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The
Musculoskeletal
System
Types of Skeletal Systems
Bone
Joints and Skeletal Movement
Muscle Contraction and Locomotion
The Musculoskeletal System
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The Musculoskeletal System > Types of Skeletal Systems
Types of Skeletal Systems
• Functions of the Musculoskeletal System
• Types of Skeletal Systems
• Human Axial Skeleton
• Human Appendicular Skeleton
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The Musculoskeletal System > Bone
Bone
• Bone
• Cell Types in Bones
• Bone Development
• Growth of Bone
• Bone Remodeling and Repair
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The Musculoskeletal System > Joints and Skeletal Movement
Joints and Skeletal Movement
• Classification of Joints on the Basis of Structure and Function
• Movement at Synovial Joints
• Types of Synovial Joints
• Bone and Joint Disorders
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The Musculoskeletal System > Muscle Contraction and Locomotion
Muscle Contraction and Locomotion
• Structure and Function of the Muscular System
• Skeletal Muscle Fibers
• Sliding Filament Model of Contraction
• ATP and Muscle Contraction
• Regulatory Proteins
• Excitation–Contraction Coupling
• Control of Muscle Tension
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Appendix
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The Musculoskeletal System
Key terms
• A-band The length of a myosin myofilament within a sarcomere.
• abduction moving a bone away from the midline of the body
• acetylcholine a neurotransmitter in humans and other animals, which is an ester of acetic acid and choline
• acetylcholinesterase an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine into choline and acetic acid
• actin A protein which forms myofilaments that interact with myosin filaments to generate tension.
• adduction the movement of a bone toward the midline of the body
• amphiarthrosis slightly movable joint in which the surfaces of bones are connected by ligaments or cartilage
• appendicular of or pertaining to a limb or appendage
• arthritis A joint disorder that involves inflammation in one or more joints.
• arthritis inflammation of a joint or joints causing pain and/or disability, swelling, and stiffness due to various causes, such as
infection, trauma, degenerative changes, or metabolic disorders
• articulate to form a joint or connect by joints
• ATPase a class of enzymes that catalyze the decomposition of ATP into ADP and a free phosphate ion, releasing energy that
is often harnessed to drive other chemical reactions
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The Musculoskeletal System
• axial skeleton the bones of the head and trunk of an organism
• ball-and-socket joint consists of a rounded, ball-like end of one bone fitting into a cup-like socket of another bone, allowing the
first segment to move around an indefinite number of axes which have one common center
• callus the material of repair in fractures of bone which is at first soft or cartilaginous in consistency, but is ultimately converted
into true bone and unites the fragments into a single piece
• canaliculus any of many small canals or ducts in bone or in some plants
• chondrocyte a cell that makes up the tissue of cartilage
• chondrocyte a cell that makes up the tissue of cartilage
• clavicle the collar bone; the prominent bone at the top of the chest between the shoulder and the neck
• coelom a fluid-filled cavity within the body of an animal; the digestive system is suspended within the cavity, which is lined by a
tissue called the peritoneum
• concave curved or bowed inward like the inner surface of a sphere or bowl
• condyloid joint consists of an oval-shaped end of one bone fitting into a similarly oval-shaped hollow of another bone
• convex curved or bowed outward like the outside of a bowl, sphere or circle
• diaphysis the central shaft of any long bone
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The Musculoskeletal System
• diaphysis the central shaft of any long bone
• diarthrosis a joint that can move freely in various planes
• endochondral within cartilage
• endoskeleton the internal skeleton of an animal, which in vertebrates is comprised of bone and cartilage
• endosteum a membranous vascular layer of cells which line the medullary cavity of a bone
• epiphysis the rounded end of any long bone
• epiphysis the rounded end of any long bone
• exoskeleton a hard outer structure that provides both structure and protection to creatures such as insects, Crustacea, and
Nematoda
• fibroblast a cell found in connective tissue that produces fibers, such as collagen
• H-band The area adjacent to the M-line, where myosin myofilaments are not superimposed by actin myofilaments.
• hypertrophy to increase in size
• I-band The area adjacent to the Z-line, where actin myofilaments are not superimposed by myosin myofilaments.
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The Musculoskeletal System
• intervertebral disc a disc between the vertebra in the spine
• involuntary A muscle movement not under conscious control (e.g. the beating of the heart).
• lacuna a small opening; a small pit or depression; a small blank space; a gap or vacancy; a hiatus
• M-line the disc in the middle of the sarcomere, inside the H-zone
• M-line The line at the center of a sarcomere to which myosin myofilaments bind.
• medullary pertaining to, consisting of, or resembling, marrow or medulla
• metaphysis the part of a long bone that grows during development
• motor-end plate postjunctional folds which increase the surface area of the membrane (and acetylcholine receptors) exposed to
the synaptic cleft
• musculoskeletal system an organ system made up of the muscular and skeletal systems; the system provides form, support,
stability, and movement to the body
• myocyte A muscle cell.
• myofibril A fiber made up of several myofilaments that facilitates the generation of tension in a myocyte.
• myofilament A filament composed of either multiple myosin or actin proteins that slide over each other to generate tension.
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The Musculoskeletal System
• myosin A motor protein which forms myofilaments that interact with actin filaments to generate tension.
• ossicle a small bone (or bony structure), especially one of the three of the middle ear
• ossification the normal process by which bone is formed
• osteoblast a mononucleate cell from which bone develops
• osteoclast a large multinuclear cell associated with the resorption of bone
• osteocyte a mature bone cell involved with the maintenance of bone
• osteocyte a mature bone cell involved with the maintenance of bone
• osteoid an organic matrix of protein and polysaccharides, secreted by osteoblasts, that becomes bone after mineralization
• osteon any of the central canals and surrounding bony layers found in compact bone
• osteoprogenitor a stem cell that is the precursor of an osteoblast
• periosteum a membrane surrounding a bone
• periosteum a membrane surrounding a bone
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The Musculoskeletal System
• peristalsis the rhythmic, wave-like contraction and relaxation of muscles which propagates in a wave down a muscular tube
• pronation the action of rotating the forearm so that the palm of the hand is turned down or back
• prosthesis an artificial replacement for a body part, either internal or external
• rheumatoid arthritis chronic, progressive disease in which the immune system attacks the joints; characterized by pain,
inflammation and swelling of the joints, stiffness, weakness, loss of mobility, and deformity
• sarcolemma a thin cell membrane that surrounds a striated muscle fiber
• sarcolemma The cell membrane of a myocyte.
• sarcomere The functional contractile unit of the myofibril of a striated muscle.
• sarcoplasm The cytoplasm of a myocyte.
• sarcoplasmic reticulum s smooth endoplasmic reticulum found in smooth and striated muscle; it contains large stores of
calcium, which it sequesters and then releases when the muscle cell is stimulated
• sarcoplasmic reticulum The equivalent of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum in a myocyte.
• scapula either of the two large, flat, bones forming the back of the shoulder
• spicule a sharp, needle-like piece
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The Musculoskeletal System
• striated The striped appearance of certain muscle types in which myofibrils are aligned to produce a constant directional
tension.
• supination the action of rotating the forearm so that the palm of the hand is turned up or forward
• synarthrosis immovable joint in which two bones are connected rigidly by fibrous tissue
• synovial fluid a viscous, fluid found in the cavities of synovial joints whose main purpose is to reduce friction between the
articular cartilage of synovial joints during movement
• synovial joints The most common type of joint in the body, which includes a joint cavity.
• tension condition of being held in a state between two or more forces, which are acting in opposition to each other
• trabecula a small mineralized spicule that forms a network in spongy bone
• tropomyosin any of a family of muscle proteins that regulate the interaction of actin and myosin
• troponin a complex of three regulatory proteins that is integral to muscle contraction in skeletal and cardiac muscle, or any
member of this complex
• vertebral column the series of vertebrae that protect the spinal cord; the spinal column
• voluntary A muscle movement under conscious control (e.g. deciding to move the forearm).
• Z-line Neighbouring, parallel lines that define a sarcomere.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Vertebral column
(a) The vertebral column consists of seven cervical vertebrae (C1–7), twelve thoracic vertebrae (Th1–12), five lumbar vertebrae (L1–5), the sacrum, and
the coccyx. (b) Spinal curves increase the strength and flexibility of the spine.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Excitation-contraction coupling
This diagram shows excitation-contraction coupling in a skeletal muscle contraction. The sarcoplasmic reticulum is a specialized endoplasmic reticulum
found in muscle cells.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Angular and rotational movements
Synovial joints give the body many ways in which to move. (a)–(b) Flexion and extension motions are in the sagittal (anterior–posterior) plane of motion.
These movements take place at the shoulder, hip, elbow, knee, wrist, metacarpophalangeal, metatarsophalangeal, and interphalangeal joints. (c)–(d)
Anterior bending of the head or vertebral column is flexion, while any posterior movement of the head is extension. (e) Abduction and adduction are
motions of the limbs, hand, fingers, or toes in the coronal (medial–lateral) plane of movement. Moving the limb or hand laterally away from the body, or
spreading the fingers or toes, is abduction. Adduction brings the limb or hand toward or across the midline of the body or brings the fingers or toes
together. Circumduction is the movement of the limb, hand, or fingers in a circular pattern, using the sequential combination of flexion, adduction,
extension, and abduction motions. Adduction/abduction and circumduction take place at the shoulder, hip, wrist, metacarpophalangeal, and
metatarsophalangeal joints. (f) Turning of the head side to side or twisting of the body is rotation. Medial and lateral rotation of the upper limb at the
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shoulder or lower limb at the hip involves turning the anterior surface of the limb toward the Free
midline
of the body (medial or internal rotation) or away from
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the midline (lateral or external rotation).
The Musculoskeletal System
Components of compact bone tissue
Compact bone tissue consists of osteons that are aligned parallel to the long axis of the bone and the Haversian canal that contains the bone's blood
vessels and nerve fibers. The inner layer of bones consists of spongy bone tissue. The small dark ovals in the osteon represent the living osteocytes.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Types of synovial joints
The six types of synovial joints allow the body to move in a variety of ways. (a) Pivot joints allow for rotation around an axis, such as between the first
and second cervical vertebrae, which allows for side-to-side rotation of the head. (b) The hinge joint of the elbow works like a door hinge. (c) The
articulation between the trapezium carpal bone and the first metacarpal bone at the base of the thumb is a saddle joint. (d) Planar (or plane) joints, such
as those between the tarsal bones of the foot, allow for limited gliding movements between bones. (e) The radiocarpal joint of the wrist is a condyloid
joint. (f) The hip and shoulder joints are the only ball-and-socket joints of the body.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Ball-and-socket
The shoulder joint is an example of a ball-and-socket joint.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Osteoarthritis of the Finger Joints
The formation of hard nobs at the middle finger joints (known as Bouchard's nodes) and at the farther away finger joint (known as Heberden's node) are
a common feature of Osteoarthritis in the hands.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Thoracic cage
The thoracic cage, or rib cage, protects the heart and the lungs.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Appendicular skeleton
The appendicular skeleton is composed of the bones of the pectoral limbs (arm, forearm, hand), the pelvic limbs (thigh, leg, foot), the pectoral girdle, and
the pelvic girdle.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Pectoral girdle
(a) The pectoral girdle in primates consists of the clavicles and scapulae. (b) The posterior view reveals the spine of the scapula to which muscle
attaches.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Cranial and facial bones
The facial bones of the skull form the face and provide cavities for the eyes, nose, and mouth. The cranial bones, including the frontal, parietal, temporal,
occipital, ethmoid, and sphenoid bones.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Exoskeletons
Muscles attached to the exoskeleton of the Halloween crab (Gecarcinus quadratus) allow it to move.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Upper limb
The upper limb consists of the humerus of the upper arm, the radius and ulna of the forearm, eight bones of the carpus, five bones of the metacarpus,
and 14 bones of the phalanges.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Lower limb
The lower limb consists of the thigh (femur), kneecap (patella), leg (tibia and fibula), ankle (tarsals), and foot (metatarsals and phalanges) bones.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Arrangement of trabeculae in spongy bone
Trabeculae in spongy bone are arranged such that one side of the bone bears tension and the other withstands compression.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Cross-bridge muscle contraction cycle
The cross-bridge muscle contraction cycle, which is triggered by Ca2+ binding to the actin active site, is shown. With each contraction cycle, actin moves
relative to myosin.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Process of endochondral ossification
Endochondral ossification is the process of bone development from hyaline cartilage. The periosteum is the connective tissue on the outside of bone that
acts as the interface between bone, blood vessels, tendons, and ligaments.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Gout
Gout presenting in the metatarsal-phalangeal joint of the big toe: Note the slight redness of the skin overlying the joint.
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The Musculoskeletal System
From epiphyseal plate to epiphyseal line
As a bone matures, the epiphyseal plate progresses to an epiphyseal line. (a) Epiphyseal plates are visible in a growing bone. (b) Epiphyseal lines are
the remnants of epiphyseal plates in a mature bone.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Rheumatoid Arthritis
A untreated hand affected by rheumatoid arthritis.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Muscle tension
Muscle tension is produced when the maximum amount of cross-bridges are formed, either within a muscle with a large diameter or when the maximum
number of muscle fibers are stimulated. Muscle tone is residual muscle tension that resists passive stretching during the resting phase.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Hydrostatic skeleton
The skeleton of the red-knobbed sea star (Protoreaster linckii) is an example of a hydrostatic skeleton.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Endoskeletons
The skeletons of humans and horses are examples of endoskeletons. They provide bodies with support, protection of organs, and aid in movement.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Axial skeleton
The axial skeleton consists of the bones of the skull, ossicles of the middle ear, hyoid bone, vertebral column, and rib cage.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Skull
The bones of the skull support the structures of the face and protect the brain.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Muscle contraction
Calcium remains in the sarcoplasmic reticulum until released by a stimulus. Calcium then binds to troponin, causing the troponin to change shape and
remove the tropomyosin from the binding sites. Cross-bridge cling continues until the calcium ions and ATP are no longer available.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Foot and ankle
This drawing shows the bones of the human foot and ankle, including the metatarsals and the phalanges.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Longitudinal bone growth
The epiphyseal plate is responsible for longitudinal bone growth. This illustration shows the zones bordering the epiphyseal plate of the epiphysis. The
topmost layer of the epiphysis is the reserve zone. The second zone, the proliferative zone, is where chondrocytes are continually undergoing mitosis.
The next zone is the zone of maturation and hypertrophy where lipids, glycogen, and alkaline phosphatase accumulate, causing the cartilaginous matrix
to calcify. The following zone is the calcified matrix where the chondrocytes have hardened and die as the matrix around them has calcified. The bottommost row is the zone of ossification which is part of the metaphysis. The newly-deposited bone tissue at the top of the zone of ossification is called the
primary spongiosa, while the older bone is labeled the secondary spongiosa.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Condyloid
The metacarpophalangeal joints in the finger are examples of condyloid joints.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Joints, tendons, and ligaments
To allow motion, different bones are connected by joints. Within these joints, bones are connected to other bones and muscle fibers via connective tissue
such as tendons and ligaments.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Stages of fracture repair
The healing of a bone fracture follows a series of progressive steps: (a) A fracture hematoma forms. (b) Internal and external calli form. (c) Cartilage of
the calli is replaced by trabecular bone. (d) Remodeling occurs.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Special movements
(g) Supination of the forearm turns the palm upward in which the radius and ulna are parallel, while forearm pronation turns the palm downward in which
the radius crosses over the ulna to form an "X." (h) Dorsiflexion of the foot at the ankle joint moves the top of the foot toward the leg, while plantar flexion
lifts the heel and points the toes. (i) Eversion of the foot moves the bottom (sole) of the foot away from the midline of the body, while foot inversion faces
the sole toward the midline. (j) Protraction of the mandible pushes the chin forward, while retraction pulls the chin back. (k) Depression of the mandible
opens the mouth, while elevation closes it. (l) Opposition of the thumb brings the tip of the thumb into contact with the tip of the fingers of the same hand.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Synovial Joints
Synovial joints are the only joints that have a space or "synovial cavity" in the joint.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Sutures
Sutures are fibrous joints found only in the skull.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Prostheses
Improvements in the design of prostheses, artificial replacements for body parts such as joints, elbows, legs, and fingers, have allowed for a wider range
of activities in impaired recipients.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Human skeletal system
The bones of the skeletal system protect the body's internal organs, support the weight of the body, and serve as the main storage system for calcium
and phosphorus.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Human muscular system
The muscles of the muscular system keep bones in place while assisting with movement by contracting and pulling on the bones.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Gomphoses
Gomphoses are fibrous joints between the teeth and their sockets.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Types of muscle
The body contains three types of muscle tissue: skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle, visualized here using light microscopy. Visible
striations in skeletal and cardiac muscle are visible, differentiating them from the more randomised appearance of smooth muscle.
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The Musculoskeletal System
The muscular system
Skeletal muscle of the muscular system is closely associated with the skeletal system and acts to maintain posture and control voluntary movement.
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The Musculoskeletal System
The sarcomere and the sliding filament model of contraction
During contraction myosin ratchets along actin myofilaments compressing the I and H bands. During stretching this tension is release and the I and H
bands expand. The A-band remains constant throughout as the length of the myosin myofilaments does not change.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Myocyte: Skeletal muscle cell
A skeletal muscle cell is surrounded by a plasma membrane called the sarcolemma with a cytoplasm called the sarcoplasm. A muscle fiber is composed
of many myofibrils, packaged into orderly units.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Sarcomere
The sarcomere is the functional contractile region of the myocyte, and defines the region of interaction between a set of thick and thin filaments.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Bone cell types
Table listing the function and location of the four types of bone cells.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Four types of bone cells
Four types of cells are found within bone tissue. Osteogenic cells are undifferentiated and develop into osteoblasts. When osteoblasts get trapped within
the calcified matrix, their structure and function changes; they become osteocytes. Osteoclasts develop from monocytes and macrophages and differ in
appearance from other bone cells.
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The Musculoskeletal System
Attribution
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• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//biology/definition/condyloid-joint
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• Wikipedia. "Arthritis." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthritis
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