laryngoscopy
and endotracheal intubation (ETI). (See "Emergency airway management in children:
Unique pediatric considerations".)
BMV is as effective as ETI and ventilation for providing temporary respiratory support. For
example, a randomized controlled trial of prehospital BMV versus ETI in 820 pediatric
patients found no difference in survival to hospital discharge or good neurologic outcomes
between the two groups. Median scene and transport times were 15 minutes in the BMV
group and 17 minutes in the ETI group, suggesting that BMV was equivalent to ETI for
short-term airway and ventilatory support among paramedics [13].
However, BMV does not provide a secure airway and may result in gastric distention,
which increases the risk for vomiting and aspiration. Thus, any child requiring prolonged
respiratory support is best managed with endotracheal intubation, especially when
performed by appropriately trained providers in the emergency department or other critical
care settings.
●Artificial airways – Oro- and nasopharyngeal airways should be available to facilitate
bag-mask ventilation in case it is necessary during the process of intubation, or in the event
that an endotracheal tube cannot be passed successfully. (See "Basic airway management
in children" and "Basic airway management in adults".)
Endotracheal tube
Cuffed versus uncuffed — Anesthesia literature, as well as Pediatric Advanced Life Support
(PALS) Guidelines, now supports that, beyond the newborn period, cuffed endotracheal (ET)
tubes are equally as safe as uncuffed tubes, and are favored in some clinical circumstances
[14,15], such as:
●Children at risk for aspiration [16]
●Burn victims [17]
●Children with severe lung disease who may require high ventilator pressures (eg,
bronchiolitis, status asthmaticus, chronic lung disease) [15,18]
When using cuffed tubes, care must be taken to avoid cuff pressures greater than 20 cm H2O,
which can increase the risk of tracheal mucosal ischemia. Clinical assessment of cuff pressure
is often inaccurate, therefore an ET cuff manometer should be considered in any patient
requiring prolonged intubation [19,20].
Traditionally, uncuffed ET tubes have been preferred for infants and young children to avoid
potential pressure-induced ischemic damage to tracheal mucosa from a cuffed tube. In contrast
to adults, in whom the vocal cords comprise the narrowest portion of the airway, the subglottis is
functionally the narrowest portion of the pediatric airway. This natural narrowing can create an
effective anatomic seal without the need for a cuffed ET tube. (See "Emergency airway
management in children: Unique pediatric considerations".)
However, ET tubes are now available with low pressure, high volume cuffs in sizes suitable for
infants and children. Three prospective studies, including a randomized controlled trial, have
demonstrated no increase in postextubation stridor, need for racemic epinephrine, or long-term
complications when using cuffed tubes [18,21,22]. The ability to adjust cuff inflation for
excessive air leak also results in less frequent need for tube change secondary to inappropriate
sizing.
Endotracheal tube size — The size of the ET tube is determined by the internal diameter,
measured in millimeters (mm). Available sizes range from 2.5 mm (suitable for a preterm infant)
to adult sizes of 7.0 mm or more. The appropriate size ET tube for any given patient should be
small enough to pass easily through the vocal cords but large enough to minimize resistance to
air flow. Uncuffed tubes should fit snugly in the subglottic trachea to minimize air leak, while
cuffed tubes allow for some adjustment through cuff inflation to provide appropriate
endotracheal fit.
For uncuffed ET tube sizing, the age-based formula 4 + (age in years/4) has been shown to be
effective and accurate in children [23]. When using a cuffed ET tube, selecting a tube one full
size smaller than determined by the above formula was accurate 99 percent of the time [24],
though with the development of newer, lower profile, thinner walled cuffed ET tubes, using a
tube one half size smaller than the age-based calculation is recommended (table 7) [15,25]. A
calculator for determining the appropriate sized ET tube for children age one to eight years is
provided (calculator 1).
Other methods that have been proposed for estimating the best size uncuffed ET tube in
children include comparison of the outer ET tube diameter width with the child's fifth finger or
the width of the child's fifth fingernail with inner ET tube diameter, and a derivation based on the
child's length [23]. Of these methods, derivation based on the child's length is best.
Utilizing a length-based resuscitation tape (eg, Broselow-Luten tape), is as effective as agebased formulae for determining the appropriate ET tube size in children with normal growth [26],
as well as those with short stature [27]. Current versions of this resuscitation tape, however, do
not include sizing for cuffed ET tubes below 5.5 mm.
Regardless of the method chosen in selecting ET tube size, it is important to have available
additional tubes, one size larger and one size smaller than expected, to allow rapid replacement
of any poorly-fitting tube.
Stylet — The clinician should generally use a stylet during emergency endotracheal intubation
to reinforce the rigidity of the ET tube and allow the operator to direct the tube into the glottic
opening.
The largest diameter stylet that fits through the ET tube should be used. Tubes greater than 5.5
mm usually accommodate a larger diameter (ie, adult) stylet. Two small (pediatric) stylets may
improve rigidity in smaller tubes if a single small stylet is inadequate. If the stylet does not have
a friction reducing surface coating, the provider should lubricate it with water soluble lubricant to
facilitate removal. Bending the styletted ET tube into a hockey stick configuration enhances the
ability to direct the ET tube anteriorly through the glottis (picture 3) [28,29].
To avoid injury to the tracheal mucosa, care must be taken to ensure that the tip of the stylet
does not pass beyond the distal end of the ET tube. Bending the proximal end of the stylet over
the adapter at the proximal end of the tube prevents inadvertent movement during intubation.
Laryngoscope handle and blade — There are two components to the laryngoscope, the
handle and the blade. Pediatric and adult sized handles are available that differ in diameter and
length, though either size can be used depending on the clinician's preference. Laryngoscope
blades are either curved or straight. The choice of curved or straight blade is best made based
on the experience and preference of the laryngoscopist. Curved blades have a large flange
which facilitates displacement of the tongue, and a curve that allows easy placement in the
vallecula (figure 4). A straight blade allows direct lifting of the epiglottis to expose the glottic
opening, which may be preferred in infants and young children younger than two years of age in
whom the epiglottis is often larger and more acutely angled (figure 5). (See "Emergency airway
management in children: Unique pediatric considerations".)
A straight blade may also be preferred in patients in whom cervical spine injury is suspected
because laryngoscopy with a straight blade may result in less motion of the cervical spine [30].
●Laryngoscope blades range in size from 00 for the extremely premature infant to 4 for
large adults. The appropriate size blade for a given patient is one that is large enough to
control the tongue and to reach the glottic structures (table 8). Generally, size 0 or 1 blades
are used in average-sized newborns, and size 1 blades for most infants beyond the
immediate newborn period. The Wis-Hipple is available in a 1.5 size, which is convenient
for children one to three years of age. The phrase "switch to size 2 at age two (years)"
helps to remember this important changeover point for laryngoscope blade sizing.
●Anatomic landmarks also help identify the appropriate laryngoscope blade size. In a
prospective observational study, intubation was more consistently successful on the first
attempt when the length of the blade used for laryngoscopy was within one centimeter of
the distance between the upper incisors and the angle of the mandible [31].
Postintubation and alternative airway supplies
●Confirmation devices
•Colorimetric end-tidal carbon dioxide (EtCO2) devices or capnographic monitors
should be available for ET tube placement confirmation in any setting in which
intubation is performed and are the most accurate means for confirming tracheal
intubation in patients who are not in cardiac arrest. (See"Carbon dioxide monitoring
(capnography)", section on 'Verification of ETT placement'.)
Disposable qualitative devices use colorimetric methods to detect CO2 in the ET tube.
Once the trachea is intubated and the colorimetric detector is attached, six positive
pressure breaths are delivered. The device will change color (typically from purple to
yellow) during exhalation when CO2 is present. This confirms placement of the ET
tube in the tracheo-bronchial tree if the patient has a perfusing cardiac rhythm.
(See "Carbon dioxide monitoring (capnography)", section on 'Clinical applications for
intubated patients'.)
Capnography confirms ventilation by producing a continuous tracing of CO2 levels.
The presence of a regular waveform indicates successful ventilation. It is the most
accurate method for confirming ET tube placement. (See "Carbon dioxide monitoring
(capnography)", section on 'Clinical applications for intubated patients'.)
•In patients in cardiac arrest, gas exchange in the lungs is markedly reduced and
CO2 may not be detectable, despite proper positioning of the ET tube. In such
situations, an esophageal bulb may be used to confirm tracheal placement in children
who weigh more than 20 kg [15,32]. It relies on the principle that the esophagus is
collapsible under negative pressure, whereas the trachea (which is rigid) is not. The
bulb is deflated and then placed on the end of the ET tube following intubation. The
bulb will remain deflated when the ET tube is in the esophagus but will reinflate with
gas from the trachea and lungs when the ET tube is correctly positioned in the noncollapsible trachea.
•Based upon small observational studies, bedside ultrasound (eg, direct visualization
of the ET tube in the trachea, lung sliding, and diaphragmatic ultrasound) has promise
as an alternative means for rapid confirmation of ET tube placement [33-38].
Depending upon the method used, the sensitivity for correct tube placement relative to
chest radiograph or capnography varied from 91 to 100 percent and overall accuracy
was 89 to 98 percent. In some studies, confirmation of correct endotracheal position
was obtained as quickly as 17 seconds using a curvilinear probe. However,
confirmation was more difficult in patients who had short necks or were wearing
cervical collars. The use of ultrasound as an adjunct for confirmation of endotracheal
tube placement warrants further validation.
●Alternative airway supplies – Alternative strategies and appropriate equipment for
providing oxygenation and ventilation must be considered for the child who may be difficult
to intubate with direct laryngoscopy. These techniques may be temporizing (such as
laryngeal mask airway, Combitube, or a surgical airway) or provide alternative approaches
to tracheal intubation (as with fiberoptic intubation, gum elastic bougie, a lighted stylet, or a
video laryngoscope). (See "The difficult pediatric airway", section on 'Alternative airway
techniques' and "Devices for difficult endotracheal intubation in children".)
●Miscellaneous supplies
•Tape or a commercial holder to secure the endotracheal tube
•Tincture of benzoin to enhance the holding power of the tape
•Gauze or cotton-tipped applicator for benzoin application
•5 to 10 mL syringe for cuff inflation
•A nasogastric or orogastric tube to decompress the stomach following intubation.
Insufflated air from BMV or residual gastric contents should be removed to decrease
the risk of aspiration and improve diaphragmatic excursion.
PROCEDURE — Direct laryngoscopy and endotracheal intubation are complex processes.
Developing a systematic and reproducible approach to this procedure will improve success.
A mnemonic (STOP MAID!) has been developed to help practitioners remember the preparatory
tools and steps for endotracheal intubation (see 'Preparation' above):
S: Suction
T: Tools for intubation (laryngoscope blades, handle)
O: Oxygen
P: Positioning
M: Monitors, including ECG, pulse oximetry, blood pressure, end-tidal carbon dioxide
(EtCO2), and esophageal detectors
A: Assistant, Ambu bag with face mask, Airway devices (different sized ETTs, 10 mL syringe,
stylets)
I: Intravenous access
D: Drugs for pretreatment, induction, neuromuscular blockade (and any adjuncts)
Monitoring — Continuous cardiorespiratory monitoring and pulse oximetry prior to intubation
are essential. Capnography should be utilized to confirm and monitor endotracheal tube position
after intubation. Patients requiring emergent endotracheal intubation may have significant
cardiovascular or respiratory compromise. In addition, profound physiologic changes may occur
as a result of medication delivery or the mechanical stimulation from
laryngoscopy and/or endotracheal intubation.
Preoxygenation — Preoxygenation with 100 percent inspired oxygen creates an oxygen
reservoir, primarily by washing nitrogen out of the functional residual capacity of the lungs and
replacing it with oxygen. This increased lung store of oxygen, in combination with the improved
oxygen delivery within the circulation and body tissues, serves to delay or avoid hypoxemia
resulting from prolonged apneic periods during endotracheal intubation. Thus, preoxygenation
should be performed even in patients with normal oxygen saturation.
Patients without spontaneous respirations require immediate institution of bag-mask ventilation
(BMV) with 100 percent inspired oxygen.
Preoxygenation has traditionally included administration of 100 percent FiO2 for three to five
minutes in the spontaneously breathing patient. Although two minutes may be sufficient in
healthy children [39,40], emergency intubations are often performed in patients with
compromised pulmonary function or respiratory effort who may benefit from more prolonged
oxygen delivery prior to the procedure. In general, children have less functional residual
capacity and higher oxygen utilization and, thus, will become hypoxic more quickly than adults,
regardless of the method of preoxygenation. (See "Emergency airway management in children:
Unique pediatric considerations", section on 'Lower functional residual capacity'.)
In cooperative adult patients, eight vital capacity breaths with 100 percent FiO2 provides a more
rapid means of achieving similar PaO2 levels and time to desaturation than the traditional
method [41]. However, similar data are not available for children who may be less cooperative
with this technique.
Rarely, children with gastric distension after bag-mask ventilation have restricted lung excursion
on inhalation and are difficult to preoxygenate. Placement of a gastric tube in these patients is
warranted prior to endotracheal intubation despite the risk of vomiting. Venting of a gastric or
gastrostomy tube, when present, also relieves gastric distension without adding any additional
risk of emesis.
Suction — Two suction devices (eg, Yankauer or wide-bore tonsil tip catheters) should be
immediately available at the bedside and attached to a wall unit suction that is turned on and
limited to a maximum of 120 mmHg. (See 'Materials, equipment, and personnel' above.)
Positioning — Proper positioning aligns the pharyngeal, tracheal, and oral axes into the
"sniffing position" (picture 4). This maintains the patency of the airway once the child becomes
unconscious, as well as facilitates visualization of laryngeal structures during subsequent
intubation.
●To align the pharyngeal and tracheal axes, the chin is moved anteriorly with respect to the
shoulders, such that the external auditory canal is anterior to the shoulder. This may be
accomplished in children by placing a towel or roll under the occiput. In infants, because of
a prominent occiput, the towel must be placed under the shoulders to achieve this position
(picture 5). (See "Emergency airway management in children: Unique pediatric
considerations".)
●To align the oral axis with the pharyngeal and tracheal axes, the head is then extended
on the neck, such that the nose and mouth are pointing toward the ceiling. This may be
accomplished by placing the palm of the right hand on the patient's forehead with the
fingers extending onto the occiput, cupping the head and gently rotating the head
posteriorly (figure 6). This maneuver also opens the patient's mouth, facilitating insertion of
the laryngoscope.
Cervical spine immobilization — For the child with a suspected cervical spine injury, neck
movement must be minimal during positioning and laryngoscopy. Initially, the airway can be
opened with the jaw thrust maneuver (figure 7). If a cervical collar is in place, the front should be
opened to allow complete mouth opening and displacement of the chin and mandible [42].
Manual in-line stabilization should be maintained by an assistant during laryngoscopy and
intubation (figure 8) [5,15].
Pediatric-specific data from a simulator-based study support the protective effects of inline
stabilization [43]. However, the practice of inline stabilization has been challenged on grounds
that it increases laryngoscopic force [44], compromises view and intubation success [45], and
inconsistently decreases cervical spine movement. Thus, the balance between minimizing neck
movement must be weighed against the possibility of insufficient glottic visualization and an
unsuccessful intubation attempt. The safest practice is to provide the minimum amount of force
and movement necessary to allow for successful completion of the procedure. (See"Pediatric
cervical spine immobilization", section on 'Airway management'.)
Sedation and neuromuscular blockade — Rapid sequence intubation (RSI) typically achieves
optimal conditions for laryngoscopy in children requiring emergency intubation (table 9). RSI
involves the delivery of a sedative and neuromuscular blocking agent to sedate and
pharmacologically paralyze so that movement and protective airway reflexes do not interfere
with endotracheal intubation. (See "Rapid sequence intubation (RSI) in children".)
RSI may be modified in the following circumstances:
●Sedative agents may be omitted in obtunded or comatose patients.
●Neuromuscular blockade should be avoided in patients with a predicted difficult airway
unless a back-up approach is available.
Once rapid sequence intubation medications are provided, the clinician should make every
effort to avoid BMV because of the increased risk of vomiting and aspiration that can occur with
gastric distention. However, in patients who cannot be adequately preoxygenated, BMV with
small tidal volumes and cricoid pressure is preferable to intubating a hypoxic patient. Nasal
cannula oxygen delivery to the apneic patient following administration of RSI medications can
also decrease the likelihood of hypoxemia [46].
In addition to preoxygenation, nasal cannula oxygen delivery to the apneic patient following
administration of RSI medications may decrease peri-intubation hypoxemia. Data from elective
intubations in the operating room in adults support fewer episodes of desaturation when being
administered oxygen at 3 to 5 L/min via nasal cannula following induction [47-49].
Although data are limited in the emergency department, utilization of this practice at
15 L/min has been recommended for use in adult patients [40]. No similar data exist for children,
however given the increased propensity for desaturation during RSI in the pediatric population
and the low potential for adverse effects, utilization of apneic oxygenation is a reasonable
option.
Cricoid pressure — Cricoid pressure has historically been used in rapid sequence intubation to
prevent gastric insufflation and passive regurgitation of gastric contents. In this technique, often
referred to as the Sellick maneuver, the thumb and fore or middle finger are used to apply
pressure over the anterior neck at the cricoid cartilage to compress the esophagus between the
cricoid cartilage and the anterior surface of the C6 vertebral body (figure 9). (See "Rapid
sequence intubation (RSI) in children", section on 'Cricoid pressure'.)
When used, cricoid pressure should be applied lightly in the patient who is receiving bag-mask
ventilation before endotracheal intubation to limit gastric insufflation and distention [50].
Increased pressure should be applied after the sedative is administered and prior to complete
neuromuscular blockade. It should be maintained until endotracheal tube position is confirmed.
Pediatric data exist to suggest that cricoid pressure may decrease the risk of gastric insufflation
[50,51]; however, conflicting evidence exists regarding the effectiveness of cricoid pressure for
preventing regurgitation. Therefore, cricoid pressure may be used initially with RSI but should
be removed if airway obstruction occurs when ventilation is required or if there is difficulty
viewing the larynx [15]. (See "Rapid sequence intubation (RSI) in children", section on 'Cricoid
pressure'.)
Laryngoscopy — Laryngeal exposure with visualization of the glottis is the main determinant of
success or failure with endotracheal intubation (ETI). Appropriate laryngoscope blade sizing and
a discussion of curved versus straight blade use is reviewed above. (See 'Laryngoscope handle
and blade' above.)
Direct laryngoscopy is most easily performed with the clinician standing at the patient's head,
and the bed adjusted to the level of the laryngoscopist's xiphoid. The endotracheal (ET) tube,
with stylet in place, and suction equipment should be easily accessible. ET tubes that are one
size above and below the estimated size for age should also be available. (See 'Materials,
equipment, and personnel' above.)
Whenever possible, an assistant should stand to the right of the patient's head to assist with
optimal positioning and to hand items to the intubator. Once the child is completely relaxed, the
following steps are performed:
●Opening the mouth – The mouth is opened using either of two techniques: a scissor
technique in which the thumb of the operator's right hand pushes the lower incisors (or
mandibular gum) caudad while the index finger (placed posterior to the thumb) pushes the
upper incisors (or maxillary gum) cephalad (picture 6), or in a patient without cervical spine
restrictions, extension of the head will naturally open the mouth (see 'Positioning' above).
This can be augmented by applying caudad pressure on the chin using the fifth finger of
the left hand (figure 5).
●Inserting the laryngoscope – The laryngoscope is held in the left hand, regardless of
the practitioner's hand dominance. The most common approach is to insert the blade into
the right side of the patient's mouth, taking care not to catch the lower lip against the teeth,
which may lacerate the lip. Asking an assistant to retract the lip off the teeth can be helpful.
Within the oral cavity, the blade is passed under direct visualization along the base of the
tongue following the natural contour of the pharynx. The tongue is swept to the left as the
laryngoscope is advanced into midline of the hypopharynx (figure 10). An alternative
approach is to pass the blade down the midline. The advantage of this method is that it
may avoid the blade getting caught on pharyngeal folds and may also allow for easier
identification of recognizable anatomic structures such as the epiglottis.
●Retracting the tongue and soft tissues – Once in the midline of the oropharynx, the
laryngoscope blade should be used to lift the mandibular block. This can be accomplished
by applying force away from the laryngoscopist along the long axis of the handle (figure 4).
The laryngoscope should not be "rocked" backward, using the upper palate or incisors as
the fulcrum for leverage. This improper technique will decrease the space within the oral
cavity, making it difficult to pass the ET tube under direct visualization. In addition, injury to
the mouth, gingiva, or teeth can occur when the blade is levered against these structures.
Keeping the wrist straight will help prevent inadvertent levering.
●Identifying glottic structures – After the tongue and soft tissues have been retracted,
the aim is to identify recognizable anatomic structures within the extrathoracic airway. As
the laryngoscope blade is advanced into the pharynx, the epiglottis will often come
immediately into view (figure 11). This is the landmark that is most useful when identifying
the remainder of the glottic structures. At this point, suction is often needed to remove
saliva, blood, or debris and optimize the glottic view.
A number of laryngoscopic adjustments can be made if the epiglottis is not seen
immediately:
•The epiglottis may be lying flat against the posterior pharyngeal wall or folded on
itself, making it difficult to distinguish from surrounding mucosal surfaces. Additional
elevation of the mandibular block may help separate the epiglottic rim from
surrounding tissue.
•The laryngoscope blade may not be midline, often as a result of challenges in
sweeping the tongue from right to left. Repositioning the blade using the uvula as a
midline reference point may be helpful.
•If neither the epiglottis nor the glottic structures are visible, the laryngoscope blade
can be advanced fully, placing the blade tip in the esophagus. The blade is then
pulled back slowly. The first structure to fall into view will be the glottis, followed by the
epiglottis. Some experts recommend routine use of this approach with blind insertion
beyond the larynx and locating identifiable structures as the blade is withdrawn,
particularly when intubating infants [52].
●Elevating the epiglottis – After the epiglottis has been identified, it needs to be elevated
to expose the underlying vocal cords and glottic opening. The technique employed varies
based on the type of blade being used.
When using a straight blade, the tip of the blade is positioned under the epiglottis to lift it
directly (figure 5). The epiglottis is frequently large, floppy, and covered with airway
secretions and therefore may easily slide off the blade. If this occurs, the blade should be
repositioned beneath the epiglottis and it should be carefully lifted again.
When using a curved blade, the tip of the blade is pressed against the deepest portion of
the vallecula to place tension on the hyoepiglottic ligament, which will help suspend the
epiglottis. Once the blade (straight or curved) is positioned correctly, force is applied
upward and forward along the long axis of laryngoscope handle at approximately 45
degrees. This will lift the mandibular block and the epiglottis to expose the glottic opening
(figure 4 and picture 1).
●Adjusting for suboptimal view – Ideally, with appropriate positioning and laryngoscopy,
the vocal cords and glottic aperture will be quickly identified. If little or none of the glottic
opening is visualized, external laryngeal manipulation (ELM) may improve the view.
An assistant can be asked to adjust cricoid pressure (if already being utilized) or to apply
backward-upward-rightward pressure (BURP) to the larynx. The BURP maneuver has
been demonstrated to improve glottic exposure in some patients by moving the larynx
more into the line of vision [53,54]; however, it may compromise visualization when used in
conjunction with traditional cricoid pressure [55]. In addition, using significant force when
applying BURP may contribute to airway obstruction [56].
In contrast, the laryngoscopist can provide their own ELM using bimanual laryngoscopy.
While holding the laryngoscope in the left hand, posterior displacement of the larynx is
achieved with external pressure applied at the thyroid cartilage with the right hand. Once
the optimal laryngeal position is identified, the manipulation is taken over by an assistant to
free the laryngoscopist's right hand to place the endotracheal tube. Bimanual laryngoscopy
has been shown to improve the laryngeal view in adults, though no data are available
specifically for pediatric patients [57,58].
Passing the endotracheal tube — Once the glottic opening has been identified, the final step
is passage of the endotracheal (ET) tube. While maintaining a view of the glottic opening, the
intubator receives the tube inhis/her right hand from a previously assigned assistant. The tube is
held like a pencil, between the thumb and first two fingers (figure 12). Having an assistant place
traction on the right corner of the mouth can provide improved visualization and additional room
to accommodate the ET tube entering the mouth (figure 13).
The tube enters the right side of the mouth and is advanced toward the larynx in a horizontal
plane. Passage of the tube directly along the barrel of the laryngoscope blade will obscure the
view of the glottic opening, and should be avoided. The ET tube should be passed through the
vocal cords under direct visualization. Once the tip has passed through the vocal cords, the tube
is rotated to the upright position (figure 14). Although the tendency is for the intubator to move
closer to the patient to improve view, this may compromise binocular vision and depth
perception.
Depth of insertion — The ideal location for the endotracheal (ET) tube tip is at the midpoint
between the thoracic inlet and the carina. There are a number of ways to guide the proper depth
of insertion for the ET tube [59,60]:
●Placing the double line on the uncuffed ET tube at the glottis
●Using the depth provided by the length-based resuscitation tape
●Inserting the tube until the centimeter marking at the lip is three times the internal
diameter of the ET tube
This last calculation will result in the ET tube being correctly positioned more than 80 percent of
the time, when using an appropriately size ET tube [61].
Additional techniques, less commonly used during emergent intubation, include deliberately
advancing the ET tube to create an endobronchial intubation and then withdrawing the tube 2
cm beyond the passage of the carina [62], and palpation of the tube tip at the suprasternal notch
[63].
Initiate positive pressure ventilation — The laryngoscope can now be removed from the
mouth while the tube is held securely against the roof of the mouth, or by grasping the tube
using the index finger and thumb with the remaining three fingers holding the patient's face. If a
cuffed tube is being used, the cuff should be inflated at this time.
Positive pressure ventilation should be initiated with 100 percent inspired oxygen via a
resuscitation bag with a carbon dioxide detector attached to the endotracheal (ET) tube. The
bag should initially be squeezed with enough force and volume to provide chest wall movement.
Subsequent ventilatory strategies can be made based on noninvasive measures of oxygenation
and ventilation or based on results of blood gas analyses. If a large air leak is noted at this time,
cuff inflation may be adjusted accordingly. However, persistent leak may require the tube to be
changed to a larger size.
If an uncuffed ET tube is in place, then the air leak pressures should ideally occur at less than
25 cm H2O, while still allowing for effective ventilation. Air leak pressures up to 40 cm H2O have
been shown to be safe.
Confirming tube position — Immediately following intubation, placement of the endotracheal
(ET) tube in the trachea must be confirmed. Clinical assessment for appropriate tube position
includes:
●Visible chest wall rise
●Auscultation of breath sounds in both axillae and not heard over the stomach
●Continuous pulse oximetry should confirm adequate oxygenation
●Mist should be present in the ET tube
However, because clinical evaluation is not completely accurate, confirmatory devices should
be used [64].
●End-tidal CO2 should be detected using either a colorimetric device or capnography and is
the most definitive method of confirming that the ET tube is in the trachea [15,65].
●A self-inflating bulb may also be used for children weighing more than 20 kg, and may be
particularly useful for confirming tube position in patients in cardiac arrest. (See 'Materials,
equipment, and personnel'above.)
●Although evidence is preliminary, bedside ultrasound can rapidly confirm intratracheal
position when used by properly trained clinicians. (See 'Postintubation and alternative
airway supplies' above.)
Securing the tube — After correct tube position is confirmed, cricoid pressure can be released
if it had been utilized during the intubation. The ET tube must be firmly secured. The most
common approach is to tear longitudinally down the midline of a length of cloth or silk tape,
creating a Y-shape. One segment is wrapped around the tube and the base segment is placed
across the cheek (figure 15). Preparing the underlying skin with a layer of benzoin, which is
allowed to air dry, can provide additional adherence. Alternatively, commercial tracheal tube
holders may be utilized to secure the ETT. These devices have been shown to be rapidly
applied in adults and to have reasonable resistance to extubation forces, although in most
instances, tape is stronger [66]. However, commercial endotracheal tube holders have not been
specifically studied in infants and young children.
Post-intubation care
●Post-intubation imaging – After immediate confirmation of ET tube placement as
described above, an anterior-posterior chest radiograph should be obtained to confirm the
location of the tip of the ET tube [67]. Optimal position is located at a minimum of one to
three centimeters above the carina and below the thoracic inlet. Tube depth may be
adjusted based on radiographic position. Preliminary evidence suggests that bedside
ultrasound, performed by clinicians experienced with this technique, may also be useful for
directly determining the position of the ET tube within the trachea, or confirming
appropriate position by documenting bilateral lung sliding. However, this is not common
practice at this time and should not replace radiography [33-38].
●Gastric decompression – An orogastric or nasogastric tube should be placed following
intubation to decompress the stomach. Gastric distension can occur secondary to crying or
insufflation following BMV. In addition, because emergency intubation may be performed
on non-fasted patients, residual gastric contents may be present and should be evacuated.
Gastric decompression can decrease the risk of aspiration around the ETT, as well as
improve diaphragmatic excursion and patient ventilation.
●Minimize head movement – Care must be taken to avoid significant head movement in
patients who have been intubated. Multiple studies have demonstrated that a significant
percentage of ETTs can become malpositioned with neck movement [68-70]. Flexion of the
neck may result in the tube advancing into an endobronchial position with resultant limited
ventilation of one lung, while neck extension can lead to unintended extubation.
●Positive pressure ventilation – Ventilation strategies vary based on underlying disease
process, whether ongoing sedation and neuromuscular blockade is needed, and
subsequent management plans. These details are discussed elsewhere. (See "Acute
severe asthma exacerbations in children: Intensive care unit
management" and "Mechanical ventilation in neonates".)
COMPLICATIONS — Acute complications from laryngoscopy and intubation can occur at
multiple points during the procedure.
Before laryngoscopy/intubation
●Gastric distension – Bag-mask ventilation (BMV) may cause gastric distension, leading
to diminished lung capacity and increased risk of regurgitation.
•Applying cricoid pressure (Sellick maneuver) may decrease this risk.
•If significant distension has occurred, placing an orogastric or nasogastric tube to
suction can help decompress the stomach. However, gastric tube placement may also
stimulate vomiting in the patient, which will increase the risk of aspiration of gastric
contents.
During laryngoscopy/intubation
●Hypoxemia – Sustained periods of inadequate oxygen delivery may lead to ischemic
brain injury, the most significant complication of ET intubation.
•Inadequate preoxygenation will shorten safe apnea time. Preoxygenation with
FiO2 100 percent for a minimum of three minutes or with BMV as needed will increase
the oxygen reservoir within the patient's lungs, circulation, and tissues.
•Prolonged laryngoscopy (even with adequate preoxygenation) will lead to hypoxemia.
Monitoring via continuous pulse oximetry is essential to recognize inadequate
oxygenation. If desaturation occurs, the intubation attempt should be discontinued.
Before another attempt is initiated, the patient should receive BMV until
oxyhemoglobin saturations improve. If cricoid pressure is in place, then it should be
continued during BMV provided it is not compromising ventilation.
An alternative approach is to time laryngoscopy duration during the intubation attempt
and discontinue it if the attempt is unsuccessful within a specific time period (eg, 30
seconds). This may prevent oxyhemoglobin desaturation during pediatric rapid
sequence intubation but may also result in more laryngoscopy attempts. In one
observational study that used video review of 114 children (median age 2.4 years)
undergoing rapid sequence intubation in a pediatric emergency department, at least
one episode of oxyhemoglobin desaturation (pulse oximetry <90 percent) occurred in
33 percent of patients [71]. Oxyhemoglobin desaturation was more common in
children two years of age or younger compared to older children (59 versus 10
percent) and was strongly associated with the duration of laryngoscopy; 82 percent of
patients experiencing desaturations had laryngoscopy durations of 30 seconds or
longer. There was no association between the number of intubation attempts and
desaturation.
●Bradycardia – Profound bradycardia can occur during laryngoscopy and intubation as
follows:
•Vagal response from stimulation of the hypopharynx, lifting the epiglottis, or rarely,
the use ofsuccinylcholine can lead to bradycardia, particularly in infants and young
children [72].
•Hypoxemia can also result in secondary bradycardia in infants.
•Atropine may help prevent vagal mediated bradycardia but will be ineffective in cases
of hypoxemia. Recommendations support prophylactic use of atropine in infants and
young children under five years of age receiving succinylcholine as well as older
children who are receiving a second dose of succinylcholine. (See "Rapid sequence
intubation (RSI) in children".)
●Increased intracranial pressure (ICP) – Intracranial pressure may increase during
laryngoscopy as a result of increased cerebral arterial pressure during laryngoscopy
[73,74].
•Increases in ICP are of little clinical significance except for patients who already have
elevated pressures, and in most circumstances, the benefits of securing the airway
and preventing hypoxemia are critical in these patients. Adequate use of sedatives
and premedication may help attenuate increases in ICP. (See "Rapid sequence
intubation (RSI) in children".)
●Mechanical trauma – Soft tissue injury can occur anywhere along the extrathoracic
airway.
•Laryngoscopy may cause trauma to the alveolar ridge or teeth. Use of the upper
incisors or maxillary gums as a fulcrum during laryngoscopy greatly increases this
risk.
•Abrasion or laceration of the lips, tonsils, or pharyngeal mucosa can occur and may
lead to bleeding, which can impair visualization and lead to airway obstruction.
•The laryngoscope blade or ET tube can injure the vocal cords and lead to vocal cord
paralysis. Using equipment of appropriate size and ensuring laryngoscopy and
intubation are performed under direct visualization minimizes this risk.
●Aspiration – Aspiration of oral or gastric contents during laryngoscopy or intubation can
occur. The severity of any subsequent pneumonitis is related to the acidity, volume, and
presence of particulate matter in the aspirated material.
•In inadequately sedated patients, direct laryngoscopy may stimulate the gag reflex,
which may induce vomiting.
•Cricoid pressure may help prevent passive regurgitation, although data are limited.
Cricoid pressure is not indicated during forceful vomiting due to the risk of esophageal
rupture.
After intubation
●Hypoxemia – Inadequate oxygenation following laryngoscopy and attempted intubation
will have different etiologies than those occurring during the procedure.
●Esophageal or tracheal tube malposition – Unrecognized esophageal tube position is
a relatively common etiology of hypoxemia after attempted endotracheal (ET) intubation
[75,76]. In most cases, this can be identified with absence/loss of end-tidal CO2 detection
even before hypoxemia occurs [77,78].
•The ET tube may be advanced too far, resulting in an endobronchial intubation, most
commonly right mainstem, aerating only one lung.
•An ET tube which is not advanced past the thoracic inlet is at increased risk of
becoming dislodged, leading to inadequate oxygenation.
•Confirming ET tube position by chest radiograph, minimizing head movement
following intubation, and utilizing continuous oxygen saturation monitoring and
quantitative end-tidal CO2 detection (where available) can help prevent complications
from a malpositioned tube.
●Tube obstruction – Obstruction of an ET tube can occur when the tube tip is against a
mucosal surface, from intraluminal inspissated secretions, or if the tube kinks. Inadequate
air flow can result in hypoxemia and hypercapnia.
•Repositioning the head may relieve distal tip obstruction or kinking.
•Deep suctioning with a flexible catheter following instillation of saline is often effective
in removing secretions and restoring tube patency.
•If neither of these techniques resolves the obstruction, the tube should be removed
and BMV initiated, until a new ET tube can be placed.
●Barotrauma – By definition, positive pressure ventilation puts patients at risk for
pulmonary barotrauma, including pneumomediastinum and pneumothorax.
•Patients with chronic lung disease and decreased lung compliance are at higher risk.
•Pneumomediastinum is self-limited and usually requires no intervention.
•Patients who develop pneumothorax while receiving positive pressure ventilation may
develop tension physiology and therefore require concomitant tube thoracostomy.
●Post-obstructive pulmonary edema – When intubation is performed to relieve upper
airway obstruction, the resultant changes in intrathoracic pressure can lead to pulmonary
edema [79,80].
•Post-obstructive pulmonary edema, also known as negative pressure pulmonary
edema, is difficult to prevent once obstruction has occurred.
•Treatment is supportive with supplemental O2, positive pressure ventilation, and
diuretics in patients who have no hemodynamic compromise.
●Adverse events from medications – Complications related to medications for sedation
and neuromuscular blockade may also occur. This may include medication-specific
adverse reactions as well as complications from dosing outside the therapeutic window.
(See "Rapid sequence intubation (RSI) in children".)
SUMMARY
●Specific indications for intubation fall into four different categories
(see 'Indications' above):
•Inadequate oxygenation or ventilation (table 1) (see "Emergency evaluation and
immediate management of acute respiratory distress in children", section on
'Evaluation')
•Inability to maintain and/or protect the airway
•Potential for clinical deterioration
•Prolonged diagnostic studies or transport in an unstable patient
●Assessment and management of the airway is always the first priority in caring for acutely
ill or injured children. Thus, there are no absolute contraindications for endotracheal
intubation (ETI) by appropriately trained providers. Relative contraindications are
uncommon but do exist and primarily relate to the need to move to a more controlled
environment or to perform a surgical approach to the airway. (See'Contraindications and
precautions' above.)
●Anatomic features of the airways of infants and children that affect the approach to
intubation are reviewed in detail separately. (See "Emergency airway management in
children: Unique pediatric considerations".)
●Success in airway management depends on careful patient assessment, implementation
of an appropriate endotracheal intubation plan, and gathering and testing of all necessary
equipment. (See 'Preparation'above.)
●Appropriate equipment size by age and the key steps in successful performance of oral
endotracheal intubation in children are shown in the tables (table 8 and table 7 and table
10). (See 'Procedure' above.)
●A mnemonic (STOP MAID!) has been developed to help practitioners remember the
preparatory tools and steps for endotracheal intubation (table 11). (See 'Procedure' above.)
●Immediately following intubation, placement of the endotracheal (ET) tube in the trachea
must be confirmed using an end-tidal carbon dioxide (EtCO2) detector and clinical
assessment. A self-inflating bulb may also be used for children weighing more than 20 kg,
and may be particularly useful for confirming tube position in patients in cardiac arrest.
(See 'Confirming tube position' above.)
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