Download KITOBcomparative typology of english uzbek and russian languages

MINISTRY OF HIGHER AND SECONDARY SPECIAL EDUCATION OF
THE REPUBLIC UZBEKISTAN
UZBEKISTAN STATE WORLD LANGUAGES UNIVERSITY
M.I.Rasulova, Z.I.Shukurova
COMPARATIVE TYPOLOGY OF
ENGLISH, UZBEK AND RUSSIAN
LANGUAGES
Tashkent-2017
1
CONTENT
Preface…………………………………………………………………………………4
I.
Comparative Typology as a branch of General Linguistics
1.1. Comparative Typology: subject matter, types, tasks, approaches…. 5
1.2. Historical background of typological investigations…........................8
1.3. Classification of Comparative Typology by Dr. Buranov……………12
1.4. Types of language comparison……………………………………… 20
Seminar 1………………………………………………………………………24
Seminar 2………………………………………………………………………29
Tests on topics of the chapter………………………………………………………33
II.
Typology of phonetic and phonological levels of English and
Native languages
2.1. Phonetics and phonology as different branches of Linguistics……37
2.2.Typological characteristics of English and Native languages phonetic
system …………………………………………………………………………42
2.3.Typological characteristics of English and Native languages
phonological system…………………………………………………………..48
Seminar 3……………………………………………………………………….57
Seminar 4……………………………………………………………………….61
Tests on topics of the chapter………………………………………………………65
III. Typology of morphological level of English and Native Languages
3.1. Theoretical basis of determining necessary constants in morphological
level……………………………………………………………………………..69
3.2. Typology of parts of speech in English and Native Languages……76
3.3. Typology of Grammatical Categories in English and Native
Languages………………………………………………………………………81
Seminar 5………………………………………………………………………..87
Seminar 6………………………………………………………………………..90
Tests on topics of the chapter…………………………………………………………94
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IV. Typology of syntactic level of English and Native Language
4.1. Typology of phrases/word-combinations…………………………….103
4.2. Typology of sentences…………………………………………………. 117
Seminar 7………………………………………………………………………124
Seminar 8………………………………………………………………………132
Tests on topics of the chapter……………………………………………………….137
V.Typology of lexical level of English and Native Languages
5.1. Lexical Typology and its branches……………………………………141
5.2. Comparative analysis of English and Native languages words…….151
5.3. Comparative analysis of English and Native languages wordformation types ………………………………………………………………162
Seminar 9………………………………………………………………………173
Seminar 10……………………………………………………………………. 179
Tests on topics of the chapter……………………………………………………… 184
VI.
Interrelation of typology with anthropological trends of linguistic.
6.1. Comparative Typology in Modern trends of linguistics…………………… 189
6.2. Typology of cultural concepts of English and Native language……………191
6.3.
Typology in gender linguistics of English and Native language………..195
Seminar 11…………………………………………………………………………202
Tests on topics of the chapter……………………………………………………….207
Answer keys ………………..………………………………………………………..211
Bibliography ……………………………………………………………………….. 261
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Preface
The manual “Comparative Typology of English and Native Languages”
is intended for students of Bachelor’s degree. The textbook can be used by the
students, teachers specializing in English at Universities, Pedagogical Institutes,
Institutes of foreign languages and specialists engaged in the field of Comparative
Linguistics, and those, who are interested in the problems of the contrastive study
of language description.
Present-day Comparative Linguistics has been developing in compliance
with new modern research paradigms, under the influence of which it has
undergone radical changes. The main innovation of the book lies in the
anthropocentric approach to linguistic phenomena, their analysis within the
framework of Communicative and Pragmatic Linguistics, Cognitive Linguistics,
Linguoculturology and Gender Linguistics. Therefore there was the pressing need
to reconsider traditional notions and introduce new terms, such as categorization
and conceptualization. Interdisciplinary status of Comparative Linguistics.
The book consists of 6 units and every unit contains two parts that is
theoretical and practical.
 The main notions and trends of Comparative Linguistics, its history
evaluation, different approaches and views;
 Typology of phonetic and phonological levels of English and Native
languages;
 Typology of morphological level of English and Native languages;
 Typology of syntactic level of English and Native languages;
 Typology of Lexical level of English and Native languages;
 Interrelation of Typology with anthropological trends of Modern
Linguistics
Some fundamental problems of Comparative Linguistics were discussed
in theoretical part which contains key points for discussion; questions for selfcontrol; rcommended literature; topics for independent work for students; the list
of key-words.
Practical part is followed by a set of activities (classroom and for selfimprovement) and tasks enabling the students to test their knowledge. Besides,
there is an extended list of topics for presentation relevant to the subject of the
manual. The accompanying list of bibliographical reference will serve as a guide to
those who wish to attain a more complete view of the topics discussed. The list of
keys of activities is followed the reference.
Appended to the book is a glossary of terms and notions given in a
compact and comprehensive form.
We are grateful to professor Siddikova I.A. and Ass.professor Nishonov
M.N. who reviewed the manual and made many valuable suggestions.
The authors
4
I. Comparative Typology as a branch of General
Linguistics
1.1. Comparative Typology: subject matter, types, tasks,
approaches
Key points for discussion:
 Subject matter, types, tasks, approaches
 Historical background of typological investifations
 Classification of Comparative Typology accjrding to Dr
Buranov
 Types of language comparison
Comparative typology is a field of linguistics that studies and
classifies languages according to their structural and functional features. Its aim is
to describe and explain the common properties and the structural diversity of the
world's languages.
According to William Croft’s book “Typology and Universals”, the
term ‘typology’ is roughly synonymous with ‘taxonomy’/’classification’ and given
the following definition:
Typology is a
classification of
structural types
across languages
TYPOLOGY
Typology is the study
of patterns that occur
systematically across
languages
Typology represents an
approach or theoretical
framework to the study of
language that contrasts with
prior approaches
From anetymological point of view, the word typology consists of two
Greek morphemes: a) typosmeans “type” and b) logos means “science”. Typology
5
is a branch of science, which is typical to all sciences without any exception. In
this respect, their typological method is not limited to the sphere of one science. It
has a universal rise. Therefore, typology may be divided into:
1.
Non-linguistic typology
2.
Linguistic typology
Non-linguistic typology is the subject matter of the sciences except
linguistics. It can be political typology, medical, historical, botanic, psychological,
mathematical or economic typology as well. General and solitary differences and
similarities are typical to all sciences. Some branches isolate systemic comparison
into an independent sub-branch within the frames of a more general science: e.g.
comparative psychology first mentioned in the works of Aristotle who described
psychological similarities between animals and human beings. One the most wellknown representatives of Comparative Psychologywas Charles Darwin.
Comparative Pedagogy deals with general and distinctive features,
development trends and prospective of theory, applied instruction and upbringing
methods, reveals their economic, social political and philosophic backgrounds.
Historical typology analyses historic facts and produces comparative
inventory based on the history of each nation/ethnicity to reveal general trends,
differences, and similarities. E.g. based on French revolution of 1848 the major
signs of revolutionary situation were revealed.
Literary criticism ot rapid development in the second half of XIX century
simultaneously with thedevelopment of comparative linguistics. In Russia, the
representatives of comparative linguistics were P.M. Samarin, V.M. Jirmunskiy,
M.P. Alekseev, N.I. Conrad, I.G. Neupokoeva, etc.
The two sciences — ComparativeTypology and Literary criticism have a
number of similarities:
 linguistic comparison deals with identifying universal principles of
thecomparative description of the systems of national languages.
Literary criticism establishes general principles of typological
description of national literature;
 both sciences deal with identifying systemic features and discover
typological isomorphism which can be conditioned structurally,
genetically and geographically, etc.
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Comparative typology is one of the branches of General Linguistics, which
studies the systems of languages comparatively, also finds common laws of
languages and establishes differences and
similarities between them.Moreover, due to
David Crystal’s book “Dictionary of Linguistics
and Phonetics”, Comparative Typology is
explained in this way: “A branch of linguistics
which studies thestructural similarities between
languages, regardlessof their history, as part of
an
attempt
to
establisha
satisfactory
classification
or
typology
oflanguages.
Typological
comparison
is
thus
distinguishedfrom the historical comparison
oflanguages […] and its groupings may not
coincidewith those set up by the historical
method”.
The most popular definition of the subject matter seems to be
“ComparativeTypology” is a branch of General Linguistics, field of astudy aiming
at identifying such similarities and distinctive features of languages that do not
depend on genetic origin or influence of languages to one another. Typology
strives to identify and look at the most significant features that affect other spheres
of language systems, e.g. the way of thejunction of meaningful parts of the word or
the so-called structure of the sentence in the language". Typological studies base
on materials of representative sampling from many world languages so that the
findings and conclusions made on the results of such analysis can be applied to the
entire majority of languages (in cases of language universals).
Comparative typology shows special interest in the so-called exotic or nonstudied languages, e.g. languages of ethnicities of South-East Asia, Africa, Ocean
side or American Indian tribes. Still, the data of well-known, expanded and wellstudied languages the similar extent become the subject matter of a typological
study.
Comparative typology not only systemizes, generalizes and classifies the
facts of language isomorphism and allomorphism but also explains them.
The majority of prestigious linguistic theories have their own typological
agenda aimed at theoretical analysis of structurally different languages, their
location, and genetic origin.
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Nowadays many terms are used for defining this very type of science, such
as Linguistic Typology, Comparative Typology, and Contrastive Linguistucs,
Charaxterology and so on. However, with the help of analyzing historical
background, we will be able to realize the main notion of this branch of
Linguistics.
1.2. Historical background of typological investigations
The questions of timing the history of linguistic comparison are quite complicated and are the ones, which have not found their final solution yet. The history of
linguistic comparison is an integral part of linguistic science development, which is
bound with the history of thenation and cognition. That is why there are no generally
accepted criteria for timing this problem yet. We will see Dr. Buranov’s viewpoint.
In his book “Сравнительнаятипологияанглийскогоитюркскихязыков” he
identifies 4 periods in the history of typological studies:
The first period is characterized as a spontaneous or
evolutionary. It begins with the emergence of the first
linguistic works. That
period was over not long
before the Renaissance.
In Ancient Greece, the
language was studied in
the
frames
of
philosophy. The major
issue, which was in the
focus of discussion, was acorrelation of substances to
their names. Still, already in the works of Protagoras
and Aristotle, there are statements related to
distinguishing words, word combinations, linguistic
categories like gender, case, number, thedefinition of the sentence, classification of
words into names and actions or parts of speech. These works served as the basis for
distinguishing linguistics into an independent science. E.g. many scholars, while
compiling grammars of separate languages used the models of the languages with
already described grammatical structures. (The principle of analogy). For example,
while compiling the first English grammars the models of Latin were widely used.
The first grammars for the European languages were based on the Latin Grammars.
8
The second period is characterized as a period ofestablishing the first scientific
comparison of languages and this period is related to the General and Rational
Grammar: Port-Royal Grammar by Arnauld A., Lancelot C, (XVII c.) in Indo-European languages. Port-Royal Grammar can be
considered one of the most precious contributions
to thedevelopment of Comparative Typology. It
was developed by 2 French monks in the small
abbey Port-Royal in the suburbs of Paris
(published in 1660). It is the synthesis of linguistic
and philosophic ideas of that time. The languages
(French, Latin, Greek and ancient Jewish/ Ides)
with thedifferent genealogic origin and typological
structure were compared based on the criteria and
principles elaborated by Arnauld A. and Claude
Lancelot.
Comparative study of Turkic language has its own history. Divan-Lugat At-Turk by
Mahmud Kashgariy is considered
the most solid work on thelinguistic
comparison of Turkic languages.
Mahmud
Kashgariy
analyzed
phonetic, grammatical and lexical
units of a group of Turkic languages
and defined the level of their
genetic relation to each other.
Further development of comparative
study can be traced in theappearance of
glossaries and dictionaries, e.g. TurkicMongol-Persian dictionary compiled in
Egypt (1245), Latin-Persian Kypchak
dictionary (XII c), and other works.
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One of the most prominent work is the poem
of Alisher Navoi "Muhokamatul al-Lugatain" (Debate
of two languages) written in 1499. Navoi compares
lexical, grammatical and word building specificities
of 2 genetically non-related languages: old Uzbek and
Persian. Navoi reveals a number of language
specificities of Uzbek, which did not have direct
correspondences in Persian, e.g. suffixes of
reflexivity,
reciprocity,
causation,
modality,
comparativeness, etc.
The third period is relatedto development of comparative historical linguistics,
genealogical and typological classification of languages, (mid- XIX c.)
The fourth period is related to establishing of Comparative Typology as a
separate science with the bulk of General Linguistics. It coincides with the XX
century.
The science of linguistic comparison was developing quite slowly and a number of
factors played an important role to foster that process.They were also suggested by
Dr. Buranov.
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The first factor istypological imitation,
means using identified style or form of languages
to explain another language. For example, the
first Latin grammar "De Lingua Latina" (117-27
ВС) by Varron was written with the use
of the ancient Greek language grammars
compiled by Greek philosophers. His
great contributions were changing 5
cases in Greek into 6 and 8 parts of
speech into 7 in English.
Later, the grammar of European
languages was shaped based on Latin
and
Greek
languages.
Besides,
nowadays not only grammar but poetic
speech and other language units are still
based on Greek grammar.
Also, while studying certain categories of one language scholars very often
use the models of more researched languages, e.g. the ancient Indian models of compound words are used to describe many European languages
The second factor is characterized as a period of the appearance of scientific
comparative works.Comparisons of languages and linguistic units date back to
theancient period. Comparisons were
scripted in “Port Royal Grammar” where
ancient scholars such as Antoine
Arnauld,Claude
Lancelot,
analyzed
similarities and differences between
French, Latin, Greek and ancient Jewish
languages. They have found out that out of
these languages ancient Jewish language
did not share substantial similarity with
other languages. The Port Royal Grammar
was extremely popular and gave an impetus
to therapid development of comparative
studies.
Until recent times, this book has been used in modern typology. N.
Kretsman pointed out this book’s importance and said: “In the last seven or eight
years the “Port Royal Grammar” has been discussed more often in the English
11
speaking world than at any other time since its publication more than three
hundred years ago”.
Comparative Typology that dealt with comparing of language units and
languages that did not share common root language played an important role in the
emerging and developing of this subject. Comparison of structural languages that
were not substantial also was crucial in the development of ComparativeTypology.
The third factor is the least common factor, which deals with studying
unknown languages and languages that do not have awriting system.Recently,
an enormous bulk of researches has been done on languages in Latin America,
Asia, Africa, Australia, Oceania and Eurasia that do not have awriting system.
Studying these languages have influenced by comparing them to Indo-European
languages and these investigations have influenced on typology greatly. Previous
researches focused on genetic relation but new researches are focusing on
morphological similarities, classification, and other points.
The fourth factor is theinfluence of the translation and translation
science.Translation is a quite ancient science. When people started to translate
from one language into another they
unconsciously compared two languages.
That is why they consider translation to be
the main part of typology. The influence of
translation to typology can be classified as
followings:
 translation of fiction stories;
 translation of grammatical
forms;
 translations that are done under the influence of mathematical
linguistics.
The fifth factor is theinfluence of lexicography. The appearance of dictionaries was bound with applied need to transform and compare languages and national
cultures. While compiling bi- or multilingual dictionaries a lexicographer conducts
acomparison of all levels of language hierarchy: phonetic units, grammatical
structure, lexical units, word formation, punctuation, etc.
The sixth factor ispractical and theoretical study and teaching of foreign
languages.Studying and teaching foreign language required comparison of
languages that are taught and studied. Since Uzbekistan is considered as a
multilingual country, a lot of attention is being focused on thedevelopment of
typology because without knowing foreign languages it is impossible to establish
12
political, economic and cultural ties with countries where foreign languages are
spoken. Russian is considered to be La lingua franca in Central Asia. In
Uzbekistan, bilingualism is based on knowing Uzbek and Russian languages.
Besides, it is compulsory that at schools one of the foreign languages should be
taught which has derived from the need to establish ties with all the countries of
the world. Researches done in Uzbekistan on typology include comparative
phonetics, comparative grammar,and comparative lexicology and so on. For thirty
years, there have been numerous numbers of researches, books, monographs,
dissertations, and articles have been published.
To sum up, all counted causes can be concluded in this way:
Comparative
- historical
method
Typological
imitation
Process of
making
dictionaries
Process of
studying
unstudied
languages
Causes of appearing
Comparative Typology
Finding new
universal
methods
Developmen
t of
translation
Learning
foreign
languages
theoretically
and practically
Thus, which term we use, we deal with only the universal task of
Comparative Typology it is charting out and finding the reasons for thesimilarities
and differences among the world‘s languages.
With the help of above mentioned statements, the tasks of Comparative
Typology can be outlined so:
 the problems of comparative investigations of all aspects of the language
including phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon, and
phraseology of related and non-related languages from linguistic and
linguadidactic viewpoints;
 the problem of categorization in linguistics;
 investigations in the sphere of Comparative Stylistics;
 investigations in the sphere of Comparative Lexicology;
 Language and intercultural communication;
13
 revealing national-cultural features of related and non-related languages;
 correlation and integration of semantics, word-building, syntax, stylistics
and functional semantics on the base of text linguistics in typological aspect
(or in comparison).
1.3.Classification of ComparativeTypology according to Dr. Buranov
Comparative Typology is the branch of General Linguistics, it compares two
or more language systems, their categories in a deductive way and it makes general
linguistic rules and laws.
As for theclassification of Comparative Typology, we must underline that
there are different viewpoints to this problem. But the most sutable is Dr.
Buranov’s classification, who suggested the following three criteria:
1. Branches of Comparative Typology as to the object of
investigation:
Genetic
typology
Areal
typology
Comparative
typology
Structural
typology
Structural typology in its turn consists of the following types: typological
theory; typological classification; etalon language; language universals.
Genetic typology is a branch of ComparativeTypology, which studies the similarities, and diversities of originally related languages. Genetic typology developed
from the Comparative-historical linguistics that dominated during the 19th century
in Europe. It started with the works of Jacob Grimm, Franz Bopp, Rasmus Rask,
Alexander Vbstokov, V.M.Jirmunskiy, etc.
Its origin was stipulated by thediscovery of Sanskrit, the ancient classical
language of India. The discovery of Sanskrit disclosed the possibility of a
comparative study of languages. The concept of relative languages was confirmed
by the existence in India of a sisterhood of familiar European languages: e.g.
Sanskrit «mata» means «mother», in the accusative case «matarum».Dvau-two,
Trayah – three. As ti - he is, etc.
Genetic Typology compares the systems of languages in two ways:
diachronically and synchronically.
14
Areal typology is one of the independent branches of linguistic typology, which
compares language systems and studies the degree of expansion and proximity of
language properties which are geographically conditioned.
According to V.G. Ghak this part of ComparativeTypology "compares
languages irrespectively of the degree of their relatedness and aims at defining general
elements formed as a result of themutual influence of languages and the cultures
staying behind them".Objects of study include borrowings, bi-lingual features,
dialects, centum/satem languages, compiling dialectal maps, sub-stratum and
super-stratum languages, neologisms, archaisms, hybrid languages, language
contacts, etc.
Like Genetic typology, Areal typology operates with special systems or
models with the help of which areal isogfosses of different languages are clarified.
The representatives of this school are Roman Jacobson and Ghak V.G.
Comparative typologyis an independent branch of Comparative Typology. It
deals with thecomparison of languages irrespectively of their genetic or structural
identity. Comparative typology operates with a limited number of languages and the
minimum number of these languages maybe as little as two.
Comparative typology cannot reveal language universals but it does contribute
to Structural typology with the results of its comparative studies of concrete
languages for further elaboration of linguistic universals. In its turn, Structural typology contributes to comparative typological studies while identifying correspondences in diverse languages.
One of the major differences between Structural and Comparative typology is that
the latter operates with cross-level units of the languages while the former (Structural
typology) utilizes mainly the level isolation or one level approach.
In Comparative typology, the cross-level, cross-class units of expression are initially identified in each of compared languages separately. On the second stage of the
typological operation the cross-language equivalents and cross-level correspondents
are identified, isomorphic and allomorphic features are revealed.
The major principle of Comparative typology is binarity: thus initially two
genetically and/or structurally different languages are compared as the
representatives of their genetic /structural groups. Further, the number of compared
languages can be increased but still with the observation of the binary principle.
Structural typology is the major branch of Comparative Typology and aims to
identify structural language types. Structural typology has 4 branches:
 language universals;
 typological classification;
15
 ethalon language;
 typological theory.
The ultimate goal of Structural typology is identifying universal features of languages. Major scholars who contributed to the development of structural typology
are B. Uspenskiy, V.R Nedyalkov, Ch. Hockette,
Yu.Rojdestvenskiy.
Language Universals are bound to theunification
of language facts, identifying common/similar features
specific to systems of all or
separate language groups.
The notion of Language
Universals appeared in 1961
at the Congress of Linguists
in New York where Joseph
Greenberg, J. Jenkins, and I. Osgood proposed a
Memorandum on Language/Linguistic Universals".
They defined it as follows: "A Linguistic Universal is a
certain feature specific to all languages of the world or
the language per se."
There are many general universals concerning all languages of the world.
They are:
Wherever humans exist, language exists.
There are no "primitive" languages - all languages are equally complex and
equally capable of expressing any idea in the world.
The vocabulary of any language can be expanded to include new words for
new concepts.
All languages change through time.
The relationship between the sounds and meanings of spoken languages and
between the gestures (signs) and meanings of sign languages are for the most part
arbitrary.
All human languages utilize a finite set of discrete sounds (or gestures) that
are combined to form meaningful elements or words, which themselves form an
infinite set of possible sentences.
All grammars contain rules for the formation of words and sentences of a
similar kind.
16
Every spoken language includes discrete sound segments like p, n, or a,
which can be defined by a finite set of sound properties or features.
Every spoken language has a class of vowels and a class of consonants.
Similar grammatical categories (for example, noun, verb) are found in all
languages.
There are semantic universals, such as "male" or "female," "animate" or "human," found in every language in the world.
Every language has a way of referring to past time, forming questions, issuing commands, and so on.
Speakers of all languages are capable of producing and comprehending an
infinite set of sentences.
The universals may be classified according to various principles. For
example, according to the statistic principle, there are unrestricted (absolute or full)
universals opposed to restricted (relative, partial) universals (some scholars prefer
the term "tendency" instead of "universal"). According to language hierarchy, there
are phonetic, morphological, syntactic and lexical universals. Other types include
deductive and inductive; synchronic and diachronic universals; universals of
speech and universals of language.
For example, universals related to the levels of language hierarchy:
Phonetic features: all languages have vowels and consonants.
Morphological:in most languages, words are structured into morphemes,
morphemes function as full and auxiliary elements.
Lexical:in all languages vocabulary is a system of semantic fields. In all
languages, there is polysemy, synonymy, antonymy.
Syntactic: in all languages, there is a distribution of a subject-verb- object.
Examples of full universals:"If a language has discreet morphemes, there
are either pre-fixation or suffixation or both of them". "If a language is exclusively
suffixational, it is a language with post-fixes. If a language is exclusively
prefixational, it is a language with prefixes".
There are different ways of articulating and describing language universals:
descriptive and formal (with the help of special symbols).
Typological classification is … “opposed to genealogical classification and is
bound to classifying languages according to their taxonomic/systemic features and
defining structural types of languages” (K.Solntzev).
Morphological or Typological classification deals with the classification of
languages according to their structural features or types in language instead of the
genealogical origin.
17
An example of a typological classification is the classification of languages
based on the order of the verb, subject and object in a
sentence into several types: SVO, SOV, VSO, and so on,
languages. (English, for instance, belongs to the SVO language type.)
Ethalon language is an object language for
ComparativeTypology and it is also a means or system of
tools to compare languages. It is usually identified
deductively. The notion of etalon language was introduced
by Boris Uspensky.
Some scholars prefer the term meta language which
is to a certain extent synonymous to ethalon language. It is the second major
function of the ethalon language to serve an instrument of comparison. This
instrument may be represented as follows:
any natural language (usually one's native tongue); a linguistic category, for
example, gender, voice, person, sex, etc; concept; field.
Below there are some more examples of ethalon language:
 specially created artificial language;
 an existing language with thewell-developed system;
 certain sign system;
 certain linguistic method;
 phonetic, morphological, syntactic or other models;
 intermediary language;
 the language of translation, etc.
For applied purposes, etalon language is classified into minimal and
maximal.
The typological theory defines common linguistic notions used in Comparative
Typology. The typological theory is used to define language isomorphism (common
features ) and allomorphism (differentiating signs).
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2. Branches of Comparative Typology as to the levels of language hierarchy
Phonetic and Phonological Typology
Morphological Typology
Syntactic Typology
Lexical Typology
Comparative Typology operates at all levels of language hierarchy without
exception. In other words, it can compare the units of phonetic, phonological,
morphological, syntactic and lexical levels.
In comparison with other levels the given level is more isolated and at the same
time, its sections are more developed from the typological point of view. Inside the
phonological level, actually phonologic and phonetic sublevels are identified.
Phonetic and phonological typology deals with thecomparison of units of the
phonologic level of language. It engages in theallocation of phonological differential
signs, defining their universality, study of thephonological structure of languages,
classification of languages on the basis of their phonological features (e.g. tonic and
atonic languages), defining thephonemic structure of world languages and many
others. For a long time,the Prague linguistic school was the center of Phonological
typology.
A certain contribution to thedevelopment of
Phonological
typology
was
made
by
N.S.Trubetskoywho is considered the founder of
Typology of Phonological systems. R.Yakobson,
G.Fant, M.Halle also worked in this area. Later
other sides of Phonological typology were
developed by such scientists as Ch. Hockett,
K.Vegelin, T.Milevsky, P.Menzerat, V.Skalichka,
A.Martine, M.I.Lekomtseva, T.J.EUzarenkova,
Abduazizov A.A., G.P.Melnikov,and others.
Major achievements of Phonological typology relate to the allocated cases
phonologic universals, N.S.Trubetskoy's differential signs, I.Kramskoy,
P.Kovaleva's quantitative criteria, supra-segmental typological classification on tone
19
and accent by A.Martine's, numerous researches on acomparison of phonological
systems of various languages.
The circle of research in Morphological typology is very wide. It compares the
units of a morphological level. Depending on the character of research the morphological typology can classify into two types:

Morphological typology engaged in the morphological classification
of languages;

Morphological typology engaged in particular questions of grammar,
i.e.
parts
of
speech
and
their
grammatical
categories.
The first one is a continuation of traditional typological classification engaged
in defining language types according to different principles and criteria.
The second type of Morphological typology deals with private/individual
subjects of comparison: grammatical categories in various languages, defining ways
of their expression, morphological markers, synonymous relations of affixational
morphemes and syntactic words (prepositions and postpositions), comparison of
primary grammatical categories/parts of speech (nouns, adjectives, pronouns, verbs,
adverbs, numerals and others), comparison of grammatical categories of certain
lexical and grammatical categories of words (case, number, definiteness, transitivity
- intransitivity, time, aspect, causation, mood,
modality, etc.). Morphemes may serve major units of
measurement in Morphological typology.
Morphological typology compares the specified
phenomena in the systems of both related and nonrelated languages. The comparison might include
revealing morphological universals as well as a binary
comparison of two languages. Morphological typology
has accumulated a serious bulk of data both for
Comparative typology and on separate concrete
languages. Major scholars who dealt with the issues
of Morphological typology are R.Yakobson, L. E Jеlmsiev, L.N.Zasorina,
B.A.Uspenskiy, M.M.Gukhman, P.L Garvina and many others.
Syntactic typology engages in acomparison of syntactic level units. The basic units
for comparison are word-combination and the sentence. Depending on the character
of research Syntactic typology may fall into several sections: comparison of units of
a word-combination, the level of the sentence, as well as comparison of units of
various levels with regards to their syntactic functioning. Syntactic typology
usually compares languages on the basis of atransformationalsyntax.
20
Still, there is no comprehensive list of topics related to
the subject matter of Syntactic typology.
Some of them are: definition of the subjectmatter and volume of Syntactic typology,
elaborationof basic criteria and a meta
language, border lines between syntactic
typology and other branches of Comparative
Typology, defining syntactic universals, study
of syntax of world languages (genetically or
structurally related languages), definition of
types of syntactic connection (attributive, predicative,
etc.), definition of sentence types in languages, basic
syntactic categories, classification of types of
languages on the basis of their syntactic structure and
many others.
I.I.Meshchaninov,
J.V.Rojdestvenskiy
C.E.Bazell, T.Milevsky, V.S.Hrakovskiy, contributed a lot to theelaboration of
different aspects of Syntactic typology.
3.Branches of Comparative Typology as to two plans of language
Formal Typology
Semantic Typology
Formal typology deals with the units of expression plan of the language which
belongs to various levels of language hierarchy.
The ultimate goal of Formal typology is identifying formal universals. The major
tasks of Formal typology embrace but are not limited to the following:
 reveal external or formal features of the language;
 establish common principles of thescript, e.g. graphic systems, alphabets,
thesystem of transcription signs, punctuation;
 establish formal structures of the syllable, composite words, word
combinations;
 establish theformal structure of the sentence etc.
21
Semantic typology is a branch of Comparative Typology studying thesemantic
structure of the language and related to the units of content plan. The ultimate goal
of Semantic typology is identifying semantic universals which are directly related to
the deep structure of the language. Other issues considered in the frames of Semantic
typology are: identifying aims and problems of Semantic typology, defining
different semantic fields for comparative analysis, grouping words on the basis of
semantic signs, defining semantic fields in different languages, creating criteria to
define semantic categories, elaboration of the principles of compiling semantic
comparative dictionaries and many others.
Some scholars debate that there is no need to distinguish Semantic typology into
a separate branch as similar issues are studied under the scope of Lexical typology.
The major difference between the two seems to lie in the following: Semantic
typology operates with the units of theemic level and is indifferent to theethic
identity of compared languages.
22
1.4. Types of language comparison
The comparison may be of two types: substantialand non-substantial.
Under substantial comparison, linguists mean comparison of some concrete
things or objects, e.g. sounds, digits, numbers, etc. Under non-substantial
comparison, linguists mean comparison of systems and their elements.
At the early stages of development of typology as a science, the major role is
longed to thesubstantial comparison, which is considered primary. Yuri
Rojdenstvenskiy' wrote "...in General Linguistics the relations between language
systems based on substantial features. The languages were considered cognate
because the linguists found principal similarity in their substance: sound and
content".Non-substantial comparison played a significant role in shaping
Comparative Typology as an independent science.
There are two approaches to language description: internalandexternal.
Internal approach deals with the comparison of the systems of any concrete
language. It is inner comparison within one concrete language. External approach
deals with thecross-language comparison.
Comparative Typology may compare language systems panchronically
though they are living or dead; besides, it may compare language systems
synchronicallyand diachronically.
The diachronic approachis a stative study of a certain period. The
synchronic approach is a dynamic one.
Questions for self-control:
What does the term ‘typology’ mean?
Do we use this term in everyday life?
What is the role of Typology in Linguistics?
What tasks does this subject have?
What is the necessity of learning typology?
What is the difference between Linguistic and Non-Linguistic typology?
Name the periods of Comparative typology development.
Name the factors of Comparative typology development.
What directions of comparative typological investigations are known to
us?
10.How did Dr. Buranov classify Comparative Typology?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
23
11.What does linguistic typology study?
12.What can you say about different viewpoints to the Linguistic typology?
13.Speak about differences between linguistic and non-linguistic typologies.
14.What methods of investigation do you know?
15.How do you understand panchronical approach to thecomparison of
language systems?
16.Characterize substantial and non-substantial types of comparison. Which is
used in modern linguistics?
17.What can you say about theinternal and external approach to
thecomparison?
18.Give the division of linguistic typology with the respect to different
criteria.
RecommendedLiteratures:
1. Аракин В.Д. Сравнительная типология английского и русского
языков. Ленинград, 1979.
2. Буранов Ж. Инглиз ва ўзбек тиллари қиёсий грамматикаси. Тошкент,
1973.
3. David Crystal. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. Oxford:
Blackwell, 1991.
4. Robbins Burling, Patterns of Language. Structure, Variation, Change.
San Diego: Academic Press, 1992.
5. William Croft. Typology and Universals. Cambridge UNI Press, 2003.
6.
Comparative-Historical Linguistics. (n.d.) The Great Soviet
Encyclopedia, 3rd Edition. (1970-1979). Retrieved August 1, 2016, from
http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Comparative-Historical+Linguistics
Topics for self-study
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The subject matter of Comparative typology
Historical development of typology
The main parameters of typological categories
Branches of typology according to the level of a language
Methods of comparative study of language systems
24
LIST OF THE KEY WORDS OF UNDERSTANDING THE COURSE OF
COMPARATIVE TYPOLOGY OF ENGLISH AND NATIVE LANGUAGES
Comparative Typology as a branch of General Linguistics
1.
Comparative typology is one of the branches of General Linguistics. It
deals with comparison of languages irrespectively of their genetic or structural
identity
2.
The origin of the word typology is typos-means «type», logos- means
«science».
3.
Non-Linguistic typology serves as a method of comparison in all sciences
besides linguistics.
4.
The substantial comparison means thecomparison of some concrete things
or objects.
5.
The non-substantial comparison means thecomparison of systems and
their elements.
6.
Internal approach to language description deals with the cross system of
any concrete language.
7.
External approach to language description deals with the cross language
description.
8.
Panchronically means thecomparison of language systems though they are
living or dead.
9.
Synchronically means thecomparison of language systems concerning
modern period.
10. Diachronically means thecomparison of language system from ahistorical
viewpoint.
11. Genetic typology is a branch of Comparative typology, which studies the similarities, and differences of originally related languages.
12. Areal typology is a branch of Comparative typology that studies (using the
methods of linguistic geography) distribution of linguistic phenomena in the spatial
extent and interlingual (interdialectic) interaction.
13. Structural typology is the major branch of Comparative typology and aims to
identify structural language types.
14. Language universal is a pattern that occurs systematically across natural
languages, potentially true for all of them.
15. Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding
derivationalaffixes to different types of bases.
16. Suffixation is the formation of words with the help of suffixes.
25
17. Prefixation is the formation of words with the help of prefixes.
18. Contrastive linguistics is a practice-oriented linguistic approach that seeks to
describe the differences and similarities between a pair of languages (hence it is
occasionally called "differential linguistics").
Seminar 1
Comparative typology as a branch of General Linguistics
26
►Classroom activities
Exercise #1. Complete a cluster “Typology”.
___________________
____________________
_____________________
Typology
_______________________
_____________________
Exercise #2. Answer the following questions?
1) What is typology?
2) How many types is typology divided?
3) Which factors influence to the development of typology?
4) Do you know causes of appearing comparative typology?
Exercise #3. Work in a group of 3-4 students and try to analyze 6 factors of
the development of typology from ancient time until today, write which
factors influence more than others and how.
Factors:
27
Exercise #4. Read the statements below and choose whether they are True or
False.
1. _____ Non-linguistic typology is the subject matter of the sciences except
linguistics.
2. _____ Linguistic Typology, Comparative Typology, Contrastive Typology
are totally different sciences.
3. _____ Morphological classification deals with the family relationship of
languages, which descend from one common ancestor.
4. _____ According to two plans of language, there four main types of
Linguistic Typology.
5. ____ According to the levels of language hierarchy, there are five types of
typology.
6. _____ Panchronic approach deals with dead and living language
comparison.
7. _____ Substantial comparison is used in linguistics.
8. _____ Internal approach deals with the comparison of the systems of any
concrete language, it is aninner comparison.
9. _____ External approach deals with only related languages.
10._____ Non-substantial comparison is used in all spheres of science except
Linguistics.
►Home activities
Exercise #1. Read the statements below and choose whether they are True or
False.
1. Typology represents an approach or theoretical framework to the study of
language that contrasts with prior approaches.
True/ False
2. The development of typology is very fast.
True/ False
3. According to scientists: Material similarity means similarities of words that
are similar in meaning and morphemes in compared languages.
True/ False
28
4. Comparative typology in its turn consists of the following types: typological
theory; typological classification; etalon language; language universals.
True/ False
5. Uspenskiy said: “Typology deals with a limited number of languages.
True/ False
6. Comparative study of the languages is a scientific research, devoted to
thecomparative study of two languages like Uzbek and Russian or English
and French.
True/ False
Exercise #2. Complete the table according to their classification of linguistic
typology.
According to 2 plans of According to subject of According to levels of
language
comparison
language hierarchy
Exercise #3. Read the statements below and match them with the appropriate
answers.
Typology does not deal with a limited number of languages. If it does, then it
should be called “characterology” or “comparative description.
Material similarity means similarities of words that are similar in meaning
and morphemes in compared languages.
In the last seven or eight years, the “Port Royal Grammar” has been
discussed more often in the English speaking world than at any other time
since its publication more than three hundred years ago.
29
Typology consists of structural, comparative and genetic typology. The task of
structural typology consists of language universals, typological classification
of the languages, typological theory and work out methods to create ethalon
language.
It would be wrong to identify comparative researches of two languages with
typology.
Buranov, Uspenskiy, Guhman, Maslow, Kretzmann
►Activities for self-improvement
Exercise #1. Read and fill the gaps with the given words below.
Languages, typological, nation, were, romantics, formed
The problem of the type language was firstly discussed by ……..…, the
representators of romanticism which was……….. at the end of XVIII and in the
beginning of XIX century. Romantics considered that “the spirit of the ……….”
may be displayed in myth in art, literature and in the language. V.Gumbold began
to examine the types of the …..…….. as a display of “the spirit of the nation”. The
division of the languages to flaxsive and affix by the German linguist Fridrih
Shlegel was the first attempt to create atypological classification of the language.
From the history of linguistic studies, such ……….…. classification of languages
offered by August William, V.Gumbold, A.Shleyher, G.Steyntal, F.Misteli and
other linguists were …………. Now topologists are trying to find the ways of
creating amore informative classification of the languages like periodical systems
of Mendeleyev.
Exercise #2. Try to find English words which are connected with “typology”
from the table below.
l
A
N
g
u
a
G
e
k
h
i
s
c
i
e
n
T
i
s
t
30
n
e
k
h
O
m
L
c
z
a
g
e
b
u
M
i
W
g
j
o
u
p
t
y
P
o
L
o
g
y
i
i
a
n
A
l
Y
s
e
x
S
c
w
o
R
d
S
e
q
m
T
a
t
h
E
o
R
y
d
u
Seminar 2
Comparative typology as a branch of General
Linguistics
31
►Classroom activities
Exercise #1. Round table discussion. Work in six mini groups and discuss
these problems. In 10 minutes present your topic, after all, they make
anoverall conclusion.
Linguistic and nonLinguistic typology as
different phenomena
Types of approaches to
language description
Two main types of
classification of world
languages
Comparative Typology
according to two plans of
language
Comparative Typology
according to the subject of
comparison
Comparative Typology
according to the levels of
language hierarchy
Exercise #2. Work in pairs. Discuss your opinions about types of language
comparison. Make your own diagram to the following table. Present it to
another team and complete it with new ideas.
32
Exercise #3a. Draw a picture, which comes to your mind about genetic
typology for the following table.
3b. Present your picture to the group. Explain why do you think so?
►Home activities
Exercise #1. Complete the following definitions with the types of typology
from the box:
Comparative typology
typology
Genetic typology
33
Areal typology
Structural
1. _______________ is a branch of linguistics that studies (using the methods
of linguistic geography) distribution of linguistic phenomena in the spatial
extent and interlingual (interdialectic) interaction.
2. _______________ is one of the branches of General Linguistic typology. It
deals with comparison of languages irrespectively of their genetic or
structural identity.
3. _________________ is a branch of linguistic typology, which studies the
similarities, and differences of originally related languages.
4. _________________ is the major branch of Linguistic typology and aims to
identify structural language types.
Exercise #2. Circle the correct answer.
1. Who said that Areal typology compares languages irrespectively of the
degree of their relatedness and aims at defining general elements
formed as a result of themutual influence of languages and the cultures
staying behind them?
a. V.K.Ghak
b. D.J.Buranov
c. Yu.V.Rojdestvenskiy
d. M.M.Guhman
2. What are the objects of study of Areal typology?
a. borrowings, bi-lingual features, hybrid languages, language contacts
b. dialects, centum/satem languages, compiling dialectal maps
c. sub-stratum and super-stratum languages, neologisms, archaisms
d. all answers are true
3. What does Areal typology study?
a. dialects and restrictions of dissemination of separate features in the systems
of related and non-related languages, theconfluence of different languages
b. dialects and restrictions of dissemination of separate features in the systems
of related and non-related languages
c. dialects, centum/satem languages, compiling dialectal maps
d. sub-stratum and super-stratum languages, neologisms, archaisms
4. What does Comparative Typology deal with?
34
a. With distribution of linguistic phenomena in the spatial extent and
interlingua (interdialectic) interaction
b. with the similarities, and differences of originally related languages
c. With the aims of identifying structural language types
d. with acomparison of languages irrespectively of their genetic or structural
identity
5. What is the goal of Structural Typology?
a. To include discrete sound segments like p, n, or a, which can be defined by
a finite set of sound properties or features
b. to identify structural language types
c. identifying common/similar features specific to systems of all or separate
language groups
d. to identify universal features of langauges
►Activities for self-improvement
Exercise #1. Read the statement below and find some mistakes among them.
Typology is a branch of science which is typical to all sciences without any
exception. In this respect, their typological method is not limited to the sphere of
one science. Typology may be divided intoNon-linguistic typology, Linguistic
typology, Paralinguistic typology.
Non-linguistic typology is the subject matter of the sciences except linguistics. It
can be political typology, medical or economic typology as well. Linguistic
typology is a new branch of general linguistics which studies the systems of
languages comparatively, also finds common laws of languages and establishes
differences and similarities between them. And due to David Crystal’s book
“Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics”, Non- linguistic Typology is explained
in this way: “A branch of linguistics which studies the structural similarities
between languages, regardless of their history, as part of an attempt to establish a
satisfactory classification, or typology, of languages. The typological comparison
is thus distinguished from the historical comparison of languages and its groupings
can coincide with those set up by the historical method”. Nowadays a lot of terms
are used for defining this very type of science, such as Linguistic Typology,
Comparative Typology, Contrastive Typology. But with the help of analyzing
historical background, we will be able to realize the main notion of this branch of
Linguistics. Typology is understood as a science of a whole comparison that has a
large number of factors of its development. However, if it is described as a
35
structural typology, then numbers of factors of its appearance will diminish. As
Maslow said: “Typology does not deal with a limited number of languages. If it
does, then it should be called “characterlogy” or “comparative description”. Since
the number of languages typology deals with can’t be counted, languages are
referred as an unlimited number of languages. The development of typology was
very slow. It has several factors that influence to its development which are but not
limited to typological imitation, “Port Royal Grammar”, historical comparative
linguistics, theprocess of studying of languages without awriting system,
theinfluence of writing, phonetics and practical and theoretical study of languages.
Test yourself on Comparative Typology as a branch of General
Linguistics
1. General typology combines two types of typologies
a) Lexical and Semantic
b) Linguistic and non-linguistic
c) Structural and Areal
d) Phonetic and Phonological
2. Non-linguistic typology as a method of comparison serves in…
a) Linguistics
b) All sciences besides linguistics
c) Literature
d) General Linguistics and Literature
3. …deals with the languages which are genetically related both synchronically
and diachronically
a) Comparative Typology
b) Areal Typology
c) Genetic Typology
d) Structural Typology
4. Linguistic Typology deals with …
a) Language systems in comparison
b) Psychology
c) Mathematics
36
d) Literature
5. According to the object of comparison Comparative Typology consists of:
a) Genetic, comparative, areal, structural
b) Semantic, formal
c) Syntactic, structural, areal, lexical
d) Phonetic, phonological, morphological, syntactic, lexical
6. Comparative method has …
a) Typological investigation
b) Grammatical features
c) Universal features
d) General features
7. Internal approach to language description deals with…
a) Non-related languages
b) The system of any concrete national language
c) Related languages
d) All languages
8. External approach to language description deals with…
a) Non-related languages
b) The cross-language description
c) All languages
d) Related languages
9. Comparative-historical linguistics is…
a) Comparative-historical studies of languages in their development
b) Comparative-scientific studies of languages in their development
c) Content approach to comparison
d) One – level approach to comparison
10. Diachronic development means the development of some linguistic phenomena
from…
a) From historical viewpoint
b) Modern viewpoint
c) Linguistic viewpoint
37
d) Grammatical viewpoint
11. The first period is named spontaneous which was over …
a) In the XX century
b) In the XI century
c) Not long before the Renaissance
d) In the XIV century
12. Division of Comparative Typology with respect to two plans of language:
a) Formal, semantic
b) Comparative, structural, areal, genetic
c) Phonetic, phonological, morphological, syntactic, lexical
d) Formal, semantic, areal, genetic
13. Port-Royal grammar is considered to be …
a) Practical grammar
b) Theoretical grammar
c) Universal grammar
d) English grammar
14. When was Port-Royal grammar written
a) 2009
b) 1660
c) 1700
d) 1669
15. What did Mahmud Kashgariy do by analyzing a group of Turkic languages
a) He defined the level of their genetic relationship to each other
b) He found out Language Universals
c) He analyzed the lexical units of all Turkic languages
d) He compared all language of the world
TOPICS FOR PRESENTATIONS
1. The notion of Linguistic and Non-Linguistic typology.
2. Introduction to Comparative Typology.
38
3. Different approaches to language comparison.
4. Different types of comparison of language systems (panchronic, diachronic,
synchronic).
5. The notions “type in language” and “type of language”.
6. Directions of comparative typological investigations.
7. Characterize internal and external approaches to thecomparison.
8. Types of language comparison in Comparative Typology.
II. Typology of phonetic and phonological level of
English, Uzbek and Russian languages
2.1. Phonetics and phonology as different branches of
Linguistics
39




Key points for discussion:
Theoretical foundations of phonetic and phonological typologies
Differences between phonetics and phonology
Comparison of vowel and consonant phonemes
Stress, intonation, assimilation, dissimilation, reduction, accent,
rhythm and pause.
The term “phonetics” is the Greek word (“phone”-meaning sound,
voice and “tika” – a science/box) by origin. It deals with oral speech. Nevertheless,
the definition as “the study of the sounds of a language” is not sufficient in modern
linguistics. Nowadays phonetics is a “science which studies the phonetic substance
and the expression area of the language, or otherwise a physical media of a
language (sounds, syllables, stress, and intonation)” [A. Abduazizov.2007,6].
Phonetics has the following four main aspects:

articulatory (physiological)

acoustic (physical)

perceptual (auditory)

phonological (social, functional, linguistic).
Articulatory Phonetics investigates the functioning of one’s speech
apparatus and mechanism. It is based on profound knowledge of physiology and
the structure of one’s speech apparatus. While investigating the articulatory aspect
of speech sounds both subjective and objective methods are employed: the method
of direct observation (concerning the lips & the tongue movements) – subjective
method and X-ray photography and X-ray cinematography (objective methods).
Acoustic Phonetics studies the
acoustic properties of sounds (quantity,
timber/voice quality, intensity, the pitch
of the voice and temporal factor) in
terms of the frequency of vibration and
the amplitude of vibration in relation to
time. The analysis begins with a
microphone, which converts the air
movement into corresponding electrical
activity. While investigating the acoustic
aspect of speech sounds special
40
laboratory equipment is employed: spectrograph, intonograph, sound analyzing &
sound synthesizing machines.
Auditory Phonetics is aimed at investigating the hearing process which is
the brain activity. Auditory Phonetics and Acoustic Phonetics are very closely
connected.
Functional Phonetics presupposes
(distinctive) function of speech sounds.
investigating
the discriminatory
Phonetics can be divided into several types like:
General phonetics. It studies universal positions of sound articulation (for
instance, identification of sounds according to the position the differences of labial,
tongue and throat consonants, according to the ways of articulation of plosive,
fricative and plosive-fricative features), although, general acoustic features of
sounds.
Specific phonetics. It investigates above mentioned issues in the samples of
certain languages. Specific phonetics researches phonetics in the shapes of
41
historical and modern, synchronic and diachronic, descriptive and experimental
sides.
Comparative phonetics investigates vowel and consonant phonemes, their
phonetic changes and others in thecomparative aspect of several genetically related
and non-related languages.
Phonology(sometimes called phonemics or phonematics) is the study of
how sounds are used in languages to convey meaning. The term of phonology
(Greek phone - sound, logos – science) appeared in linguistics in the necessity of
differentiating functional (linguistic) sides of speech sounds from the
physiological-acoustic (physic) sides in the end of XIX century. It studies the rules
governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the
shape of syllables. It deals with the sounds systems of a language by treating
phoneme as the point of departure.
With another word, phonetics deals with sounds and phonology deals
with phonemes. Or else phonology deals with language sounds and phonetics deals
with human speech sounds.
Phonetics and phonology have two levels: segmental and suprasegmental.
Segmental phonology studies phonemes realized in avarious speech sound. So it
may be called phonemics. Suprasegmental phonology (prosodics) studies the
distinctive features realized in syllables, stress, and intonation.
The fundamental concept of phonemics is the phoneme which is the smallest
meaningless unit of a language and which forms, distinguishes words and
morphemes. The linguistic form and content are described by other branches of
linguistics.
At a given time, the set of phonemes in a language is a closed set (like
function words and syntactic rules). The set of phonemes changes only over time.
English, for instance, has lost the phonemes [x] and [∑]. English has also gained
phonemes by borrowing foreign words with the sounds [z] and [Z]. Neither of
these sounds was phonemes in English until they entered the language in numerous
words borrowed from Norman French after 1066. Similarly, the sound [t] was not
part of Russian until after the Christianization in 988, when many Greek words
containing [f] were borrowed by the Slavs.
The Phonological typology deals with thecomparison of units of the
phonological level of language. It engages in theallocation of phonological
differential signs, defining their universality, study of thephonological structure of
languages, classification of languages based on their phonological features (e.g. tonic
and atonic languages), defining thephonemic structure of world languages and many
42
others. For a long time,the Prague linguistic school was the center of Phonological
typology. A certain contribution to thedevelopment of Phonological typology was
made by N.S.Trubetskoy who is considered the founder of Typology of Phonological
systems.
Phonological typology involves comparing languages according to the
number or type of sound they contain. Although there are inevitable problems in
dividing the sounds of any language into separate abstract units (phonemes),
linguists usually compare languages according to the number of different groups
which participate in meaningful sound contrasts (i.e. phonemes) rather than the
total number of actual speech sounds. Every language has a fairly small inventory
of these sets or phonemes. Moreover, the number varies from language to
language. In comparison, Hawaiian has only 18; Kabardian has over 80, and the
Roisan language is reported to have 141 phonemes or mutually contrastive sets of
sounds, Abhasian has 60.
The second aspect of phonological typology classifies languages according
to the type of sounds present or absent in each language. Some sounds are only
rarely found in languages.
Unusual sounds include: the Czech and Slovak voiced sound [h], Arabic
pharyngeal. Arabic, English, new-Greek, Bashkirian [ө] and [ә], in Danish [ð]
only, Uzbek, Arabic[қ], [ғ], [ҳ].
Unusual omissions also include labial (nearly completely absent in
Cherokee, Tlingit), nasals (absent from several Salish languages), Sibiliants
(absent from Hawaiian).
No known language entirely lacks either obstruent or sonorant. No known
language entirely lacks either vowels or consonants, although Rotoras has only six
consonants, certain Northwest Caucasian languages such as Kabardian have only
one vowel.
Languages are also classified into consonantal if the consonants are
absolutely more than vowels and non-consonantal if the number of vowels is more,
equal or even nearly equal (A. Isachenko; T. Kovalev).
Kramsky developed the theory of A. Isachenko analyzing the number of
consonant-vocals in the text, when T.Milevsky analyses number correlation with
quality of sounds-Eastern (Atlantic), Western (Pacific Oceanic) and Middle sound
type American languages.
The first founders of phonetics were such outstanding linguists as
I.A.Badouin de Courtenay,N. Krushevsky, P.Passy, A.Sweet, F.de Saussure and
others.
43
The Prague linguistic school was the center of phonological typology in its
time. N.S. Trubetskoy is considered as the founder of thetypology of
thephonological system (theory of distinctive features).
There are other well-know linguists such as R. Jacobson, C. G. Fant, M.
Halle (spectrographic/acoustic classification), A. Isachenko, T. Kovalev, I.
Kramsky, T. Milevsky, C. V. Voegelin, J. C. Pierce (quantitative criterion), A.
Martine (suprasegmental typological classification), G. P. Melnikov, V. A.
Vasilyev, E. D. Polivanov, A. M. Sherbak and others.
The main achievement in thedevelopment of phonological typology is
phonological universals. E.g. All languages have vowels and consonants. If a
language has voiced fricatives, it also has unvoiced fricatives, but not necessarily
the other way round.
Phonetics is the isolated and independent level in language hierarchy. It is
more investigated science in linguistics.
The following types of phonetics may be distinguished:
1.
General phonetics which studies the human sound due to principles of
theoretical phonetics. It is a part of general linguistics.
2.
Descriptive phonetics which studies the phonetic system of a certain
language.
3.
Historical (diachronical) phonetics which studies the sound
undergoes in the development of a language.
4.
Comparative-typological phonetics studies the phonetic features of
two or more languages of different systems.
5.
Comparison of phonetic-phonological units is carried out in
structural, genetic, areal and comparative typology (panchronic, diachronic and
synchronic). The panchronic/diachronic comparison is not used because it is
helpless and has no scientific value to compare genetically and aerially distant noncognate English and Uzbek.
Questions for self-control:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Phonetics and phonology as different sciences.
Who is the founder of Phonological Typology?
What types of phonetics exist in Linguistics?
Differences between segmental and suprasegmental phonology.
What kind of characterizing ways of vowels and consonants do you know?
Syllable division in English and compared languages.
44
7. The problem of interference in foreign language teaching acquisition
(Phonetic and phonological levels).
RecommendedLiterature:
1. Abduazizov A.A. Theoretical Phonetics of Modern English. Tashkent, 1986.
2, Peter Roach. English Phonetics and Phonology. Cambridge UNI Press, 1994.
3. Leontyeva S.F. English Phonetics. A Theoretical Course. Moscow, 2002.
4. Буранов Ж. Инглиз ва ўзбек тиллари қиёсий грамматикаси. Тошкент,
1973.
5. Аракин В.Д. Сравнительнаятипологияанглийскогоирусскогоязыков.
Ленинград, 1979.
2.2.Typological characteristics of English, Uzbek and
Russian languages phonetic systems
2.2.1. English, Uzbek and Russian languages vowel
phonemes
Vowels are normally made with the air stream that meets no
obstruction in the mouth, pharyngeal and nasal cavities.
On the articulatory level in English the description of vowels notes changes:
1.
in the stability of articulation
2.
in the tongue position
3.
in the lip position
45
4.
in their length
In Uzbek and Russian they are described:
1. according to the lips position
2. according to the vertical movement of the tongue
3. according to the horizontal movement of the tongue
English has
1.)
10 monophthongs: /i/, /e/, /ǽ/, /u/, /٨/, /ә/, /a:/, /o/, /o:/, /ә:/.
2.)
8 diphthongs:
glides to [i] -/ei/, /oi/, /ai/;
glides to [u] -/au/, /әu/, /uә/;
glides to [ә] - /iә/, /εә/
3.)
2 diphthongoids /i:/, /u:/
Thus, the phonemic inventory of English vowels includes 20 phonemes and
6 vowel letters a, i, e, u, o, y, Uzbek has 6 vowel phonemes [и], [э], [a], [у], [ў],
[o] and letters i, e, a, u, o‘, o. Russian also has 6 vowel phonemes [и], [ы], [у],
[э], [о], [а] and 10 vowel letters а, о, э, и, у, ы, е, ё, ю, я.
Tongue Position
According to the tongue position vowels divided into forward, mid,
backward, up, down in all compared languages.
According to the tongue position English vowels divided into 5 types
but in Uzbek and Russian languages they are in 3 types:
fron
t vowel
E
nglish
U
zbek
R
ussian
[i: e
ǽ]
[и,
э]
[и],
[э]
frontretracted
vowel
[i]
cent
ral vowels
back
vowels
[Λ ә:
ә]
[ў]
[a: o
o: u:]
[a, у,
o]
[у],
[о]
-
[ы],
[а]
backadvanced
vowel
[u]
-
Moving up and down in the mouth the tongue may be raised to
different height towards the roof of the mouth.
46
1. When the front or the back of the tongue is raised high towards the palate
the vowel is called close in English and Russian languages.
They are – [ i: I u u:].
2. When the front or the back of the tongue is as low as possible in the
mouth open vowels are pronounced in English and Russian languages.
They are – [ǽ a: o o:].
3. When the highest part of the tongue occupies the position intermediate
between the close and the open one mid vowels are pronounced only in English.
They are – [e Λ ə: ə].
According to the vertical position of the tongue in Uzbek and Russian
vowels are divided into narrow, mid and broad:
Uzbek
Russian
narrow
[и, у]
[и], [ы], [у]
mid
[э, o, ў]
[э], [о]
broad
[a]
[а]
Lip Position
When the lips are neutral or spread the vowels are called unrounded.
They are – [i:], [i], [e], [ǽ], [a:], [Λ], [ә:], [ә]in English. In Uzbek they are –
[и], [э], [a], in Russian [а], [э], [и], [ы].
When the lips are drawn together so that the opening between them is
more or less round the vowel is called rounded.
They are – [o o: u u:].In Uzbek[у], [ў], [o]. InRussian [о], [у].
According to the length, English vowels are classified into short and long:
Long vowels are – [i: a: o: u: ә:]
Short vowels are – [i, e, o, u, Λ, ә].
But in comparison with English, there is no such division of vowels in
Uzbek and Russian. But in Russian vowels are divided into stressed and
unstressed vowels.
Prof. U.K. Yusupov describes some Uzbek geminis vowels such as [шуур,
матбаа, Шоолим], which are alien to English. He classifies lacuna vowels in the
compared languages as follows:
English lacuna vowels for Uzbek: [ǽ], [u:], [ә:], [a:], [ou], [oi], [ә:],
[au], [iә], [uә], [εә], [ai].
There is only one Uzbek lacuna vowel for English. It is [ў]. And one
Russian lacuna vowel for English. It is [ы].
47
The phonemic status of English diphthongs is still a question of discussion.
Diphthongs are complex units of the two elements which are closely blended
together. They are syllabically indivisible, the length of diphthongs is the same as
that of English long vowels. In Uzbek and Russian, there are no diphthongs, only
combinations of sounds where both elements are equally energetic and distinct.
English diphthongs consist of two elements, the first of which is a nucleus, strong
and distinct; the second is a glide, which is very weak and indistinct.
2.2.2. English, Uzbek and Russian languages consonant
phonemes
The inventory of phonemes is a starting point in thecomparativetypological analysis. The typological analysis aims at describing structural units,
i.e. phonemes which function as formal items in the identification and distinction
of words and morphemes.
The inventory of the English consonants consist of 24 phonemes.
48
[p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g], [m], [n], [ŋ], [f], [v], [θ], [ð], [s], [z], [ʃ], [ʒ], [h],
[tʃ], [dʒ], [j], [w], [r], [l].
The inventory of the Uzbek consonants consist of 25 phonemes.
[б], [в], [г], [д], [ж1], [j2],[(dj)], [з], [й], [к], [л], [м], [н], [п], [р], [с], [т],
[ф], [x], [ч], [ш], [қ], [ғ], [ҳ], [ц].
The inventory of the Russian consonants consist of 36 phonemes.
[б], [б’] [в], [в’] [г], [г’] [д], [д’] [ж] [з], [з’] [й'] [к], [к’] [л], [л’] [м], [м’]
[н], [н’] [п], [п’] [р], [р’] [с], [с’] [т], [т’] [ф], [ф’] [х], [х’] [ц] [ч’] [ш] [щ’].
The consonant system of all compared languages is classified according to
the articulatory and acoustic features.
The general phonetic principles of classification of consonants in compared
languages are as follows:
a.) The place of articulation
b.) the manner of production;
c.) the presence or absence of voice;
d.) the position of the soft palate;
Similarity and differences between them can be seen in the tables below:
The place of articulation
English
Uzbek
Russian
bilabial
labial
labial
labiodentals
lingual
labial-dental
dental
glottal
foredental
alveolar
dental
postalveolar
palatal
velar
uvular
pharyngeal
glottal
retroflex
The manner of production
English
Uzbek
Russian
explosive
Fricative:
1. occlusive
a) middle fricative
b) side fricative
affricates
Occlusive:
2. constrictive
(fricative)
a) explosive
b) affricates
c) implosive
49
3. occlusiveconstrictive
(affricates)
4. rolled
5.
implosive
d) nasal
Vibrant
nasal
vibrant
The presence or absence of voice
English
Uzbek
Russian
Voiced
Voiced
Voiced
Voiceles
Voiceless
Voiceless
s
The position of the soft palate
English
Uzbek
Russian
Sonorant
Sonorant
Sonorant
Noise consonants Noise consonants
Noise consonants
According to the palatalization of the tongue, theonly Russian language has
soft and hard consonants.
Professor U. Yusupov differentiates some consonants in the following way.
The English consonants [t] and [d] are alveolar speech sounds, whereas their
Uzbek counterparts [т] and [д] are dental ones. The English [w], in contrast with
Uzbek [в], is pronounced with protruded lips. Also, in Uzbek, the voiced
consonants [б] and [д] become voiceless at the end of words, which is alien to
English: мактаб-мактап.
The consonants [ө,ð,w] can’t be found in Uzbek. Likewise, the Uzbek
consonants [x, ғ, қ] do not exist in English. Moreover, Russian [ж], [й'] phonemes
also cannot be found in English phoneme system.
Questions for self-control:
1. What is a vowel sound?
2. What are the groups of vowels according to the articulatory level?
3. How do the consonants change on the articulatory level?
4. What are the four groups of consonants according to the manner of
articulation?
50
5. What is the difference between occlusive and constrictives
6. How are the Russian rolled consonants [р, р’] are produced?
7. Name the consonant groups according to the place of articulation.
8. The problem of interference in foreign language teaching acquisition
(Phonetic and phonological levels).
RecommendedLiteratures:
1.
Аракин В.Д. Сравнительная типология английского и русского
языков. Ленинград, 1979.
2.
David Crystal. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. Oxford:
Blackwell, 1991.
3.
Yusupov U.K. Contrastive linguistics of the English and Uzbek
languages. Tashkent, 2013.
4.
Abduazizov A. A. Phonology and morphonology of Uzbek language.
Tashkent, 2010.
5.
Abduazizov A. A. English Phonetics. A Theoretical Course.
Tashkent, 2007.
6.
Оливериус, З. Фонетика русского языка. Praha : SPN, 1978.
7.
Лизалова, Л. И. Упражнения по фонетике современного русского
языка. Брно : МУ, 1991.
8. Jamolxonov H. Hozirgi o‘zbek adabiy tili. Toshkent, 2005.
9. Ranmatullayev Sh. Hozirgi adabiy O‘zbek tili. Toshkent, 2007.
2.3. Typological characteristics of English, Uzbek and
Russian languages phonological systems
2.3.1. English, Uzbek and Rissian languages Stress
Word stress or accent is usually defined as the degree of force or prominence
with which a sound or syllable is uttered. Languages differ with word stress
placement and degrees of it.
51
In the Turkic languages, particularly in Uzbek, word stress usually falls on
the final syllable.
English, Uzbek, and Russian are called stress languages or languages with
dynamic stress (force stress), in which intensity is more significant than the other
correlates-duration and pitch.
Stress can be divided into all compared languages as follows:
In English:
Stress
Word stress
Syntagmatic stress
Utterance stress
Logic stress
Emphatic stress
In Russian:
Stress
Place of stress
Manner of division
Dynamic stress
Fixed stress
Free stress
Strong stress
Free located
Weak stress
Free movable
Quantitative stress
Melodic stress
In Uzbek:
52
Stress
Word stress
According to the
phonetic feature
According to the
place
Dynamic
stress
Free stress
Quantitative
stress
Linked stress
Typical tonic
stress
Musical stress
According to the
movement
Moveable
stress
Unmovable
stress
Syntagmatic stress
Utterance stress
Logic stress
Emphatic stress
53
The features of these three languages can be seen from the tables above. In
English, the word stress is fixed, while in Uzbek it is movable and it often falls to
the right side to the suffixes:
Eng. `teach - `teach +er, - `teach+ing
Uzb. `иш – иш+`чи – ишчи+`лар – ишчилар+`да – ишчиларда+`ми?
Some words of collective pronouns (such as ҳамма, барча) of Uzbek are
considered as exceptions because in these pronouns stress is fixed: ҳ`амма –
ҳ`амма+га –ҳ`амма+дан.
On the contrary, with these two languages Russian stress can be
distinguished
with
its
free
(can
be
in
any
part
of
a
word: хонный,
п ртный, проходной) and mobility (can change its place in
different forms of a word: начать, начал, начала, начали) features.
In all compared languages have two equal stresses: `mid`night,
`black`board, `home`sick etc., in Uzbek: т `мир`йўл, боғ`ишам`ол etc., in
Russian: л т опр т пл ни , о оло мный, иц -пр ид нтetc.
Stress is one of the ways of word building in these compared languages:
Eng.: `present (noun) – pre`sent (verb), `expert (noun) – ex`pert (verb).
Uzb.: `олма (noun) – ол`ма (verb), `сузма (noun) – суз`ма (verb).
Rus.:
заб о
оват (место
в
гостинице)–
заб о
оват
(орудие),смел й (adj.) - смела (noun).
54
2.3.2. English, Uzbek and Russian languages intonation
In linguistics, intonation is the variation of pitch. Intonation and stress are
two main elements of linguistic prosody. Intonation is a part of suprasegmental
phonology. Intonation helps to recognize the language that you hear in the same
way as the melody of a song helps to recognize the song that you hear. That is why
“Intonation” is the melody or music of a language. It consists of a number of
components and comparing languages have adifference in the number of these
components.
For instance:
Components of intonation
Uzbek
Melody
Stress
Pause
Rhythm
Temp
Timbre
Intensity
English
Pitch
Sentence stress
Rhythm
Russian
Stress
Pause
Timbre
Melody
Temp
Considering above mentioned components intonation can be divided into the
following types in all three languages.
Types of intonation
English
Rising
Falling
Uzbek
Finished Unfinished
Declara
tive
Interroga
tive
Impera
tive
Russian
Declarative
Interrogative
Imperative
55
Emphatic Numeration
Besides the two basic types of intonation.Other main types of intonation
include high fall, low fall, fall-rise, high-rise, midlevel rise, low rise, which is
not classified in the other two languages.
Falling intonation is used for asking and giving information in normal, quiet,
unemphatic style. Sounds more categorical, confident and convincing than rising
intonation.
Standard patterns:
In all compared languages, falling intonation is used on the last stressed
syllable of the sentence in:
Statements(declarative sentences) :We live in London. Биз
Лондонда яшаймиз.МыживемвЛондоне.
Special questions: Where do you live? Қаерда яшайсизлар?
Гдевыживете?
Commands (imperative sentences): Sit down! Ўтиринг! Садитесь!
Emphatic sentences: What a wonderful news! Қандай ажойиб
янгилик! Какая приятная новость!
Rising intonation in English is a complicated phenomenon. It can express a
number of various emotions such as non-finality, surprise, doubt, politeness,
interest, lack of confidence. Standard rising intonation in English first goes down a
little and then up.
The similarity of rising intonation in standard patterns also can be observed:
Rising intonation is used in:
General questions: Will you come? Келасизм ? Выпридете?
Tag questions: (When we the speaker is not sure that the answer will
be “Yes” or wants your opinion and confirmation): It is a beautiful \ TOWN,
ISN’T it? Нақадар гўзал шаҳар, шундай эмасм ? Какойкрасивыйгород, нетак
ли?
In addition, there is a levelled intonation, which is used at the end of
imperative sentences: Stop the car! Машинани тўхтатинг! Остановитемашину!
As it is seen, there are no big differences in types of intonation in compared
languages. But we can mention that English greeting and leave-taking sentences
are pronounced with rising intonation, in Uzbek and Russian it is pronounced with
falling intonation. Good day! Салом! Привет! Bye! Хайр! Пока!
Moreover, English and Russian intonation have aclassification of functions
of intonation.
English: attitudinal, accentual, grammatical, discourse.
56
Russian: semantic, expressive, syntactic, and euphonic.
In contrast with above-mentioned functions, Uzbek intonation has several
roles in the sentences: a) as the mean means of expressing completeness of the
sentence; b) participates in differentiating the types of sentences according to their
purpose and emotionality; c) as an important phonetic means in expressing
syntactic relations.
Questions for self-control:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
What is syllable?
What classification of syllable do you know?
What types of word stress do you know according to its place?
What is thedifference between movable and unmovable stress?
Tell similarities and differences between intonation types.
6.
The problem of interference in foreign language teaching acquisition
(Phonetic and phonological levels).
RecommendedLiteratures:
1.
Аракин В.Д. Сравнительная типология английского и русского
языков. Ленинград, 1979.
2.
David Crystal. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. Oxford:
Blackwell, 1991.
3.
Yusupov U.K. Contrastive linguistics of the English and Uzbek
languages. Tashkent, 2013.
4.
Abduazizov A. A. Phonology and morphonology of Uzbek language.
Tashkent, 2010.
5.
Abduazizov A. A. English Phonetics. A Theoretical Course.
Tashkent, 2007.
6.
Оливериус, З. Фонетика русского языка. Praha : SPN, 1978.
7.
Лизалова, Л. И. Упражнения по фонетике современного русского
языка. Брно : МУ, 1991.
8. Jamolxonov H. Hozirgi o‘zbek adabiy tili. Toshkent, 2005.
9. Ranmatullayev Sh. Hozirgi adabiy O‘zbek tili. Toshkent, 2007.
57
Topics for self-study
1. Classification of languages according to phonetic and phonological features
2. Typology of phonological systems
3. Theoretical foundation of phonetic and phonological typologies.
4. Differences between phonetics and phonology.
5. Stress, intonation, assimilation, dissimilation, reduction, accent,
rhythm
and pause.
58
LIST OF THE KEY WORDS OF UNDERSTANDING THE COURSE OF
COMPARATIVE TYPOLOGY OF ENGLISH AND NATIVE LANGUAGES
Typology of phonetic and phonological level of English and Native
languages
1.
The term 'phonetics' is the greek word ( "phone"-meaning sound, voice and
"tika" - a science/box). It is a science which studies the phonetic substance and the
expression area of the language, or otherwise a physical media of a language
(sounds, syllables, stress, and intonation).
2.
From the acoustic and articulator points of view, the phonemic system of
any language may be divided into vowels and consonants.
3.
Segmental phonology studies phonemes realized in avarious speech sound.
Therefore, it may be called phonemics.
4.
Suprasegmental phonology (prosodies) studies the distinctive features
realized in syllables, stress, and intonation.
5.
The Prague linguistic school was the center of phonological typology in its
time. N.S. Trubetskoy is considered the founder of thetypology of thephonological
system (theory of distinctive features).
6.
Word stress or accent is usually defined as the degree of force or
prominence with which a sound or syllable is uttered. Languages differ with word
stress placement and degrees of it.
7.
Intonation is a complex unity of speech melody, sentence stress, thetempo
of speech, therhythm of speech, voice tember and pausation that enables the
speaker to express his thoughts, feelings, and emotions.
8.
When phonemes are pronounced in words, they change their place of
articulation or their features, this process is called assimilation.
9.
Dissimilation is the process by which one of two similar or identical sounds
in a word becomes less like the other, such as the / in English marble (from French
marbre).
10. Reduction refers to various changes in the acoustic quality of vowels, which
are related to changes in stress, sonority, duration, loudness, articulation, or
position.
11. The accentis a relative prominence of a particular syllable of a word by
greater intensity or by variation or modulation of pitch or tone.
59
12. Rhythm is the pattern or flow of sound created by the arrangement of
stressed and unstressed syllables in accentual verse or of long and short syllables in
quantitative verse.
13. Pysiological-acousticis a branch of acoustics that studies the structure and
branch function of the sound-detecting and soundforming organs of man andanimals.
14. Obstruent is a speech sound such as [k], [dʒ], or [f] that is formed
by obstructing airflow.
15.
Sonorant or Resonant is a speech sound that is produced with continuous,
non-turbulent airflow in the vocal tract; these are the manners of articulation that
are most often voiced in the world's languages.
16. Unroundedis a type of vowel sound that occurs in most spoken languages,
represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet by the symbol.
17. Mid vowelsThe defining characteristic of a mid vowel is that the tongue is
positioned midway between an open vowel and a close vowel.
18. Phonology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the systematic
organization of sounds in languages.
19. Linguistic prosody is concerned with those elements of speech that are not
individual phonetic segments (vowels and consonants) but are properties
of syllables and larger units of speech.
20. The nasalcavity is a large air filled space above and behind the nose in the
middle of the face. Each cavity is the continuation of one of the two nostrils.
60
Seminar 3
Typology of phonetic and phonological level of English,
Uzbek and Russian Languages
►Classroom activities
Exercise#1. Brainstorming. Give your own understanding and opinions
concerning to following terms. Discuss it in 10 or 12 minutes.
Phonological
typology
Phonetic
typology
Exercise#2. Answer the questions:
1. What isthe theoretical foundation of phonetic and phonological typologies?
2. What kind of differences do phonetics and phonology have?
3. What is the typological comparison of vowel and consonant phonemes?
4. Stress, intonation, assimilation, dissimilation, reduction, accent, rhythm and
pause.
Exercise#3. Complete a cluster "Phonology":
61
__________
_________________
____________
_______________
Phonology
___________
_____________
►Home activities
Exercise#1. Write 4 main aspects of PHONETICS and match them with the
paragraphs below:
PHONETICS
1............................................ investigates the functioning of one’s speech
apparatus and mechanism. It is based on profound knowledge of physiology and
the structure of one’s speech apparatus. While investigating the articulatory aspect
of speech sounds both subjective and objective methods are employed: the method
of direct observation (concerning the lips & the tongue movements) – subjective
method and X-ray photography and X-ray cinematography (objective methods).
2................................................... studies the acoustic properties of sounds
(quantity, timber/voice quality, intensity, the pitch of the voice and temporal
factor) in terms of the frequency of vibration and the amplitude of vibration in
relation to time. The analysis begins with a microphone, which converts the air
62
movement into corresponding electrical activity. While investigating the acoustic
aspect of speech sounds special laboratory equipment is employed: spectrograph,
intonograph, sound analyzing & sound synthesizing machines.
3.................................................... is aimed at investigating the hearing
process which is the brain activity. Auditory Phonetics and Acoustic Phonetics are
very closely connected.
4....................................................
presupposes
investigating
the
discriminatory (distinctive) function of speech sounds.
Exercise#2. Read and fill in the gaps:
Comparative
phonetics,
Segmental
phonology,
phonetics,Suprasegmental phonology andGeneral phonetics.
Specific
Phonetics can be divided into several types like:
1...............................................It studies universal positions of sound
articulation (for instance, identification of sounds according to the position the
differences of labial, tongue and throat consonants, according to the ways of
articulation of plosive, fricative and plosive-fricative features), although, general
acoustic features of sounds.
2...............................................It investigates above mentioned issues in the
samples of certain languages. Specific phonetics researches phonetics in the shapes
of historical and modern, synchronic and diachronic, descriptive and experimental
sides.
3.................................................investigates vowel and consonant phonemes,
their phonetic changes and others in thecomparative aspect of several genetically
related and non-related languages.
Phonetics and phonology have two levels: segmental and suprasegmental.
4.......................................... studies phonemes realized in avarious speech
sound. So it may be called phonemics.
5......................................... (prosodics) studies the distinctive features
realized in syllables, stress, and intonation.
►Activities for self-improvement
Exercise#1. Read the statements below and choose whether they are True or
False.
63
1. Vowels are not stressed syllables in compared languages.
True / False
2. Two types of stress are distinguished in compared languages.
True / False
3. Sentence stress is a feature of the phonetic structure of a word as a
vocabulary unit.
True / False
4. The morphological stress exists only in Uzbek.
True / False
5. 'Olma (a noun) "apple".
True / False
6. Stress is free in English.
True / False
7. In English stress moves when suffixes are added.
True / False
8. 4 degrees of stress exist in Uzbek.
True / False
9. Stress does not have word-distinctive and form-distinctive functions in
Uzbek.
True / False
10.'present-noun.
True / False
64
Seminar 4
Typology of phonetic and phonological level of English,
Uzbek and Russian Languages
►Classroom activities
Exercise#1. Group work. Divide into small groups. Discuss and analyze the
following topics. Compare given topics and present their similarities and
differences to others.
Differences between
tone and stress
languages
Segmental and
suprasegmental
phonology
Comparison of
English and Native
languages vowel
phonemes
Comparison of English
and Native languages
consonant phonemes
Exercise#2. Answer the questions.
1. What is avowel?
2. What is consonant?
3. What kind of differences can be between vowels and consonants?
4. Tell about the principles of vowels' classification.
5. Find at least 3 similarities of English and Uzbek vowels.
6. Give 3 differences between English and Uzbek vowel phonemes.
7. Give 3 distinctive features of English and Uzbek vowel phonemes.
Exercise#3. Stress can be divided into all compared languages.
65
a) in small groups complete the clusters.
In English:
Stress
Utterance
stress
Logic stress
In Russian:
Stress
Manner of division
Place of stress
Fixed stress
Free located
Strong
stress
Weak stress
66
In Uzbek:
Stress
Word stress
According to the
place
According to the
phonetic feature
Free stress
Quantitative
stress
Musical stress
According to the
movement
Unmovable stress
Syntagmatic
stress
Emphatic stress
3b) Compare completed clusters and find 3 similarities, differences and
distinctive features of the stress in 3 languages.
67
►Home activities
Exercise#1. Complete the table and Compare vowels according to the tongue
position in 3 languages:
front vowel front-retracted
vowel
central
vowels
back
vowels
back-advanced
vowel
English
Uzbek
-
-
Russian
-
-
Exercise#2. Compare Uzbek, Russian and English vowels according to the
vertical position of the tongue.
narrow
mid
Broad
Uzbek
Russian
English
►Activities for self-improvement
Exercise#1. Do the following tasks.
1. Characterize the following syllables according to the distribution of vowels
and consonants (open, close)
Do, took, tree, lit, blue, stay, dog, pie, stamp, out, put, eye, act.
2. Group the following words according to the number of syllables.(1,2,3,4,5)
68
Military, politics, problematic, machine, come, millet, communal, problem,
coming, mechanical communist, politician, mechanize, probe.
3. Divide the following words into syllables:
Cottage, family, pity, table, fishing, exam, education, January, parents,
introduce.
4. Put the stress mark in the following words:
Apple-tree, examination, police, hatto, introduction, fourteen, house wife, ammo,
barcha.
Test yourself on Typology of phonetic and phonological level of
English and Native Languages
1. The smallest unit of sound distinguishing meaning is called a ...
a) phone
b) morpheme
c) phoneme
d) allophone
2. A fricative and an affricate differ in ...
a) pressure phase and friction phase
b) Nothing
c) place of articulation
d) the manner of articulation
3. A voiced and a voiceless sound differ in ...
a) There is no difference
b) the direction of the air stream
c) aspiration
d) vocal chord action
4. In which of these words is the vowel the shortest?
a) bean
b) bead
c) bee
d) beat
69
5. … which is mainly concerned with the functioning of phonetic units in the
language.
a) segmental phonetics;
b) practical phonetics;
c) suprasegmental phonetics;
d) theoretical phonetics.
6. The branch of phonetics that studies the linguistic function of consonant and
vowel sounds, syllable structure, word accent and prosodic features, such as
pitch, stress and tempo is called …
a) phonology;
b) instrumental phonetics;
c) practical phonetics;
d) theoretical phonetics;
7. … studies the larger units of connected speech syllables, words, phrases, texts.
a) segmental phonetics;
b) theoretical phonetics;
c) practical phonetics;
d) suprasegmental phonetics.
8. How many vowels are there in the English, Russian and Uzbek languages?
a) 20, 6, 6
b) 18, 6, 10
c) 19, 6, 6
d) 24, 10, 6
9. What language classifies vowels into short and long according to the length
a) Russian
b) English
c) Uzbek
d) Polish
10. According to the palatalization of the tongue, what language has soft and hard
consonants?
a) English
b) Uzbek
70
c) Russian
d) Polish
11. According to the passive organs of speech, consonants are divided into:
a) Labial
b) Dental and alveolar
c) Sonorant
d) Fricative
12. A special prominence given to one more syllable in a word is:
a) The pause
b) The rhythm
c) The melody
d) The stress
13. Which language has free word stress?
a) Russian and English
b) Czeck and Slovak
c) French
d) Kazakh
14. What is a syllable?
a) Morphemic structure of the word
b) One of the speech sounds
c) The shortest segment of speech sounds
d) Segmental structure of the word
15. Find the correct answer where English and Uzbek stress position is correctly
shown.
a) words in English have mostly 1st syllable stressed position and Uzbek last
syllable stressed position
b) words in Uzbek have mostly 2nd syllable stressed position and English 1st
syllable stressed position
c) there is no stable stress position in both languages
d) words in Uzbek and English have free syllable stressed position
71
TOPICS FOR PRESENTATIONS
1. The theoretical foundation of phonetic and phonological typologies.
2. Differences between phonetics and phonology.
3. Typological comparison of vowel and consonant phonemes.
4. Stress, intonation, assimilation, dissimilation, reduction, accent, rhythm and
pause.
5. Comparison of English, Russian and Uzbek vowel phonemes.
6. Comparison of English, Russian and Uzbek consonant phonemes.
7. Comparative analysis of English, Russian and Uzbek intonation.
8. Comparative analysis of English, Russian and Uzbek stress.
72
III. Typology of morphological level of English and
Native Languages
3.1. Theoretical basis of determining necessary constants in
morphological level
Key points for discussion:
 The object of Morphological Typology
 Correlation ofMorphological Typology with other branches of
СomparativeTypology
 Morpheme and allomorph.
 The notion of analytical and synthetic languages
 Typological classification of languages
Morphological typology studies the units of themorphological level. It deals with
two types of comparison:
 morphological or typological classification of languages;
 Parts of speech and their grammatical categories.
According to the morphological classification, the languages are classified
due to the typical structural features or means of expression of synthetic relations
between words.
Grammatical categories may be of 2 types:
 primary grammatical categories, which deal with parts of speech
 secondary grammatical categories, which deal with grammatical categories
within every part of speech separately: number, case, gender for nouns,
tense, voice, aspect, mood, person, degrees of comparison for adjectives and
so on.
Besides morphological typology studies morphological paradigm. It
classifies languages into languages:
 with highly developed morphology
 with less developed morphology
 with non-developed morphology
A morpheme is an association of a given meaning with a given sound
pattern. But unlike a word it is not autonomous. Morphemes occur in speech only
as for constituent parts of words, not independently, although a word may consist
73
of a single morpheme. Nor are they divisible into smaller meaningful units. That is
why the morpheme may be defined as the minimum meaningful language unit.
The term morpheme is derived from Gr morphe ‘form’ + -eme. The Greek
suffix -erne has been adopted by linguists to denote the smallest significant or
distinctive unit. (Cf. phoneme, sememe.) The morpheme is the smallest meaningful
unit of form. A form in these cases is a recurring discrete unit of speech.
A form is said to be free if it may stand alone without changing its meaning;
if not, it is a bound form, so called because it is always bound to something else.
For example, if we compare the words sportive and elegant and their parts, we see
that sport, sportive, elegant may occur alone as utterances, whereas eleg-, -ive, -ant
are bound forms because they never occur alone.
Morphological typology
Morphological typology is a way of classifying the languages of the world
that groups languages according to their common morphological structures. First
developed by brothers Friedrich von Schlegel and August von Schlegel, the field
organizes languages on the basis of how those languages form words by combining
morphemes. Two primary categories exist to distinguish all languages: analytic
languages and synthetic languages, where each term refers to the opposite end of a
continuous scale including all the world's languages.
Analytic languages
Analytic languages show a low ratio of morphemes to words; in fact, the
correspondence is nearly one-to-one. Sentences in analytic languages are
composed of independent root morphemes. Grammatical relations between words
are expressed by separate words where they might otherwise be expressed by
affixes, which are present to a minimal degree in such languages. There is little to
no morphological change in words: they tend to be uninflected. Grammatical
categories are indicated by word order (for example, inversion of verb and subject
for interrogative sentences) or by bringing in additional words (for example, a
word for "some" or "many" instead of a plural inflection like English "-s").
Individual words carry a general meaning (root concept); nuances are expressed by
other
words.
Finally,
in analytic
languages,
context
and syntax
are
more
important
than
74
morphology.
Analytic languages include some of the major East Asian languages, such as
Chinese, and Vietnamese. Additionally, English is moderately analytic (probably
one of the most analytic of Indo-European languages).
Synthetic languages
Synthetic languages form words by affixing a given number of dependent
morphemes to a root morpheme. The morphemes may be distinguishable from the
root, or they may not. They may be fused with it or among themselves (in that
multiple pieces of grammatical information may potentially be packed into one
morpheme). Word order is less important for these languages than it is for analytic
languages since individual words express the grammatical relations that would
otherwise be indicated by syntax. In addition, there tends to be a high degree of
concordance (agreement, or cross-reference between different parts of the
sentence). Therefore, morphology in synthetic languages is more important than
syntax. Most Indo-European languages are moderately synthetic.
There are two subtypes of synthesis, according to whether morphemes are
clearly differentiable or not. These subtypes are "agglutinative" and "fusional" (or
"inflectional" or "flectional" in older terminology).
Agglutinative languages
Agglutinative languages have words containing several morphemes that are
always clearly differentiable from one another in that each morpheme represents
only one grammatical meaning and the boundaries between those morphemes are
easily demarcated; that is, the bound morphemes are affixes, and they may be
individually identified. Agglutinative languages tend to have a high number of
morphemes per word, and their morphology is highly regular.
Agglutinative languages include Korean, Hungarian, Turkish, Japanese and
Luganda.
Fusional languages
Morphemes in fusional languages are not readily distinguishable from the
root or among themselves. Several grammatical bits of meaning may be fused into
75
one affix. Morphemes may also be expressed by internal phonological changes in
the root (i.e. morphophonology), such as consonant gradation and vowel gradation,
or by suprasegmental features such as stress or tone, which are of course
inseparable from the root.
Most Indo-European languages are fusional to a varying degree. A
remarkably high degree of fusionality is also found in certain Sami languages such
as Skolt Sami.
Polysynthetic languages
In 1836, Wilhelm von Humboldt proposed a third category for classifying
languages, a category that he labeled "polysynthetic". (The term "polysynthesis"
was first used in linguistics by Peter Stephen DuPonceau who borrowed it from
chemistry.) These languages have a high morpheme-to-word ratio, a highly regular
morphology, and a tendency for verb forms to include morphemes that refer to
several arguments besides the subject ("polypersonalism"). Another feature of
polysynthetic languages is commonly expressed as "the ability to form words that
are equivalent to whole sentences in other languages". Of course, this is rather
useless as a defining feature, since it is tautological ("other languages" can only be
defined by opposition to polysynthetic ones and vice versa).
76
Many Amerindian languages are polysynthetic. Inuktitut is one example, for
instance, the word-phrase: "tavvakiqutiqarpiit" roughly translates to "Do you have
any tobacco for sale?".
Note that no clear division exists between synthetic languages and
polysynthetic languages; the place of one language largely depends on its relation
to other languages displaying similar characteristics on the same scale.
Morphological typology in reality
Each of the types above is idealizations; they do not exist in a pure state in
reality. Although they generally fit best into one category, "all" languages are
mixed types. English is synthetic, but it is more analytic than Spanish and much
more analytic than Latin. Chinese is the usual model of analytic languages, but it
does have some bound morphemes. Japanese is highly synthetic (agglutinative) in
its verbs, but clearly analytic in its nouns. For these reasons, the scale above is
continuous and relative, not absolute. It is difficult to classify a language as
absolutely analytic or synthetic, as a language could be described as more synthetic
than Chinese, but less synthetic than Korean.
Morphology is the identification, analysis, and description of the structure of
words (words as units in the lexicon are the subject matter of lexicology). While
words are generally accepted as being (with clitics) the smallest units of syntax, it
is clear that in most (if not all) languages, words can be related to other words by
rules. For example, English speakers recognize that the words dog, dogs, and
dogcatcher are closely related. English speakers recognize these relations from
their tacit knowledge of the rules of word formation in English. They infer
intuitively that dog is to dogs as cat is to cats; similarly, thedog is to dogcatcher as
thedish is to thedishwasher. The rules understood by the speaker reflect specific
patterns (or regularities) in the way words are formed from smaller units and how
those smaller units interact in speech. In this way, morphology is the branch of
linguistics that studies patterns of word formation within and across languages and
attempts to formulate rules that model the knowledge of the speakers of those
languages.
In linguistics, a morpheme is the smallest grammatical unit in a language. In
other words, it is the smallest meaningful unit of a language. A morpheme is not
identical to a word, and the principal difference between the two is that a
morpheme may or may not stand alone, whereas a word, by definition, is
freestanding. When it stands by itself, it is considered a root because it has a
meaning of its own (e.g. the morpheme cat) and when it depends on another
77
morpheme to express an idea, it is an affix because it has a grammatical function
(e.g. the –s in cats to indicate that it is plural). Every word comprises one or more
morphemes.
General classification of the morpheme according to the role in the word is
similar in compared languages. They can be classified as free and bound
morphemes. While in Uzbek and Russian, they are called root and affixed
morphemes.
Free morphemes can function independently as words (e.g. town, dog) and
can appear with other lexemes (e.g. town hall, doghouse).
Bound morphemes appear only as parts of words, always in conjunction
with a root and sometimes with other bound morphemes. For example, un- appears
only accompanied by other morphemes to form a word. Most bound morphemes in
English are affixes, particularly prefixes and suffixes. Examples of suffixes are tion, -ation, -ible, -ing, etc. Bound morphemes that are not affixes are called
cranberry morphemes.
Bound morphemes in the compared languages can be compared as follows:
Bound morpheme
English
Russian
Uzbek
Derived
Inflection
Lexical
Inflectional
Prefix
Affixed
Suffix
Affixoid
Postfix
Interfix
According to the function of morphemes, they are subdivided into lexeme
forming and form forming morphemes in Russian and Uzbek. The main function
of lexeme forming morpheme is to form new lexeme from existing one (бодрость, бодр-о; ishchi-, ishla-, ishchan). Form forming morphemes serve for
forming forms of the same word without changing its lexical meaning (бодр-ый –
бодр-ая – бодр-ое; ishchilar, ishchini).
Allomorphy
In the exposition above, morphological rules are described as analogies
between word forms: thedog is to dogs as cat is to cats, and as thedish is to dishes.
In this case, the analogy applies both to the form of the words and to their
78
meaning: in each pair, the first word means "one of X", while the second "two or
more of X” and the difference is always the plural form -s affixed to the second
word, signaling the key distinction between singular and plural entities.
One of the largest sources of complexity in morphology is that this one-toone correspondence between meaning and form scarcely applies to every case in
the language. In English, we have word form pairs like ox/oxen, goose/geese, and
sheep/sheep, where the difference between the singular and the plural is signaled in
a way that departs from the regular pattern, or is not signaled at all. Even cases
considered "regular", with the final -s, are not so simple; the -s in dogs is not
pronounced the same way as the -s in cats, and in a plural like dishes, an "extra"
vowel appears before the -s. These cases, where alternative forms of a “word”
effect the same distinction, are called allomorphy.
Comparison of morphological level of English and Native languages
For afull comparison of thetypological characteristic in thecategory of
thenumber, we have to find out in which place does this category take in the
system of another language.
If we take as an example Russian language, we can easily find its
characteristic features- in numerals, in adjectives, pronouns, verbs. Ex. Я беру, ты
берешь, вы берете, etc.
In a comparison with the Russianlanguage, the seme of thesingularity of
English language is presented just with zero morphemes, ex. town, play, etc.
However the seme of singularity in Russian language represented by morphemes: й, ex: сарай, край; -а, -я ex: река; -о,-е ex: окно. But plurality in both languages
can be represented with the seme of theplurality by adding endings –ы, -и, -а for
Russian and –s, -es for English.
In both languages, there are a lot of groups that are representatives of the
seme of plurality. Some of them are alike in both languages. Ex, ножницыscissors, брюки-trousers, весы-scales, очки-glasses
In general English plurality model can be divided into 3 variants:
N-N+(e)s ex: cup-cups, assistant-assistants, face-faces, photo-photos
N-N+en ex: ox-oxen, child-children
N-Npl (with the changes of vowels in roots) ex: man-men, foot-feet, mousemice, etc.
In Uzbek suffix –lar may represent not only aplurality but other meanings as
well.
Ex: respect Hamid aka keldilarmi?
79
Approximate time Soat o‘nlarda kelish kerak.
Besides that, it can express the meanings such as superlative, collective,
irony and type.
Questions for self-control:
1. The morphological level is one of the main parts of language hierarchy. Prove it.
2. Can you explain the problem of typological classification in Linguistics?
3. What is the structural difference between analytical and synthetic languages?
4. Characterize 4 types of languages according to typologicall classification.
5. Compare English Russian and Uzbek morphemic structure
6. Is your native language analytical or synthetic? Prove it.
RecommendedLiteratures:
1.
Аракин В.Д.Сравнительная типология английского и русского
языков. Ленинград, 1979.
2.
Буранов Ж.Б. Сравнительная типология английского и тюркских
языков. М, 1983.
3.
Рождественский Ю.В. Типология слова. М, 1969.
4.
Sh. Rakhmatullaev. Hozirgiadabiy o‘zbek tili (darslik). Universitet. T,
2006.
80
3.2. Typology of parts of speech in English and Native
Languages
A part of speech is a category of words (or, more generally, of lexical items)
which have similar grammatical properties. Words that are assigned to the same
part of speech generally display similar behavior in terms of syntax—they play
similar roles within the grammatical structure of sentences—and sometimes in
terms of morphology, in that they undergo inflection for similar properties.In
grammar, a part of speech (also called lexical categories, grammatical
categories or word classes) is a linguistic category of words.
According to their meaning, morphological characteristics and syntactical
functions, words fall under certain classes called parts of speech. We distinguish
between notional and structural parts of speech in English.
The notional parts of speech perform certain functions in the sentence. The
notional parts of speech are:
1. noun
2. adjective
3. pronoun
4. numeral
5. verb
6. adverb
7. words of the category of state
8. modal words
9. interjection
The structural parts of speech either express relations between words or
sentences or emphasize the meaning of words or sentences. They never perform
any independent function in the sentence. Here belong:
1. preposition
2. conjunction
3. particle
4. article
81
Parts of speech in Russian and Uzbek are subdivided according to the
grammatical meaning, group of morphological features and syntactic role in the
sentence.
Grammatical meaning is the most generalized meaning inherent in the whole
class of words. More subtle differences in meaning reflect ranks in importance,
which are allocated to one or another part of speech. For example, let’s take a noun
as anexample.
Grammatical meaning of the noun - "subject". It is expressed in other words,
to answer the questions: Who? What?
Examples: Who? What? - Leg, lamp, son, Moscow, gold, silver, nobility,
young people, good, greed.
These words, of course, convey different meanings: concrete and abstract,
real, collective, private. For morphology, it is important that these differences are
expressed in the value at the morphological level. For example, most nouns with a
particular value are usually singular and plural: foot - feet, and all the rest - only
one form, either singular or plural: Moscow (private) - singular, gold (real), the
nobility (collective) - plural, good (abstract) – singular. But all these words are one
class. They answer some questions, which distinguishthem from other classes of
82
words, for example, verbs answer the question: What to do? and express
thegrammatical meaning of "action": to walk, jump, laugh, fight, learn.
Morphological features - these are the characteristics of the grammatical
nature of words. For morphology it is important to be known:

do the words change or not,

which forms sets have words,

what inflections these forms are expressed

what do these forms express.
Some morphological characteristics are common in several parts of speech,
such as deaths, others peculiar to only one class of words, such as time. The same
feature can be immutable, constant for any class of words and change in others,
such as race. Each part of speech is a set of morphological traits. Not knowing
them, it is impossible to produce a morphological analysis of the words and
understand what unites words in one part of speech and distinguishes them from
other parts of speech.
The syntactic role in the sentence - it is the role of a certain class of words
plays in a sentence. Important:

whether the word member suggestions

what is its role in the grammatical device offers.
According to these main three characteristics, parts of speech in Russian are
subdivided into primary, secondary parts of speech and interjections.
Primary parts of speech are:
1.
Noun
2.
Adjective
3.
Numeral
4.
Pronoun
5.
Verb
6.
Adverb.
Secondary (bound) parts of speech are:
1.
Preposition
2.
Conjunction
3.
Particle
Interjections are:
1.
Interjections
2.
imitative words.
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Classification of parts of speech in Uzbek is almost the same as in Russian.
It also classified according to three main features of words such as semantic,
morphological and syntactic characteristics.
Currently, in modern Uzbek, there are 12 parts of speech and they are
subdivided into primary, secondary and interjections.
Primary parts of speech are:
1. Noun
2. Adjective
3. Numeral
4. Pronoun
5. Verb
6. Adverb.
Secondary (bound) parts of speech are:
1. Postposition
2. Conjunction
3. Particle
Interjections are:
1.
Modal words
2.
Interjection
3.
Onomatopoeia (Imitative words).
Main characteristics of primary parts of speech are they have lexical and
grammatical meaning and can be expressed as any part of the sentence. While
secondary parts of speech do not have such features like expressing lexical
meaning, they do not have morphological changing and forming system and cannot
express as a part of a sentence. They serve for connecting the sentences, expressing
additional meaning for them, depending on words to each. Modal words,
exclamations, and imitative words are unlike primary and secondary parts of
speech in their functions.
As it is seen from the lists there is no article and the words of the category of
state in Russian and Uzbek, no modal words in Russian. Functions of prepositions
and postposition of the compared languages can be considered similar to each
other with different naming.
Moreover, the singular form of English, Russian and Uzbek nouns is zero
morpheme, We add suffix in all three languages in order to make aplural form, The
adjectives in both languages have the category of degree. These features can be
observed in all compared languages. At the same time we also can see some
84
distinctive features of parts of speech in these languages like in English have root
exchange in formation plural form: woman – women, tooth – teeth, in English also
have root exchange in forming degrees (or irregular adjectives) of adjectives: Good
– Better – the best, in Uzbek we have suffix –лар which means respect for adults:
онамлар and so on.
It should be noted that classification of parts of speech is considered as
problematic in all compared languages. Therefore, there are different approaches in
classifying them into the groups.
Questions for self-control:
1. Give the definition of the term “parts of speech” in Linguistics.
2. Why do linguists name parts of speech as primary grammatical categories?
3. Who suggested this term?
4. Analyze different approaches to classification of parts of speech.What do you
think about it? Give your own opinion.
5. What is the main criterion for uniting words into one and the same part of
speech?
6. Different approaches to classification of parts of speech.
7. What parts of speech are there in English, Uzbek and Russian?
8. Reveal similarities and differences.
9. The problem of interference in foreign language teaching acquisition
(Morphological level).
RecommendedLiteratures:
1.
Аракин
В.Д.
Сравнительнаятипологияанглийскогоирусскогоязыков. Ленинград, 1979.
2.
Буранов Ж.Б. Сравнительная типология английского и тюркских
языков. М, 1983.
3.
Рождественский Ю.В. Типология слова. М, 1969.
4.
Sh. RakhmatullaevHozirgiadabiyo‘zbektili (darslik). Universitet. T,
2006.
85
3.3. Typology of Grammatical Categories in English and
Native Languages
A grammatical category isa system opposed to each other grammatical
forms with similar values. Members of the same grammatical category are the
general grammatical meaning and differ in connotation.
Grammatical categories are subdivided into morphological and syntactic.
Among the morphological categories are distinguished, for example, the kind of
grammatical categories, tense, mood, person, gender, number, case; consistent
expression of these categories are characterized by the whole grammatical word
classes (parts of speech).
Grammatical categories in different languages with a strong word formation,
ie such members can be represented by the forms of the same word within its
paradigm (for example, in the Russian language - the tense, the inclination, the
number of the verb, number, case, gender adjectives degrees of comparison).
Word changing, ie such that the members can not be represented forms of
the same word (for example, in the Russian language - the genus and
animation/inanimation nouns).
Also, grammatical categoriesare distinguished as:
revealed a syntactically (relational), i.e. pointing especially to the
combinability of the forms as part of the phrase or sentence (for example, in the
Russian language - gender, case)
 non-syntactical detected (referential, nominative), ie expressed primarily
different semantic abstraction, abstracted from properties,
 connections and relationships extralinguistic reality (for example, in the
Russian language - the kind of time)
Such grammatical categoryas for example, the number or the person can
combine features of both these types.
According toDr. Buranov, grammatical categories can be divided into two:
 grammatical macrocategories or primary grammatical categories (the term
suggested by Aristotle);
 Grammatical microcategories orsecondary grammatical categories (the term
suggested by Aristotle).
Parts of speech or lexico-grammatic groups of words are primary
grammatical categories.
As it is known theclassification of parts of speech in compared languages
can be identified according to the following features of lexemes:
86
 Lexical and grammatical meaning
 Generalization of morphologic forms for certain word groups
 According to the function of words in the sentences.
Every word of a certain part of speech has its own morphological forms,
these forms contain morphological paradigm and can be connected with certain
grammatical categories. For instance, in English the inflection –s can represent
acategory of thenumber and –ed of the verb can represent tense category and etc
[Buranov, 1973, 101].
Secondary grammatical categories are units of grammatical meaning and
grammatical forms.
Any grammatical category (the category of gender, category number,
category of case, etc.) in each word has a specific content. For example, the
category of gender, a noun category, in the words of the книга(book) reveals that
this noun is a feminine noun in Russian; category or type, for example, the verb
рисовать (to draw) has specific content - a verb imperfective. These meanings of
wordsare called grammatical meanings. Therefore, every word can have a
number of grammatical meanings, for example, in the Russian verb
бежал thefollowing grammatical meanings can be observed: past tense meaning,
singular, themasculinecategory of gender, unfinished form.
Grammatical meanings are expressed by a specific means of language. For
example, the meaning of the 1st person singular of the Russian verb пишу is
expressed by the ending-y, and the general meaning of the instrumental case of the
word лесом is expressed by th ending -ом.These expressions of grammatical
meanings with external language means called grammatical forms. Consequently,
the form of the word is a variation of the same word, differentiated from each other
with grammatical meanings. Beyond the grammatical form, there is no
grammatical meaning. Grammatical meanings can be expressed not only by
morphological changes of words but also by means of other words, with which it is
associated
in
the
sentence.
For
example,
in
the
Russian
sentencesОнкупилпальтоandОнбылвпальто the form of the word пальто(coat)is
the same, but in the first case it has the grammatical meaning of the accusative
case, and in the second - the prepositional. These meanings are formed with
different connections of the word with other words in the sentence.
Moreover, according to the structure grammatical forms can be subdivided
into synthetic form and analytical form.
The main difference between synthetic form and analytical form is that
synthetic forms can be formed with the help of affixal grammatic morphemes (like
87
morphemes of aspect, tense, mood, voice, person, number and perfect categories)
while analytic forms are formed with link verbs.
In the following examples of comparison of secondary grammatical
categories, grammatical meaning and grammatical forms can be identified.
In English, Russian and Uzbek languages, plurality is the category of the
noun, pronoun, and verb, which means a great number of something or
someone.For example, these books are interesting – бу китоблар қизиқарли –
этикнигиинтересны.
All compared languages have some nouns, which are never used in aplural
form such as love, friendship, hate – любовь, дружба – муҳаббат, дўстлик.
The verbs of compared languages are able to indicate the plurality.
English
She is beautiful.
They are beautiful.
Russian
Он пошол в школу.
Дети пошли в школу.
Uzbek
Бола мактабга борди.
Болалар
мактабга
боришди.
Nevertheless, in English and Russian indefinite pronouns some, any and their
derivatives don’t have plural forms. But in Uzbek they have.
English
somebody
anything
Russian
кто-то
что-нибудь
Uzbek
кимлардир,аллакимлар
алланималар
In English, some borrowed words keep their original plural forms. But in
Russian and Uzbek borrowed words follow the rules of making plurality.
English
phenomenon
phenomena
datum – data
Russian
– Феномен – феномены
Компьютер
компьютеры
Uzbek
Стол – столлар
– Компьютер – компьютерлар
Although, in English, there are nouns which form the plural by changing the
root vowel. But in Russian and Uzbek there is no such a phenomenon. This feature
can be considered as adistinctive feature of English plural form of the category of
aplurality(man- men, woman – women, foot – feet, ox – oxen and etc.).Moreover,
in English and Russian,there are also some nouns, which have only the plural form
(spectacles, trousers, scissors - очки, брюки, ножницы), and they are not
88
characterized in Uzbek. Thus, they can be considered as similarity in English and
Russian and as distinctive feature in comparison with Uzbek.
Therefore, typology of grammatical categories of the languages can serve in
identifying language universals and at the same time to clarify their distinctive
peculiarities. These phenomena can be helpful in thedeep understanding of any
language and teach them as a foreign language as well as in translation processes
too.
Questions for self-control:
1. Who is the founder of morphological typology?
2. What grammatical categories of noun do you know in compared languages?
3. Characterize them and reveal their similarities and differences.
4. What grammatical categories of theverb do you know in compared
languages?
5. Characterize them and reveal their similarities and differences in compared
languages.
6. The problem of interference in foreign language teaching acquisition
(Morphological level).
Recommended literature:
1. Yusupov U.K. Contrastive linguistics of the English and Uzbek languages.
Tashkent, 2013.
2. Аракин В.Д. Сравнительная типология английского и русского языков.
Ленинград, 1979.
3. Буранов Ж.Б. Сравнительная типология английского и тюркских языков.
М, 1983.
4. Буранов Ж.Б. Инглиз ва ўзбек тиллари қиёсий грамматикаси. Т, 1973.
5. Мухитдинова Х., Худойберганова Д., Умиров И., Жиянов Н., Юсупова Т.
Ҳозирги ўзбек адабий тили Т., 2004.
Topics for self-study
1. Classification of languages according to their morphological structure
2. Agglutinative languages
3. Comparative historical method
4. Flexional languages
5. Morphological structure of a word
6. Typology of Parts of Speech
89
LIST OF THE KEY WORDS OF UNDERSTANDING THE COURSE OF
COMPARATIVE TYPOLOGY OF ENGLISH AND NATIVE LANGUAGES
Typology of morphological level of English and Native Languages
1.
Morphology is the main part of grammar that studies parts of speech their
categories and word systems.
2.
Morphological level studies the smallest meaningful unit of a language –
morpheme. The term m o r p h e m e is derived from Greek morphe ‘form’ + eme.The Greek suffix -erne has been adopted by linguists to denote the smallest
significant or d i s t i n c t i v e u n i t .
3.
Morphological typology is a way of classifying the languages of the world that
groups languages according to their common morphological structures.
4.
Analytic languages show a low ratio of morphemes to words; in fact, the
correspondence is nearly one-to-one. Sentences in analytic languages are composed of
independent root morphemes.
5.
Synthetic languages form words by affixing a given number of dependent
morphemes to a root morpheme.
6.
Due to the presence and absence of word forms (prefixes, infixes, suffixes)
language, words are divided into those, which have affixes, and those, which do
not have them.
7.
Language that does not have affixes is called Isolate: Chinese, Japanese.
8.
When a word is a whole sentence, this type is called Polysynthetic
(American-Indian languages). These languages have a high morpheme-to-word
ratio, a highly regular morphology, and thetendency for verb forms to include
morphemes that refer to several arguments besides the subject.
9.
Agglutinative languages have words containing several morphemes that are always
clearly differentiable from one another in that each morpheme represents only one
grammatical meaning and the boundaries between those morphemes are easily demarcated;
that is, the bound morphemes are affixes, and they may be individually identified.
10. Morphemes in fusional languages are not readily distinguishable from the root or
among themselves. Several grammatical bits of meaning may be fused into one affix.
Morphemes may also be expressed by internal phonological changes in the root (i.e.
morphophonology), such as consonant gradation and vowel gradation, or by suprasegmental
features such as stress or tone, which are of course inseparable from the root.
11.
The term grammatical category is based on grammar. It means the
combination of the meaning, its form. (eg. Work+s =works / cat.of tense).
90
12. The term “morphology” is a Greek word (“morphe” – a form and “logos” a
word/science.
13. A morpheme which has bilateral phenomenon – the form and its meaning is
the main unit of themorphological level.
14. V.V.Humboldt was the founder of morphological typology.
15. The noun is a word expressing substance in the widest sense. The concept
substance includes the names of living beings, lifeless things, abstract notions and
etc.
16. The noun has the category of number – singular and plural.
17. Nouns have two cases in English, six in Uzbek and Russian.
18. Nouns have agrammatical category of gender in Russian but not in English
and Uzbek.
19. The noun has the category of possessiveness in Uzbek but not in English.
91
Seminar 5
Typology of morphological level of English and Native
Languages
►Classroom activities
Exercise#1. Complete the diagram with the words in thebox and describe it to
the group.
Morphological typology, typological classification of languages, grammatical
categories, features of thesynthetic relation of words, grammatical categories,
primary, secondary.
?
primary
?
Morphological
typology
?
?
Exercise#2. Pair work.Divide into pairs. Work on the following topics in pairs.
Share with your analysis and understanding.
92
Different viewpoints
in typological
classification
Difference between
analytic and
synthetic language
categories
Four types of world
languages due to
morphological
classification
Difference between
agglutinative and
fusional languages
Identifying difference
between isolating and
polysynthetic
languages
Comparison of parts
of speech in
compared languages
►Home activities
Exercise#3. Brainstorming. Choose one primary part of speech. Clarify its
secondary grammatical categories and make acomparison with their Native
languages. Find out differences and similarities among them.
?
?
?
Verb
?
?
?
Noun
?
?
Exercise #4. Answer the questions.
1. What do you understand by Grammatical Categories?
2. What do you know about its subdivisions?
3. Give examples from different languages that you know.
93
?
?
►Activities for self-improvement
Exercise #1. Complete the following chart with the divisions of Grammatical
Categories according to prof. Buranov.
Grammatical
categories
_________________
_________________
_________________
_________________
____________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
____________
_________
_________
_________
_________
_________
_________
_________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
_________
_________
_________
_________
_________
________
________
________
________
________
________
________
________
________
________
_________
_________
_________
_________
_________
_________
_________
94
_______
_______
_______
_______
_______
Seminar 6
Typology of morphological level of English and Native
Languages
►Classroom activities
Exercise#1. Round table discussion. Divide into four groups and discuss these
problems in groups. In 10 minutes, present your topic, after all, make
anoverall conclusion.
The basic and secondary
parts of speech in English
The basic and secondary
parts of speech in Native
language
The typological
characteristics of noun in
English
The typological
characteristics of noun in
Native language
Exercise#2. Work in pairs. Give a definition to the terms. Then compare your
definitions with the group. First, is done as an example:
a) Morphological typologyis a way of classifying the languages of the world
that groups languages according to their common morphological structures.
95
b) Analytic languages___________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
c) Synthetic languages __________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
d) Agglutinative languages______________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
e) Fusional languages ___________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
f) Polysynthetic languages ______________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Exercise#3. A) Complete the prefix box with proper words.
Un(not)
Ex: Unhappy
Mis(wrong)
Ex:
Re(do it again)
Redo
Ex:
Pre(before)
Ex:
B) Go round the class and by one word from your classmates.
96
►Home activities
Exercise#1. Circle the right answer.
1. How many types of categories of grammar may be?
a) Three
b) One
c) Two
2. Find the difference between primary and secondary categories of
grammar.
a) Secondary grammar categories study number, case, gender for nouns, tense,
voice, aspect, mood, person, degrees of comparison for adjectives and so on
and primary grammar categories study synthetic relations between words.
b) primary grammatical categories deal with parts of speech, whereas
secondary grammatical categories deal with within every part of speech
separately
c) None
3. What is a morpheme?
a) the units of themorphological level
b) grammatical category within every part of speech
c) an association of a given meaning with a given sound pattern
4. Find right parts of words sportive and elegant.
a) sport, sportive; elegant: eleg-, -ive, -ant
b) sport, sportive; elegant, elegative
c) sport, sportive; elegant, eleg.
5. Who developed first the morphological typology?
a) Wilhelm von Humboldt
b) Peter Stephen DuPonceau
c) brothers Friedrich von Schlegel and August von Schlegel
Exercise#2. Read the statements below and choose whether they are True or
False.
1. _____Morphological typology studies the units of themorphologicalsyntactic
level.
97
2. ______Morphological typology is a way of classifying the languages of the
world that groups languages according to their common morphological
structures.
3. _____Morphemes occur in speech only independently, not as constituent parts
of words.
4. ______Brothers Friedrich von Schlegel and August von Schlegel distinguished
two types of languages which form words by combining morphemes.
5. _____In analytic languages grammatical categories are not indicated by word
order or by bringing in additional words.
6. _____ Synthetic languages form words by affixing a given number of
dependent morphemes to a root morpheme.
7. _____ In synthetic languages context and syntax are more important than
morphology.
8. _____ Agglutinative languages tend to have a high number of morphemes per
word, and their morphology is highly regular.
9. _____ Wilhelm von Humboldt proposed a third category for classifying
languages, a category that he labeled "fusional".
10. ______A feature of polysynthetic languages is commonly expressed as "the
ability to form words that are equivalent to whole sentences in other
languages".
►Activities for self-improvement
Exercise #1. Distinguish the difference between meaning and form of
grammar. Support your ideas with examples comparing them to different
languages.
English
Grammatical meaning
Russian
98
Uzbek
English
Grammatical forms
Uzbek
Russian
Test yourself on Typology of morphological level of English and
Native Languages
1.
a)
b)
c)
d)
According to the relations of elements, languages are classified into…
Agglutinative, Flexional, Isolating, Polysynthetic
Flexional, Agglutinative, Polysynthetic, Monosynthetic
Polysynthetic, Flexional, Non-flexional, Isolating
Isolating, Non-agglutinative, Polyflexional, Polysenthetic
2.
a)
b)
c)
d)
Category of plurality can be expressed in Modern English b
Morphological means, Phono-morphological
Morphological means, Syntactic means, Phono-morphological, Lexical
Syntactic means, Lexical
Phono-morphological, Lexical
3. Choose the right answer:
a) Gender is a lexical-grammatical category
b) Gender is used to denote biological notions
c) Gender is a lexical-grammatical category. Sex is used to denote biological
notions and it is usually used for animate objects
d) Sex is usually used for animate objects
4. Choose the variant with grammatical category of gender
99
a)
b)
c)
d)
Very big house
пожилой мужчина
Her beautiful face
Green tree
5.
a)
b)
c)
d)
Primary grammatical categories are…
The category of gender
Verbal categories
Parts of speech
Degrees of comparison
6.
a)
b)
c)
d)
Secondary grammatical categories are…
Noun
Verb
Categories within every part of speech
Article
7. The category of plurality is expressed by morphological means… choose
the correct answer
a)
b)
c)
d)
boy - boys
much milk
class - people
foot – feet
8.
a)
b)
c)
d)
The category of plurality is expressed by phono-morphological means…
Class – people
tooth – teeth
Girl - girls
a lot of students
9.
a)
b)
c)
d)
The category of plurality is expressed by syntactic means…
Goose – geese
flower - flowers
class – people
A lot of English books
10. Traditional grammatical categories consist of:
100
a)
b)
c)
d)
Grammatical categorization
Grammatical form and grammatical meaning
Analysis and synthesis
Grammatical analysis
11. What are the types of languages due to typological classification?
a) Isolating, polysynthetic, agglutinative, flexional
b) Diachronic and synchronic
c) Polysynthetic, isolating, agglutinative, flexional
d) Isolating, agglutinative
12. What is the type of language that is characterized by the absence of
inflections and affixational morphemes expressing word relations?
a) Isolating
b) Agglutinative
c) Flexional
d) Polysynthatic
13. What language has non –developed morphology?
a) Uzbek
b) Latin
c) English
d) Chinese
14. What languages does dual number exist in?
a) Sanscrit, Greek, Old English
b) Modern English, French, Uzbek
c) Russian, German, Chinese
d) English, Chinese, French
15. What are languages given below genetically differently related ones?
a) Russian and Uzbek
b) English and Russian
c) Uzbek and Kazakh
d) Kirgiz and Russian
101
TOPICS FOR PRESENTATIONS
Typology of morphological system
1. Defining morphological level of language.
2. Different viewpoints (approaches) on thetypological classification of languages.
3. Four types of world languages due to typological classification.
4. The problem of parts of speech in compared languages.
5. Comparison of English, Russian and Uzbek morpheme structure.
6. The problem of typological classification in Comparative Typology.
7. The understanding structural difference between analytic and synthetic
languages.
Comparison of morphological level
1. Types of morphological typology.
2. Criteria classifying words to parts of speech.
3. The primary and secondary parts of speech in English and Native languages.
4. Comparison of the primary and secondary grammatical categories.
5. Typology of thenoun in English and Native languages.
6. Typology of secondary grammatical categories of Verb in compared languages.
7. Comparison of primary parts of speech in English and Native languages.
8. Comparison of the category of case in English and Native languages.
9. Typology of adjective and its categories in English and Native languages.
10. Typology of pronouns in English and Native languages.
11. Typology of thecategory of voice in English and Native languages.
12. Typology of thecategory of plurality in English and Native languages.
102
IV. Typology of syntactic level of English and
Native languages
Key points for discussion:
 Definition of syntax.
 Classification of syntactic level
 Typology of English, Russian and Uzbek syntactic
level.
The syntax of a language studies the units more complicated than the word.
These are the phrase and the sentence, their combinations, types, structures of
sentences and parts of the sentences.
The Syntactic typology is engaged into acomparison of syntactic level units.
The basic units for comparison are the word-combination and the sentence.
Depending on the character of research the Syntactic typology may fall into several
sections: comparison of units of a word-combination, the level of the sentence, as
well as comparison of units of various levels with regards to their syntactic
functioning. The Syntactic typology usually compares languages on the basis of
atransformational syntax.
The word combination (phrase) is a combination of two or more notional
words syntactically related to each other and having a nominative function. And
thephrase is the smallest speech pattern and it consists of two notional words
which are grammatically and lexically connected to each other. Phrases, like
words, denote objects, phenomena, action or process. However, unlike words, they
represent them as complicated phenomena.
A sentence is an integral unit of speech having a communicative purpose; it
expresses a statement, a question or inducement. The sentence expresses
predication, i.e. shows whether the event is real or unreal, desirable or obligatory,
stated as truth or asked about, etc. The sentence can consist of one or several
notional words. In Uzbek the sentence is characterized as a smallest
communicative unit with the following features:
 It has predication which consists of modality and time. It may have the
meanings of person and number.
 It is addressed to a hearer.
 It has a new information.
 It has the speaker’s intention.
 It is related to certain speech situation.
103
 It has definite intonation.
Phrases and sentences are universal linguistic phenomena. Their structures
can be used as a basis for typological comparison.
For identifying the type of a phrase, the following criteria have been
established:
a) The type of syntactical connection in a phrase.
b) The means of expressing the syntactical connection.
c) The position of the elements of the phrase.
The elements of a phrase can be syntactically equal or unequal. In the
former case, neither of the elements modifies the other. We can change their
position without any change of meaning. Such combinations are calledequipotent.
e.g. father and son; son and father.
If the elements are syntactically unequal, one of them modifies the other.
The principal element is called the “kernel” or “head word”. The subordinate
element is called “the adjunct”. Their respective positions are different for different
types of phrases and different languages. Such phrases are calleddominational.
The connections between the elements of a dominational phrase can be
further grouped into:
predicative
the combination
of the subject and
the predicate of a
sentence
attributive
the combination
of a noun with its
attribute expressed
by an adjective or
a noun
objective
the combination
of a verb with a
subordinate
element expressed
by a noun,
pronoun or
a verbal
e.g. the train
arrived
e.g. an emerald
ring; a woman of
strong character
e.g. to read the
book; to read it; to
decide to stay
adverbial
the combination
of a verb and an
adverbial modifier
or the combination
of an adjective or
an adverb and the
subordinate
element expressed
by an adverb
e.g. to talk
quickly; extremely
quick; extremely
quickly
These syntactical connections can be formally expressed in different ways:
Government. The form of the adjunct is influenced by the head-word. (e.g.
позвалабрата; сказатьбрату)
Agreement. The kernel and the adjunct have the same number, gender, case,
person (e.g. большаякомната, вбольшойкомнате).
104
Contact. The elements are combined with one another by sheer contact,
without the help of any grammatical forms.(e.g. бежать быстро)
The adjunct can be in pre-position or in post-position to the head-word.E.g.
a health certificate; справка о здоровье.
The typology of the sentence has been investigated nearly as closely as the
typology of the morphological structure. The first scholar who made a considerable
contribution to this part of typology was I. Mestchaninov. He created a new
typological classification of languages based on their syntactical structure, mainly
on the typology of sentences.He classifies the languages into nominative, ergative
and passive is considered too general. For example, according to his classification,
isolating, agglutinational and inflexional languages all belong to the nominative
type.
Such characteristics were supplied by Vladimir Skalicka. According to him,
fixed word order is characteristic of agglutinational and isolating types. The former
has the Subject - Object - Predicate word order, and the latter has the Subject Predicate - Object word order. In inflexional languages, word order is not fixed,
but the most common variant is Subject - Predicate - Object.
Skalicka’s typology is more detailed but it has also been criticized. Linguists
have pointed out that some of theinflexional languages have fixed word order (e.g.
Persian, Armenian) and it is similar to the word order of agglutinational languages.
Another typology of the sentence was set up by Joseph Greenberg. He based
it on three criteria:
 The existence of prepositions or postpositions
 The word order of declarative sentences
 The position of attributes expressed by adjectives
Greenberg classified about 30 languages. He found only three variants of
word order: S+P+O, S+O+P, P+S+O.
According to Greenberg’s classification, the English and Russian languages
belong to the group having prepositions, adjectives in preposition to nouns and
SPO word order. But Uzbek language belongs to aninflectional group of languages
and SOV word order. At the same time, the facts of the languages show that these
languages are not identical in their syntactical structure. There is evidently need for
more subtle syntactical classifications.
Questions for self-control:
1. What is the object of Syntactic Typology?
105
2. What basic unitsfor comparison in Syntactic Typology do you know?
3. Give the definition of thr term “sentence”
4. How can thesentence be characterized in the syntax of compared languages?
(I. Mestchaninov, V. Skalicka, and J.Greenberg’s viewpoints).
5. Characterize and compare types of syntactic relations in English, Uzbek and
Russianlanguages.
5. The problem of interference in foreign language teaching acquisition
(Syntactic level).
Recommended literature:
1. Yusupov U.K. Contrastive Linguistics of the English and Uzbek languages.
Tashkent, 2013.
2. Аракин В.Д. Сравнительная типология английского и русского языков.
Ленинград, 1979.
3. Буранов Ж.Б. Сравнительная типология английского и тюркских
языков. М, 1983.
4. МухитдиноваХ., ХудойбергановаД., УмировИ., ЖияновН., ЮсуповаТ.
ҲозиргиўзбекадабийтилиТ., 2004.
106
4.1. Typology of a word combination/phrase in English and Native
languages
Key points for discussion:
 Definitions of word combinations/phrases in compared
languages
 Structure and classification of word combinations of
English, Russian and Uzbek languages.
 Criteria of connection of words in word combinations.
The definition given by the scholar Ilyish to the phrase (“every combination
of two or more words which is a grammatical unit but is not an analytical form of
some word”) leaves no doubt as to its equivalence to the term “word combination”.
The word combination, along with the sentence, is the main syntactic unit.
The smallest word combination consists of two members, whereas the largest word
combination may theoretically be indefinitely large though this issue has not yet
been studied properly. In Russian, it is described as non-communicative units
served for theconcretization of object naming, actions, features and etc. In Uzbek it
is defined as awider conception than a word, expressing description of object and
action and even identifying the object of theaction. Distinctively, as a substitution
of word expressed with word combinations is called descriptive expressions
(тасвирийифода) in Uzbek. Descriptive expressions are used for clarification of
word meaning, making the text more literary, and avoiding repetition. They
basically exist in nouns. E.g., пахта – оқ олтин (cotton – white gold), нефть –
қора олтин (oil – black gold), маккажўхори – дала маликаси (corn – queen of
field).
According to the structure, word combinations are divided into:
English
Russian
Simple
all elements are
obligatory
Expanded
to read and
translate the
text –
expanded
elements are
equal in rank
Simple
Complex
(two
notional (three
and
words)
more notional
белый
плащ, words)
107
Extended
a word takes a dependent
element and this dependent
element becomes the head for
another word: a beautiful flower
– a very beautiful flower
-
готовиться
поездке
Uzbek
к очень старый
плащ,
готовится к
завтрашней
поездке
Simple
Complex
(consists of two (consists
of
notional words) extending the
оқ қоғоз, кўм- members
of
кўк осмон
simple
word
combination)
осмондаги уч
ўрдак,
ҳаммадан
аълочи ўқувчи
In compared languages combinations of words can be classified according to
the type of syntagmatic relations as follows:
English
Russian
Uzbek
Coordinate
you and me
Subordinate
to see a house, a nice
dress
Syntacticallyfreeвы Syntacticallyboundт
сокий дом,
ри сестры, анютины
идти в школу.
глазки.
Independent
Dependent
китоб ва дафтар. опамнинг китоби.
Predicative
him coming, for
him to come
-
-
As it is seen in the table above there are some differences in classifying and
naming the word combinations in compared languages. In independent relation,
words have equal independent meaning. On the contrary, in dependent relations
words are divided into thehead (kernel) element (word) and adjunct. In this kind of
combinations, one of the words clarifies and fulfils another word.
Word combinations with the head element are represented by word groups
that form a grammatically organized structure with one element sub-ordinate to the
other element. The subordinating element is called the head of the word
combination. In the following examples, the head elements are underlined: green
leaves, to type a letter, quite simple. According to the head element word
combinations have the following types in compared languages:
108
English → noun-phrases – a cup of tea, verb-phrases – to run fast, to see a
house, adjective phrases – good for you, adverbial phrases – so quickly, pronoun
phrases – something strange, nothing to do.
Russian → verbphrase - прыгатьчерезверёвочку, бегалподвору,
adverbialphrase - совсемблизко,наединестобой, nominal phrase: substantial красноепальто,
столстумбочкой,
adjective
почтисерьёзный,
полныйсомнения,
красныйотнатуги,
pronoun
кто-нибудьизнас,
ястоварищем, quantitative - одинизнас, второйпопорядку.
Uzbek→ verb phrase – вазифани бажармоқ, тез ўқиш,nominal phrase:
noun phrase – кенг дала, adjective phrase – тухумдан кичик,quantitative phrase –
одамларнинг бири, pronoun phrase – ўқувчиларнинг ҳаммаси.
Types of dependent relation in Russian and Uzbek languages can be in three
types: agreement, government, and adjoining (contact).
Agreement is not often found in Modern English, but it is widely used in
Modern Russian and Uzbek. The agreement is agreeing with thehead word and
dependent word in number and person (this room-these rooms, that room-those
rooms, I have a book-he has a book). Agreement in Modern Russian is found in
such grammatical categories as gender, number, case, and person, and in Uzbek
only in person and number: 1) Full forms of adjectives in Russian agree with
corresponding nouns in gender, number and case (широкий залив, широкая река,
широкое озеро – gender; широкий залив – широкого залива – case; широкий
залив – широкие заливы – number). In theplural, no agreement in gender is
observed (широкие заливы – no gender). 2) Short forms of adjective do not agree
in case. In singular they agree in gender, number (город красив, площадь красива
– gender; город красив – города красивы – number). In Plural they agree only in
number. Cardinal-numerals in case (пяти домов, пятью домами). Verbs in
Future and Present Tenses agree in number and person (ученик пишет, ученики
пишут).In Uzbek, only two combinations can be connected in agreement:
predicative and possessive connection. The predicative connection consists of
subject and predicate and considered as a sentence. In this relation subject and
predicate should be in same person and number (мен келдим, сиз келдингиз, у
келди); in possessive connection, the head word is expressed with possessive
inflection, thedependent word takes inflection of genitive case (бизнинг
китобимиз, менинг китобим, Навоий ғазали).
Government is a variety of syntactical connection in accordance with which
the use of the oblique case is dependent upon the grammatical meaning of the head
word. The governmentcan be found in all compared languages ERU. In English
109
government is used to join together 2 nouns: the noun-attribute usually is used in
the possessive case. (A boy’s book – boys’ books, a day’s holiday, an hour’s
absence). Government is used in verbal combinations where the object is
expressed by a personal pronoun (Believe me, help him).The prepositional
government is more frequently used in English(to rely on him, to depend upon
him). The verb governments through the preposition. In Russian governing words
may be expressed by different parts of speech: 1) by a noun (крыло птицы); 2) by
an adjective (склонный к шуткам); 3) by a numeral (двадцать деревьев); 4) by
a pronoun (кто-то из братьев); 5) by an Infinitive (поливать улицу); 6) by an
adverb (жарко от солнца). A noun or a noun-equivalent usually expresses
governed words (извлекать полезное, уважение к старшим). In accordance
with the part of speech the governing word belongs to, government in Russian is
subdivided into: substantial (осмотр здания – gen. case),adjectival (интересный
для зрителя – gen. case with a prep.), adverbial (делать весело, ему приятно),
verbal (осматривать здание – accusative case, доверить врагу – dative case). In
Uzbek according to the expression of thehead word government can be called as
noun government and verb government. And according to the dependent word
government in Uzbek can be subdivided into case government (dependent word is
expressed with inflections of dative, accusative, locative and ablative cases:
мактабга бор, уйда ўтир, доскадан ёз, дарсингни тайёрла); auxiliary
government (dependent word is connected with head word with the help of
auxiliaries: умр бўйи кутдим, қуш сингари учди, укам билан ишладик); mixed
government (both grammatical forms exist: сиз томонга қаради, бозорга қараб
кетли, сой бўйига тушдик).
Adjoining is a variety of syntactical connection when the dependence of one
word upon head word is expressed not morphologically but semantically (my
room-my rooms, a small room-small rooms; читатьлёжа, тихосидеть,
чересчургромкий, сапогивсмятку, скромноулыбающаяся; хушбўй гул, биринчи
босқич, терилган пахта, тахта кўприк, қайси юрт). Adjoining in all three
compared languages are divided into three types:

Attributive phrases (object and its feature, they can be expressed by
different parts of speech: to be happy, to seem delighted, to stay calm,
любящийсын, третьегочисла, горькийвкус, тоза сув, ўнта пиёла, келган
меҳмон).

Objective phrases (action, feature and the object, in the relation of
carrying out the action or feature: to live a miserable life, to smile a happy smile, to
110
die a violent death, слушатьмузыку, встречатьсясдрузьями, похожийнадеда,
достойныйнаграды, мактабдаўқимоқ, уйга бормоқ, боғ орқали кетмоқ).

Adverbial phrases(the way of the action / feature,its measure of the
degree, time, place, reason: to drive slowly, to arrive in time, to travel north,
работается по вечерам, дышать легко, купить втридорога, нарядный по
праздникам, тез юрмоқ, берилиб тингламоқ).
The types of syntactic connection coincide in English and Native language
phrases. All languages have combinations of a noun with its attribute, a verb with
an object, an adverb with the headword expressed by a verb, an adjective, or
another adverb. At the same time, there are some differences in the structure of
attributive phrases.
In Russianand Uzbek, the adjunct of the attributive phrase (adjective phrase)
is frequently expressed by an adjective. In the same cases, many English phrases
are made up of two nouns.
One of the reasons for that is the fact that there are fewer relative adjectives
in English. Therefore, when the kernel and the adjunct denote two connected
objects (e.g. the thing and the material it is made from; the factory and the product
made by it, etc.) the English-speaking person uses a noun as an attribute.
E.g. silver spoon - серебряная ложка – кумуш қошиқ
sugarindustry - сахарная промышленность – шакар саноати
Sometimes it is difficult to determine whether the adjunct in such phrases is
a noun or an adjective. Lack of grammatical markers of the parts of speech makes
English similar to the isolating languages. Sometimes it is difficult to say whether
such combinations are phrases or compound words.
e.g. schoolboy, school-teacher, school building
In these cases, English has some features of incorporating languages, which
don’t have a borderline between the word and the phrase.
Some types of phrases cannot be found only in one of the languages.
In English and Uzbek, the adjunct of an attributive phrase can be expressed
by a passive infinitive.
E.g. a letter to be sent, юбориладиган хат.
This type of phrase in non-existent in Russian. The idea is rendered by a
subordinate clause.
E.g. письмо, которое нужно отослать
In Russian, the adjunct of an attributive phrase can be expressed by an
adverb.
E.g. взгляд исподлобья; шапка набекрень
111
This type of phrase in non-existent in English. The idea is rendered by
lexical semantics.
E.g. a scowl at somebody, with one’s hat on one side
b) The English and the Russianand the Uzbek languages differ significantly
in the means of expressing syntactical connections in a phrase. In Russian and
Uzbek all the three ways of connection are used. In English, the use of government
and agreement is restricted to the phrases with pronouns.
E.g. to see him; these books
In most cases, the elements of the phrase are combined by adjoining.
In English attributive phrases denoting objects in numerical order, the
adjunct expressed by a cardinal numeral is in postposition to the kernel expressed
by a noun.
e.g. Room 15
In the corresponding Russian and Uzbek phrases, the adjunct expressed by
an ordinal numeral is in preposition to the headword.
e.g. пятнадцатая комната, ўн бешинчи хона.
General differences of word-combinations of three compared languages can
be seen in these clusters below:
In English:
Word combination
Coordinate
syndetically
connected
asyndetically
connected
Subordinate
noun
phrases
verb
phrases
Predicative
Infinitive
predicative
phrases
adjective phrases
Absolute
predicative phrases
112
Gerundial
predicative
phrases
In Russian:
Word combination
Syntactically free
Syntactically bound
Government
Agreement
Adjoining
Substantial
Attributive
Adjectival
Objective
Adverbial
Adverbial
Verbal
In Uzbek:
predicative
agreement
posessive
case
dependent
government
Word combination
auxilary
mixed
independent
attrubutive
adjoining
objective
adverbial
113
Questions for self-control:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
What does thesyntactic level study?
Whythe difference between a phrase and a sentence is fundamental?
What is aphrase in compared languages?
What criteria of defining phrase types exist in Grammar?
Types of syntactic relations in phrases.
Are there any distinctive features of English, Uzbek and Russian phrases?
Tell about general ways of syntactic connectionof phrases in compared
languages?
8. The problem of pre-position and post-position in phrases.
9. The problem of interference in foreign language teaching acquisition
(Syntactic level).
Recommended literature:
1.
Yusupov U.K. Contrastive linguistics of the English and Uzbek
languages. Tashkent, 2013.
2.
Аракин В.Д. Сравнительная типология английского и русского
языков. Ленинград, 1979.
3.
Валгина Н.С. Современный русский язык. М., 2003.
4.
Мухитдинова Х., Худойберганова Д., Умиров И., Жиянов Н.,
Юсупова Т. Ҳозирги ўзбек адабий тили Т., 2004.
5.
Соловьёва Н. Н. Весь русский язык в таблицах: От фонетики до
синтаксиса М., 2009.
114
4.2. Typology of a sentence in English and Native
languages
Key points for discussion:
 Definition of thesentence.
 Criteria of dividing sentences into types.
 Classification of sentences
 Typology of English, Russian and Uzbek sentence types.
It is rather difficult to define the sentence as it is connected with many
lingual and extra lingual aspects – logical, psychological and philosophical. There
are many definitions of the sentence and these definitions differ from each
otherbecause that the scientists approach from different viewpoints to this
question. Some of themconsider the sentence from the point view of phonetics,
others - from the point of view ofsemantics (the meaning of the sentence) and so
on.
Some of the definitions of a sentence are given below.
TheNotional Definition of a Sentence: "It is sometimes said that
a sentence expresses a complete thought. This is a notional definition: it defines a
term by the notion or idea it conveys. The difficulty with this definition lies in
fixing what is meant by a 'complete thought.' There are notices, for example, that
seems to be complete in themselves but are not generally regarded as
sentences: Exit, Danger, 50 mph speed limit."On the other hand, there are
sentences that clearly consist of more than one thought. Here is one relatively
simple example:This week marks the 300th anniversary of the publication of Sir
Isaac Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, a fundamental
work for the whole of modern science and a key
influence on the philosophy of the European
Enlightenment.
Jespersen's Definition of a Sentence:
"Traditional attempts to define the sentence were
generally either psychological or logical-analytic in
nature: the former type spoke of 'a complete
thought' or some other inaccessible psychological
phenomenon; the latter type, following Aristotle,
expected to find every sentence made up of a
logical subject and logical predicate, units that
115
themselves rely on the sentence for their definition. A more fruitful approach is
that of Otto Jespersen (1924: 307), who suggests testing the completeness and
independence of a sentence, by assessing its
potential
for
standing
alone,
as
a
complete utterance."
According to B.A.Ilyish“The sentence is the
immediate integral unit of speech built up of words
according to a definite syntacticpattern and
distinguished
by
a
contextually
relevant
communicative purpose”. The definition proves that
is quite right when he writes: “Thenotion of
thesentence has not so far received a satisfactory
definition”.
“A sentence is a unit of speech whose
grammatical structure conforms to the laws of the language andwhich serves as the
chief means of conveying a thought. A sentence is not only a means of
communicatingsomething about reality but also a means of showing the speaker's
attitude to it.
The train moved out of the city.
Are you ready?
Put down the book.
Thus, concluding the above mentioned conceptions, there can be said that in
any act ofcommunication there are three factors:
1. The act of speech;
2. The speaker;
3. Reality (as viewed by the speaker).
B. Khaimovich and Rogovskaya state that these factors are variable since
they change with every actof speech. They may be viewed from two viewpoints:
1) From the point of view of language are constant because they are found in
all acts ofcommunication;
2) They are variable because they change in every act of speech.
Every act of communication contains the notions of time, person, and
reality.
The events mentioned in the communications are correlated in time and time
correlation isexpressed by certain grammatical and lexical means.
Any act of communication presupposes theexistence of the speaker and the
hearer. Themeaning of person is expressed by the category of theperson of verbs.
116
They may be expressedgrammatically and lexico-grammatically by words: I, you,
he...
Reality is treated differently by the speaker and this attitude of the speaker is
expressed bythe category of mood in verbs. They may be expressed grammatically
and lexically (may, must,probably...)
According to the same authors the three relations - to the act of speech, to
the speaker andto reality - can be summarized as the relation to the situation of
speech.
The relation of the thought of a sentence to the situation of speech is called
predicativity.
Predicativity is the structural meaning of the sentence while intonation is the
structural form of it.Thus, a sentence is a communication unit made up of words
/and word-morphemes/ in conformitywith their combinability and structurally
united by intonation and predicativity.
Within a sentence, the word or combination of words that contain the
meanings ofpredicativity may be called the predication.
My father used to make nets and sell them.
My mother kept a little day-school for the girls.
Nobody wants a baby to cry.
A hospital Nursery is one of the most beautiful places in the world.
You might say, it’s aroom filled with love.
According to academician G.Pocheptsov, the
sentence is the central syntactic construction used as
the minimal communicative unit that has its primary
predication, actualizes a definite structural scheme
and possesses definite intonation characteristics. This
definition works only in case we do not take into
account the difference between the sentence and the
utterance. The distinction between the sentence and
the utterance is of fundamental importance because
the sentence is an abstract theoretical entity defined
within the theory of grammar while the utterance is the actual use of the sentence.
In other words, a sentence is a unit of language while the utterance is a unit of
speech.
The most essential features of the sentence as a linguistic unit are a)
its structural characteristics – subject-predicate relations (primary predication), and
b) its semantic characteristics – it refers to some fact in the objective reality.
117
Thus, by sentence, we understand the smallest communicative unit,
consisting of one ormore syntactically connected words that have primary
predication and that have a certain intonationpattern.
There are many approaches to classify sentences. Below we shall consider
only some ofthem.
B. Ilyish classifies sentences applying two principles:
1) Types of communication. Applying this principle he distinguishes 3 types
of sentences: declarative, interrogative, imperative.
2) According to thestructure. Applying this principle he distinguishes two
main types ofsentences: simple and composite.
Ch. Fries gives an original classification of types of sentences. All the
utterances are divided by him into Communicative and Non-communicative.
The Communicative utterances are in their turn divided into 3 groups:
I.
Utterances
regularly
eliciting
“oral”
responses
only:
greetings,calls,questions.
II. Utterances regularly eliciting "action" responses, sometimes accompanied
by one of alimited list of oral responses: requests or commands.
III. Utterances regularly eliciting conventional signals of attention to
continuous discoursestatements.
L.Barkhudarov compares source (kernel)
sentences with their transforms, he distinguishes
several types of sentences from their structural
view-point. His classification willrepresent binary
oppositions where the unmarked member is the
source kernel sentence andmarked one is the
transformed sentence.
The most important oppositions within the
limits of simple sentences are the followingtwo:
1. Imperative (request) and non-imperative
sentences.
2. Elliptical and non-elliptical sentences.
Summarizing the issue about the classification of sentences in the English
language, wecan say that this can be done from different points of view. But the
most important criteria so areas follows:
1. The criterion of the structure of sentences.
2. The criterion of the aim of the speaker.
3. The criterion of the existence of all parts of the sentence.
118
From the point of view of the first criterion, sentences fall under two
subtypes: simple and composite.The difference between them is in the fact that
simple sentences have one primary predication in their structure while composite
ones have more than one.
According to the criterion of the aim of the speaker, sentences fall under
declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory.
From the point of view of the existence of all parts of the sentence, we
differentiateelliptical and non-elliptical sentences.
Generally, in all three compared languages sentences may be classified
according to:

types of communication

structure.
According to the types of communication sentence in compared languages
are divided into:

declarative,

interrogative

imperative.
A Declarative sentence states a fact in the affirmative or negative form.
There are a number of difference between English and Russian, Uzbek negative
sentences. An English sentence may have only one negation while the Russian
sentence one may have more than one. (Nobody was late. - Никтонеопоздал,Ҳеч
ким кеч қолмади).Similarly, there can be observed a list of the ways of expressing
negation in all three compared languages:
Means
1. Grammatical
morpheme
2. Lexical units
3. Negative
pronouns
adverbs
English
do+not
I don’t go
Neither…nor
It is neither
good nor bad
Russian
не
Я не пойду
Не…не
Это
и
не
хорошо и не
плохо
Nobody,
Никто, нигде,
and nowhere,
никогда,
ни
never, none
один
None of them is Ни один из них
here
не здесь
4. Phraseological
units
When
Ethiopian
Жди у
погоды
119
Uzbek
-ма
Мен бормайман
Эмас, на …на
Бу на яхши ва на
ёмон
Ҳеч ким, ҳеч
қаер, ҳеч қачон,
ҳеч бири
Уларнинг
ҳеч
бири бу ерда
эмас
моря Қизил
қор
ёққанда
5. Rhetoric
questions
changes
skin
Whoever
win us?!
his
can Да кто может Ким ҳам бизни
нас победить?! енга оларди?!
The examples in the table can show some detailed difference in expressing
the negation in compared languages.
An Interrogative sentence asks a question. In English, there are four types
of questions: general, special, alternative and disjunctive. (Do you want…?, Where
do you want…?, Do you want …or…?, You want…, don’t you?). Russian
interrogative sentence may be divided into 2 groups: 1) Interrogative sentence
having no interrogative words, sometimes they may contain such particles as ведь,
как, что, неужели, разве, ли, and etc. In such cases, they differ from adeclarative
sentence in intonation. (Инженер поехал в Москву? Его здесь нет? Разве он
вамписал? Неужелионушел?); 2) Interrogative sentences having interrogative
words, such asкто, что, куда, откуда, почему (Ктопришел?
Чтовычитаете?). Special attention must be paid to the indirect questions the
rules of sequence of tenses must be observed. Uzbek interrogative sentences are
also divided into 2 groups: 1) absolute interrogative sentences which require the
answers (сиз эртага келасизми?); 2) rhetoric interrogative sentence with the
obvious hidden answer in it (Мен унинг тўсатдан келиб қолишини қаердан
билай?! Бу ватанда нималар йўқ?! Ўзинган чиққан балога қайга борасан
давога?! Бу нимаси?!).
Imperative sentences serve to induce a person to do something. They
express a command, a request, an invitation, a wish, a demand, and a call and so
on. Declarative, interrogative and imperative sentences may be exclamatory when
they express a strong emotion (happiness, delight, anger, etc). (What a lovely day it
is! How wonderful!) (Москвакакмноговэтомзвуке…) (Аввал ўйла кейин сўйла!).
There is no great difference of sentences in compared languages according
to the structure sentences. Due to the grammatical structure, they are divided into
two-member and one-member sentences. A two-member sentence has two
members: the subject and the predicate. (Pete reads. Mary writes.) A two-member
sentence may be: complete and incomplete 2 member sentences. The complete has
both the subject and the predicate. The incomplete is a sentence then one of the
principle parts or both of them are missing, but can be easily understood from the
sentence. Such sentences are called elliptical. (Where are you going? – To the
cinema.) Elliptical sentences are usually met in colloquial speech and dialogues.
A one-member sentence is a sentence, which has only one member, which is
120
neither the subject nor the predicate. One member makes the sentence complete.
One-member sentences are generally used in thedescription and in anemotional
speech. If the main part of a one-member sentence is expressed by a noun and the
sentence is called nominal. (Dusk-of the summer night. Зима, крестьянин
торжествует).A simple sentence may be extended (has both the principle parts
of the sentence and the secondary parts. E.g. Pete reads book every day.) And
unextended (has only the subject and the predicate).
Classification of asimple sentence in all three languages according to the
grammatical meaning can be seen as follows:
elliptical
non-elliptical
uncomplicate
d
complicated
unextende
d
extended
two member
Simple
sentence
one
member
As a distinction complicated and uncomplicated types of sentences in Uzbek
are regarded complex sentences. The rest types of sentences can be considered as
thesimilarity of these languages.
Sentences in compared languages may be also composite. In general
composite sentences in compared languages are divided intocompound, complex
and compound-complex. A compound is a sentence which consists of two or more
clauses coordinated with each other. (The darkness was thinning, but the street was
still dimly lighting. Картошка жарилась на сковорде, от неё ўёл ароматнқй
запах. Осмонга булут чиқди ва ёмғир ёға бошлади). A complex sentence
consists of a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses. (He steps
quicken as he set out from the hotel. Многие видели как фокусник это сделал.
Хонага шундай жимлик чўкканки, гўё бу ерда \аёт бутунлай
сўнган).Subordinated clauses may be of different types: subject (Where I am going
is unknown), object, predicative (with link-verb), attributive, adverbial and etc. A
compound-complex sentence is made from two independent clauses and one or
more dependent clauses. (We decided that the movie was too violent, but our
121
children, who like to watch scary movies, thought that we were wrong. Баҳор
келди, майсалар кўкарди ва далалар кўм-кўк тусга кирди).
Hence, general differences and similarities of acomplex sentence of three
compared languages can be seen from their classification according to its structure
below:
In English they are divided into three big groups:
Compound
coordinating
conjunctions
Complex
subordinating
conjunctions
Compound-complex
combination of
two types
Composite
sentence
In Russian they may be classified into two big groups which contain several
subgroups according to its structure, meaning, interconnection and head part:
Compound
Composite
sentence
Syndetic
Complex
Asyndetic
Composite sentence
In Uzbek they are divided into 4 big types which some types also can have
several subdivisions according to the conjugations:
Syndetic
Asyndetic
Complex
Compound-complex
Generally, there can be observed differences, similarities and distinctive
features in thedeep comparative analysis of the types above. Such as compound122
complex features are typical only for English and Uzbek languages and cannot be
found in Russian. Or else Russian and Uzbek have syndetic and asyndetic features
of dividing sentences into types while English has another criterion for this.
Additionally, as a similarity can be considered the following characteristics
like in all three languages there are two or more subjects and predicates in
thecompound and complex sentences. Two or more sentences in compound
sentences are combined with coordinative conjunctions in compared
languages(and, but, or, и, но, или, лекин, ва, ёки). While in the complex sentence
two or more sentences are combined with subordinate conjunctions in all three
languages (if, because, если, потомучто, агар, чунки). And the difference can be
observed in English interrogative pronouns can make asubordinate sentence. But in
Uzbek, such sentences are considered as simple ones (A scientist is a person who
studies a lot. Олим кўп ёқийдиган киши).Distinctively, in the English language in
theunrealconditionals, plural form of verbs are used for both singular and plural
subjects. But Russian and Uzbek languages don’t have such phenomenon(If he
were here, he would help us).
Thus another number of brief differences in syntactic level also can be listed
in comparison of sentences of compared languages:

Russian and Uzbek sentences are longer than English ones, Russians
and Uzbeks are fond of long and colorful phrases while the English text is
composed of comparatively short sentences, it is “ethical” to use short words and
brief structures. In translation, Russian and Uzbek sentences can be divided into 23 short ones.

The order of words in a sentence plays a great semantic role, the most
important word stands at the beginning. E.g.:
Russian
Вам этого не понять.
Этого вам не понять.
Н
пон ть
вам
этого.
Uzbek
Си буни тушуна олмайсиз
Б ни сиз тушуна олмайсиз
б ни т ш ниш сизгаэмас.
In English the word order isfixed, semantic shades ofmeaning are expressed
byother means. In English,there can be one variant but with different intonation:
You won’t understand this.
123

In English and Uzbek, the sentence beginswith the subject as a
rule.The rhematic (new)information is placed atthe beginning of the sentence: Van
Cliburn was the best musician.ВэнКлайберн энг яхши мусиқачи эди. Whilein
Russian a lot of sentences begin not with thesubject but, an object.The rhematic
(new)information
stands
at
theend
of
the
sentence:
ЛучшиммузыкантомбылВэнКлайберн.
Questions for self-control:
1.
2.
3.
4.
What is a sentence?
According to what criteria the definition of asentence can be identified?
What types of sentences are known in syntax?
The difference between anominal and verbal sentence in compared
languages.
5. Composite sentence and its main types.
6. Distinctive features of thecompound and complex sentences.
7. The problem of word order in typology.
9. The problem of interference in foreign language teaching acquisition
(Syntactic level).
Recommended literature:
1. Yusupov U.K. Contrastive linguistics of the English and Uzbek languages.
Tashkent, 2013.
2. Аракин В.Д. Сравнительная типология английского и русского
языков. Ленинград, 1979.
3. Валгина Н.С. Современный русский язык. М., 2003.
4. Мухитдинова Х., Худойберганова Д., Умиров И., Жиянов Н.,
Юсупова Т. Ҳозирги ўзбек адабий тили Т., 2004.
5. Соловьёва Н. Н. Весь русский язык в таблицах: От фонетики до
синтаксиса М., 2009.
6. D. J. Allerton. Essentials of Grammatical Theory. Routledge, 1979
7. Stanley Fish, "Devoid of Content." The New York Times, May 31, 2005.
Also How to Write a Sentence and How to Read One. HarperCollins, 2011
8. William Croft. Typology and Universals. Cambridge UNI Press, 2003.
9. Hawkins, John A. The Comparative Typology of English and German:
Unifying the Contrasts. London/Sydney: Croom Helm, 1986.
10. АбдураҳмоновҒ., ХолиёровХ. ваб. Ҳозиргиўзбекадабийтили
(Синтаксис). – Т., 1979.
124
Topics for self-study
7. Criteria of connection of words in word combinations.
8. Syntactic connection in compared languages.
9. Different definitions of the term “sentence”.
10. Classification of the sentence due to different criteria.
LIST OF THE KEY WORDS OF UNDERSTANDING THE COURSE OF
COMPARATIVE TYPOLOGY OF ENGLISH AND NATIVE LANGUAGES
Typology of syntactic level of English and Native Language
1.
The syntax is the set of rules, principles, and processes that govern the
structure of sentences in a given language, specifically word order. The
term syntax is also used to refer to the study of such principles and
processes.[3] The goal of many syntacticians is to discover the syntactic
rules common to all languages.
2.
Syntactic typology is concerned with discovering cross-linguistic patterns
in the formation of particular constructions, whether those constructions are
phrasal, clausal, or sentential.
3.
Nominative language is a languagewhere the single argument of an
intransitive verb and the agent of a transitive verb (both called the subject) are
treated alike and kept distinct from the object of a transitive verb.
4.
Ergative language is a language in which the single argument ("subject") of
an intransitive verb behaves like the object of a transitive verb, and differently
from the agent ("subject") of a transitive verb. For instance, instead of saying "she
moved" and "I moved her", speakers of an ergative language would say the
equivalent of "she moved" and "by me moved she".
5.
Word order in linguistics typically refers to the order of subject (S), verb
(V) and object (O) in a sentence. The arrangement of words in a phrase, clause, or
sentence. In many languages, including English, word order plays an important
part in determining meanings expressed in other languages by inflections.
6.
Word order typology is the study of the order of the syntactic constituents
of a language, and how different languages can employ different orders.
125
7.
Adjunct is an optional, or structurally dispensable, part of a sentence,
clause, or phrase that, if removed or discarded, will not otherwise affect the
remainder of the sentence. Example: In the sentence, John helped Bill in Central
Park, the phrase in Central Park is an adjunct.
8.
Syntactic connections are syntagmatic relations observed between syntactic
units. They can be of three types – coordination, subordination, and predication.
9.
Adjective phrase (or adjectival phrase) is a phrase whose head word is an
adjective, e.g. fond of steak, very happy, quite upset about it, etc.
10. Asyndetic is a linguistic construction) having no conjunction, as in I came, I
saw, I conquered.
11. Syndetic denotes a grammatical construction in which two clauses are
connected by a conjunction.
12. The sentence is the basic unit of syntax. It is different from other language
units because it is a unit of communication. It is very difficult to give a definition
of the sentence because it has many aspects. Every definition reflects this or that
aspect but it cannot be considered as a universal one.
13. The sentence is central syntactic construction used as the minimal
communicative unit that has its primary predication, which is actualized by definite
structural scheme and intonation characteristics.
14. A sentence is a unit of speech whose grammatical structure conforms to the
laws of the language and which serves as the chief means of conveying a thought.
A sentence is not only a means of communicating something about reality but also
a means of showing the speaker's attitude to it.
15. According to structural features, sentences are divided into simple and
composite; one-member and two-member sentences. Elliptical and non-elliptical
ones.
16. According to the purpose of utterance, we distinguish four kinds of
sentences: declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory.
17. A complex sentence is a sentence that contains an independent clause and at
least one dependent clause.
18. Coordinating conjunction is a conjunction (such as and) that joins two
similarly constructed and/or syntactically equal words, phrases, or clauses within a
sentence. Also called a coordinator.
19. Subordinating conjunction is a conjunction (a connecting word or phrase)
that introduces a dependent clause, joining it to the main clause. Also called a
subordinator.
20. Rhematic is related to word formation having a verb as a base.
126
Seminar 7
Typology of syntactic level of English and Native Languages
►Classroom activities
Exercise#1. Write some features of a term sentence in Uzbek, Russian and
English languages and compare them with your classmates.
Uzbek
Russian
English
Exercise#2. Discuss with your partner following questions.
1. What is aphrase?
2. What is asentence?
3. What is syntactic typology?
Exercise#3. Give examples to syntactical connections: agreement, government,
and contact in English and Russian languages.
Languages
English
agreement
government
Russian
127
contact
Uzbek
Exercise#4. Brainstorm the definitions of phrases in compared languages.
Phrase
English
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
__________________
Russian
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Uzbek
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
___________________
Exercise#5. Discuss with your group some differences in classifying and
naming the phrases in compared languages according to the type of
syntagmatic relations.
English
Russian
128
Uzbek
Exercise#6. Work in a small group. Compare and find similarities, differences
and distinctive features of three types of dependent relation in compared
languages: agreement, government, and adjoining (contact). Share your
analysis with other groups.
Similarities
Differences
Distinctive features
Agreement
Government
Adjoining
Exercise#7. Proof with your own examples the following comparative analysis
of phrase.
1. In English and Uzbek, the adjunct of an attributive phrase can be
expressed by a passive infinitive.
E.g.:_________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
129
This type of phrase in non-existent in Russian. The idea is rendered by a
subordinate clause.
E.g.:_________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. The English, the Russianand the Uzbek languages differ significantly
in the means of expressing syntactical connections in a phrase. In Russian and
Uzbek all the three ways of connection are used. In English, the use of government
and agreement is restricted to the phrases with pronouns.
E.g.:_________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. In English attributive phrases denoting objects in numerical order, the
adjunct expressed by a cardinal numeral is in postposition to the kernel expressed
by a noun.
E.g.:_________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. In the corresponding Russian and Uzbek phrases, the adjunct expressed by
an ordinal numeral is in preposition to the headword.
E.g.:_______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
►Home activities
Exercise#1. Read the statements. Circle the true or false.
1. Sentence is universal linguistic phenomenon while phrase is not
True / False
2. According to I. Mestchaninov languages are classified into nominative,
ergative and passive
True / False
3. The element of a phrase can be morphologically equal or unequal
True / False
130
4. Greenberg found out only two variants of word order: S+P+O, S+O+P.
True / False
5. According to Greenberg, the English and Russian languages belong to the
SPO word order type.
True / False
6. If the elements are syntactically unequal, one of them modifies the other.
True / False
7. According to Vladimir Skalicka, fixed word order is characteristic of
agglutinational and isolating types.
True / False
8. The principal element is called the “adjunct” or “head word”.
True / False
Exercise#2. Fill the table below. Write the types and definitions of phrases in
the missed places according to its structural feature.
English
___________
Expanded
Extended
all elements are to read and _________________________
obligatory
translate the _________________________
text –
_________________________
expanded
_________________________
elements are __: a beautiful flower – a very
equal in rank beautiful flower
Russian Simple
Complex
_____________ (three
and
_____________ more notional
_____________ words)
_____________ Example:____
_____________ ____________
_____________ ____________
_____________ ____________
Uzbek
Simple
(consists of two
notional words)
Example:_____
_____________
_____________
____________ (consists
of
extending the
members
of
simple
word
combination)
131
_____________ осмондаги уч
_____________ ўрдак,
_____________ ҳаммадан
аълочи ўқувчи
►Activities for self-improvement
Exercise#1. Work in pairs. Learn carefully the clusters below. Find general
differences of word-combinations of three compared languages and compare
them with your partner.
In English:
Phrase
Coordinate
syndetically
connected
asyndetically
connected
Subordinate
noun phrases
verb phrases
Predicative
Infinitive
predicative
phrases
Absolute
predicative
phrases
adjective phrases
In Russian:
132
Gerundial
predicative
phrases
Phrase
Syntactically
bound
Syntactically free
Government
Agreement
Adjoining
Substantial
Attributive
Adjectival
Objective
Adverbial
Adverbial
Verbal
In Uzbek:
133
predicative
agreement
posessive
case
dependent
government
auxilary
Phrase
mixed
independent
attrubutive
adjoining
objective
adverbial
TOPICS FOR PRESENTATIONS
1. Definitions of phrases in compared languages.
2. Structure and classification of phrases of English, Russian and Uzbek languages.
3. Criteria of connection of words in phrasess.
4. Syntactic connection in compared languages.
5. Comparison of the structure of phrases in compared languages.
6. Comparison of thedistinctive feature of Uzbek, English and Russian phrases.
134
Seminar 8
Typology of syntactic level of English and Native Languages
►Classroom activities
Exercise#1. Discuss the questions with your partner.
1. Different definitions of the term “sentence”.
2. Classification of the sentence due to different criteria.
3. Nominal and verbal sentences.
4. Main characteristics of acompound sentence.
5. Word order typology.
Exercise#2. Work in a small group. Compare the given topic. Identify
similarities, differences, and distinctive features and prepare a poster
presentation to other group members.
Difference between
nominal and verbal
sentences in compared
languages
Comparison of composite
sentence and its main types
Distinctive features of
simple and complex
sentence in compared
languages
The problem of word order
in typology
Exercise#3. Classify and do acomparative analysis of types of thesentence
according to communication. Complete the table below and share your
analysis with your partner.
135
Declarative
Interrogative
Imperative
English
Russian
Uzbek
Exercise#4. Discuss the following questions with your partner.
1. What does the term “composite” mean?
2. What types of composite sentences do you know in both English and Uzbek?
3. Specify the compound, complex and mixed type of composite sentences.
4. What are the problems connected with compound sentences?
5. How are the complex sentences classified in Uzbek?
6. What is the structural approach to the problem of composite sentences?
Exercise#5. Choose one of the topics below. Make a comparative analysis and
prepare 10 minutes demonstrative presentation on it.
 Comparison of English /Russian/ Uzbek simple sentences.
 Comparative analysis of composite sentence in compared languages.
 Typology of English/ Russian/ Uzbek nominal and verbal sentences.
 Comparison of English / Russian / Uzbek word order system.
►Home activities
Exercise#1. Read the statements. Circle the true or false definition of
“sentence”.
1. The sentence is the basic unit of syntax.
True / False
136
2. Sentence is different from other language units because it is a unit of speech.
True / False
3. The sentence is central syntactic construction used as the minimal
communicative unit that has its primary predication, which is actualized by definite
structural scheme and intonation characteristics.
True / False
4. A sentence is a unit of speech whose grammatical structure conforms to the laws
of the language and which serves as the chief means of conveying a thought. True
/ False
5. A sentence is only a means of communicating something about reality and also a
means of showing the speaker's attitude to it.
True / False
6. A sentence does not express a complete thought.
True / False
Exercise#2. Read the given main criteria about the classification of sentences.
Classify and write types of sentences according to these criteria in the table.
The criterion of the The criterion of the aim The criterion of the
structure of sentences
of the speaker
existence of all parts of
the sentence
Exercise#3. Fill the table with examples of thenegative form of adeclarative
sentence of compared languages. Analyze similarities and differences between
them.
137
Means
1. Grammatical
morpheme
2.
Lexical units
3.
Negative
pronouns
adverbs
English
do+not
I don’t go
Russian
не
Я не пойду
Uzbek
-ма
Мен бормайман
and
4.
Phraseological
units
5.
Rhetoric
questions
►Activities for self-improvement
Exercise#1. What languages have these types of thecomposite sentence? Fill
the table below. The first is given as an example.
Types
of
composite Languages
sentences
Compound-complex
English, Uzbek
Complex
Compound
Syndetic
138
Asyndetic
Coordinating conjunction
Subordinating conjunction
Exercise#2. Read the statements below and choose whether they are true or
false.
1.The sentence is the immediate group of words.
True / False
2. The sentence should always consistof a verb, noun and secondary parts of
sentences.
True / False
3. The sentence is divided into four according to the purpose.
True / False
4.Rhetorical questions do not fall into the category of interrogative sentences.
True / False
5.According to the structure, the sentence is divided into simple and composite.
True / False
Exercise#3. Write different kind of conjunctions, which are used to combine
sentences.
Types of
conjunctions
in composite
sentences
139
Test yourself on Typology of syntactic level of English and Native
Languages
Which of these is the best definition of syntax?
a) The study of the rules governing specifically the sounds that form words.
b) The study of the rules governing sentence formation.
c) The study of the rules governing word formation.
d) The study of the rules governing supra-segmental elements of the
language?
1.
2.
a)
b)
c)
d)
3.
a)
b)
c)
d)
Which Typology studies the syntactic structure of different languages?
Syntactic
Lexical and grammatical
Phonetic and phonological
Semantic and formal
Syntactic typology studies...
parts of speech
word level
phoneme level
sentence level and phrase level
Which of these morphemes can the majority of English nouns have added
to them?
a) –ing
b) –er
c) –s
d) un4.
5.
a)
b)
c)
d)
In which sentence do the dots replace a noun?
They can ... them
They can ...
He has no ...
They … him
Identify this sentence according to its type: "The old hotel at the end of the
street is going to be knocked down at the beginning of next year."
6.
140
a)
b)
c)
d)
complex
compound
simple
compound-complex
7.
What must every correct sentence have a ...?
transition word
subject and predicate
conjunction and verb
dependent and independent clause
a)
b)
c)
d)
In Russian nouns can show gender (among other features). What feature(s)
can nouns in English show?
a) Case only
b) Number only
c) Case and number
d) Number and person
8.
9.
a)
b)
c)
d)
What is the smallest speech pattern?
Morpheme
Phrase
Phomeme
Semime
10. What is word order in the language?
a)
b)
c)
d)
The agreement of words in a phrase
The arrangement of words in a phrase, clause, or sentence
Subordination of clauses
Structure of a phrase
11. Define the sentence
a)
b)
c)
d)
It is the smallest speech pattern
It is smallest meaningful unit
It is the basic unit of syntax
It is an important communicative unit
12. Subordinator…
141
a)
b)
c)
d)
joins two similarly constructed and/or syntactically equal words
contains an independent clause and at least one dependent clause
is a unit of communication
introduces a dependent clause, joining it to the main clause
13. What language word-combination has extended type according to the
structure?
a) Russian
b) English
c) Arabic
d) Uzbek
14. Independent and dependent are types of word combinations of…
a)
b)
c)
d)
English language
French language
Russian language
Uzbek language
15. What languages are fond of long and colorful phrases?
a)
b)
c)
d)
Russian and Uzbek
Russian and English
English and Uzbek
English and French
TOPICS FOR PRESENTATIONS
1. Different definitions of the term “sentence”.
2. Classification of the sentence due to different criteria.
3. Nominal and verbal sentences.
4. Main characteristics of acompound sentence.
5. Word order typology.
6. Comparison of English /Russian/ Uzbek simple sentences.
7. Comparative analysis of composite sentence in compared languages.
8. Typology of English/ Russian/ Uzbek nominal and verbal sentences.
9. Comparison of English / Russian / Uzbek word order system.
142
V. Typology of lexical level of English and Native
Languages
5.1. Lexical Typology and its branches





Key points for discussion:
Object and aim of lexical typology
Relations of lexical typology with other branches of
comparative typology
The notion of lexicon in Linguistics
Sections of lexical typology
Typological categorization within lexical fields
conceptual domains
and
The term “typology”, as is well known, has many different uses. What
primarily matters for the present volume is typology understood as “the study of
linguistic patterns that are found cross-linguistically, in particular, patterns that can
be discovered solely by cross-linguistic comparison”. Typology can also refer to
thetypological classification of languages into (structural) types on the basis of
particular patterns for particular phenomena. Typological research is driven by the
persuasion that the variation across attested (and, further, possible) human
languages is severely restricted, and aims therefore at unveiling systematicity
behind the whole huge complex of linguistic diversity. In pursuing their tasks,
typologists raise – and often try to answer – important theoretical questions, such
as:
•
According to what parameters does a specific phenomenon vary
across languages, in what patterns do these parameters (co-)occur?
•
What generalisations can be made about attested vs. possible patterns?
•
What is universal vs. language particular in a given phenomenon,
what phenomena are frequent vs. rare?
•
How are various linguistic phenomena distributed across the
languages of the world?
•
Which phenomena are genetically stable and which are subject to
contactinduced change?
•
How can the attested distribution of the different patterns across
languages be explained?
143
•
How can the attested cross-linguistic patterns /generalizations be
explained?
The papers in the present volume do in fact focus on linguistic patterns that
can be discovered only by cross-linguistic comparison – cross-linguistically
recurrent patterns of polysemy, heterosemy and semantic change – and are
therefore examples of typological research. The domain of research shared by the
papers in the volume is, however, somewhat outside of the main interests of
modern typological research, that has so far primarily focused on grammatical and,
to a lesser degree, phonetic / phonological phenomena under the labels of
“grammatical typology”, “syntactic typology”, “morphological typology”,
“morphosyntactic typology” (or, quite often, just “typology”), “phonetic typology”
and “phonological typology”. None of those would suit the direction of the
volume. We are dealing here with lexical, with semantic phenomena – which is the
primary objects of lexical typology. The term “lexical typology” is often used as if
there was self-explanatory, but is only rarely explicitly defined. What can be meant
by lexical typology is, however, less clear, apart from the evident fact that it
involves cross-linguistic research on the lexicon. Many linguists will probably
agree with the definition that lexical typology is concerned with the “characteristic
ways in which language packages semantic material into words”. Viewed as such,
lexical typology can be considered a sub-branch of semantic typology concerned
with the lexicon. Other definitions of lexical typology focus on “typologically
relevant features in the grammatical structure of the lexicon” or on typologically
relevant vs. language-specific patterns of lexicon-grammar interaction.
Lexical typology deals with the units of lexical levels. It studies interlingual paradigms of words, inter-lingual invariance of meanings expressed by
words and phrases. Some linguists combine lexical and semantic typologies.
Lexical typology must be studied as an independent branch of linguistic typology,
because it deals with lexical units, while semantic typology concerns to every level
of language hierarchy. The terms “semantic typology” and “lexical typology” are
often used as if there were self-explanatory, but are only rarely explicitly defined.
Semantic typology is “the systematic cross-linguistic study of how languages
express meaning by way of signs”. Many linguists will probably agree with the
definition that lexical typology is concerned with the “characteristic ways in which
language packages semantic material into words”. Viewed as such, lexical
typology can be considered a sub-branch of semantic typology concerned with the
lexicon. Other definitions of lexical typology focus on “typologically relevant
features in the grammatical structure of the lexicon”.
144
A reasonable way of defining what can be meant by “lexical typology” is to
view it as the cross-linguistic and typological dimension of lexicology. The
probably most updated overview of lexicology as a field is found in the two
volumes, the title of which “underlines the special orientation towards the two core
areas which makes of lexicology an autonomous discipline, namely, the
characterization of words and vocabularies, both as unitary wholes and as units
displaying internal structure with respect both to form and content”. In the same
vein as lexicology, in general, is not restricted to lexical semantics, lexical
typology can include phenomena that are not of primary interest for semantic
typology. Likewise, since lexicology is not completely opposed to either
phonetics/phonology, morphology or syntax, cross-linguistic research on a number
of theword- and lexicon-related phenomena is – or can be – carried out either from
different angles and with different foci, or within approaches that integrate several
perspectives, goals, and methods. There are different kinds and groups of questions
that can be addressed in typological research on words and vocabularies, or lexical
typology, and that can, therefore, be considered as the different foci of lexical
typology. Some of them are listed below, but there are undoubtedly many others.
What is a possible word, or what can be meant by a word? Possible vs. impossible
words in different languages, different criteria for identifying words and interaction
among them, universal vs. language-specific restrictions on possible, impossible,
better and worse words.
•
What meanings can and cannot be expressed by a single word in
different languages? Lexicalisations and lexicalisation patterns, “universal” vs.
language-specific lexicalizations, categorization within, or carving up of lexical
fields / semantic domains by lexical items, the architecture of the lexical fields /
semantic domains (e.g. basic words vs. derived words).
•
What different meanings can be expressed by one and the same
lexeme, by lexemes within one and the same synchronic word family (words
linked by derivational relations) or by lexemes historically derived from each
other? Cross-linguistically recurrent patterns in the relations among the words and
lexical items in the lexicon – a huge and heterogeneous category with many
different subdivisions, a large part of which can be subsumed under the various
aspects of motivation, e.g. semantic motivation (polysemy, semantic associations /
semantic shifts) and morphological motivation (derivational patterns, including
compounding).
•
What cross-linguistic patterns are there in lexicon-grammar
interaction?
145
The lexicon of a language is, of course, a dynamic and constantly changing
complex structure where new words emerge, old words disappear or change in one
or another way. Lexical-typological research has, thus, both synchronic and
diachronic dimensions. Historically oriented lexical typology studies semantic
change, grammaticalization and lexicalization processes as examples of diachronic
processes showing cross-linguistically recurrent patterns.
The lexicons of most languages show different layers of origin with many
words coming from “outside” – as direct loans, loan translations, etc. A
particularly interesting aspect of historical lexical typology is the search for crosslinguistically recurrent patterns in contactinduced lexicalization and lexical change,
e.g., differences in borrowability among the different parts of the lexicon and the
corresponding processes in the integration of new words, or patterns of lexical
acculturation (i.e., how lexica adjust to new objects and concepts).
Lexical-typological research can also be more local, e.g., restricted to a
particular lexical field, a particular derivational process, a particular polysemy
pattern, or more general, with the aim of uncovering patterns in the structuring of
the lexicon that is supposed to have a bearing on many essential properties of the
language. The latter includes various approaches to the issues of “basic” vs. nonbasic vocabulary, or suggestions as to how to characterize, compare and measure
the lexical-typological profiles of different languages. In fact, some people prefer
using the term “typological” (e.g., typological properties) for referring to what is
considered as the more essential, central, or general properties of a language. In
this understanding, a large portion of cross-linguistic research on words and
vocabularies will not count as typological (this applies, among others, to what is
called “local” lexical-typological research immediately above).
Lexical typology consists of following branches:







Lexical typology of words
Word-building typology
Comparative lexicology
Lexical-statistic typology
Lexical typology of borrowings
Lexical typology of phraseology
Lexical typology of proverbs and sayings and etc.
Types of words and phrases can be studied and compared in these types of
branches of lexical typology. As an example lexical typology of borrowings in
English, Russian and Uzbek can be analyzed below:
146
Lexical typology of borrowings
Borrowed words are the words adopted from other languages. Borrowing is
a consequence of cultural contact between two language communities. Borrowing
of words can go in both directions between the two languages in contact, but often
there is an asymmetry, such that more words go from one side to the other.
According to the nature of borrowings, they can be classified in all languages into:
Borrowings
Loan words
Translation
loans
Semantic loans

A loan word taken over from another proper language can be modified
in phonetic shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning according to the standards of the
language. Example:
EnglishRussianUzbek: club, pop, abest-seller, show, CD-Rom.
RussianUzbek: журнал, театр, роман, армия, сюжет, автобус.

A translation loans are the words and expressions formed I one
language after the patterns characteristic of it but under the influence of some
foreign words and expressions. For example:
Latin: “tinge maternal”  mother tongue;
English: “Periodical journals” периодическиежурналы;
Russian: “Дом престарелых”қариялар уйиandetc.

Semantic borrowings are the appearance of a new meaning due to the
influence of a related word in another language. For instance:
English: mother  Mutter (German)  Madre (Spanish).
Russian:
noktь(night)
(protoSlavic)
ночь(Russian)
ніч(Ukrainian)ноч(Belarusian) noc (Polish) noc (Czech) noc (Slovak)
noč (Slovene) ноћ/ noć(Serbo-Croatian)нощ (nosht) (Bulgarian).
Uzbek: бош (Uzbek) бас (Kazakh, Kharakhalpak) баш(Kirgiz,
Turkmen), тоғ(Uzbek) тоо(Kirgiz)  тав, тау(Kazakh, Kharakhalpak)
дағ(Turkmen, Azerbaijan).
During XV centuries of its written history, the English language comes in
long and close contacts with several other languages, mainly, Latin, French and
Norman (Scandinavian). The great influence of borrowings in English is explained
147
by a number of historical causes: Latin was for a long time used as a language of
learning and religion; Norman was the language of conquerors in the IX-XI
centuries; French was the language of other conquerors in the XI-XIV centuries.
Latin
English
Norman
French
The Uzbek language also has had and old and long contacts with many
nations in its history, especially with Arabians, Persians, Turkish and Russians. It
is known from the history of Uzbek language that Arabian was the language of
religion and science as Latin in English, Turkic and Persian were mostly the
languages of poetry in the middle ages and other languages were the languages of
the conquerors of several historical periods.
Arabian
Uzbek
Turkic and
Persian
Russian
Different from English and Uzbek languages Russian language did not
acquire words from any kind of conquerors, but as other languages, it also has a
group of words which acquired from various genetically related and non-related
languages. This language started to enlarge its vocabulary from ancient times. For
instance, from VI-VII centuries words which connected with floras taken from
Pro-Slavonic language, in VI-IX centuries influence of Eastern-Slavonic and
Russian national language formed in the period of XVII-XVIII centuries. Besides,
it expands its vocabulary from Indo-European languages too.
148
Russian
Other
languages
Original
Russian
EasternSlavonic
ProSlavonic
IndoEuropean
Borrowings enter the language in two ways:

Through oral speech (by immediate contact between the people);

Through written speech (by indirect contact through books, writings,
etc.)
Orally borrowed words are usually short and they undergo considerable
changes in the act of adoption. Written borrowings preserve their spelling and
some peculiarities of their sound form, their assimilation is a long and difficult
process.
Oral borrowings due to personal contacts are assimilated more completely
and more rapidly than literary borrowings, i.e. borrowings through written speech.
For instance, in English:
Oral borrowings:
Inch, meel, street (L.)
Written borrowings:
Sombrero (Mex.)
Husband, gate, take, die, fellow (Scand.) Sari, riksha (Ind.)
Table, face, figure, chair, sport (Fr.)
Formula,phenomena (Gr.)
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Typological categorization within lexical fields and conceptual domains.
The basic idea underlying cross-linguistic research on categorization within
lexical fields and conceptual domains (coherent segments of experience and
knowledge about them) is that human experience is not delivered in nicely prepacked units, categories, and types, but has to be chunked, organized and
categorized by human beings themselves. Categories correspond to experiences
that are perceived to have features in common. When experiences are
systematically encoded by one and the same linguistic label (e.g., by the same
word) they are, most probably, perceived as being fairly similar to each other; that
is they are taken to represent one and the same class or to correspond to one and
same concept or lexical meaning.
A simple example of what can be meant by different ways of categorizing,
or carving up a conceptual domain across languages is given in Table 1, which
shows how the inventories of body-part terms in six languages differ in the extent
to which they distinguish between hand vs. arm, foot vs. leg, and finger vs. toe by
conventionalised, lexicalised expressions (“labels”).
Table 1: Hand vs. arm, foot vs. leg, finger vs. toe in English, Russian,Uzbek,
Italian, Rumanian,Estonian and Japanese.
English
hand
arm
foot
leg
finger
toe
Russian Uzbek Italian Rumanian Estonian
рука
нога
палец
қўл
mano
braccio
оёқ
piede
gamba
бармоқ dito
minǎ
brat
picior
käsi
käsi(vars)
jalg
deget
sõrm
varvas
Japanes
e
te
ude
ashi
yubi
The table above follows the same practice of representing “lexicalization” in
a fairlyunsophisticated way without asking the question ofwhether рукаin Russian
or yubi in Japanese are polysemous or semantically general.
What matters here is simply how many different lexemes there are and how
theypartition the domain. A somewhat more complicated example is given in Table
2, which shows the verbs used for talking about waterrelatedmotion (“aquamotion”) in three languages – Swedish, Dutch and Russian.The table includes both
motion of water itself (“flow” in English) and motion/location of other entities
150
(other figures) with water as ground. Here, again, theRussian verbs плыть /
плаватьare treated as one semantic unit, rather than two sets ofdifferent senses.
Flyta in Swedish appears, however, at two different places – thisdoes not per se
imply any strong conviction that the case is much different from theRussian verb
couple, but shows rather problems with two-dimensionalrepresentations.
Table 2: A part of the aqua-motion domain in Russian, Swedish, and Dutch.
Language
Swedish
Agent-driven, active motion: type of figure
Animate
entities
Sailing
boats
simma
segla
zeilen
Dutch
zwemme
n
Russian
(плыть /
плавать
под
парусами)
Rowing
boats
Passive location
/motion
Motion
of
water
Canoes
Other Station Motion
vessels
ary
out of
or
control
neutral
motion
ro
paddla
(no
flyta
driva
flyta,
specific
rinna
acquam
otion
verbs)
roeien
paddelen
stromen
drijven
varen
плыть / плавать
грести
нестись
течь,
литься
As these examples show, languages differ considerably as to how many
different lexemes they have for talking about comparable domains and how exactly
these words partition the domains. It is, therefore, reasonable to ask whether there
is any systematicity underlying the obvious cross-linguistic variation. Whatever the
answer is, it requires explanation.
Only a handful of conceptual domains typically encoded by words (rather
than by grammatical means) have been subject to systematic cross-linguistic
research on their semantic categorization, primarily colour, body, kinship,
perception, motion, events of breaking and cutting, dimension. The list can be
made slightly longer, if we include words and expressions with more grammatical
151
meanings, such as indefinite pronouns, various quantifiers, interrogatives, phrasal
adverbials andspatial adpositions.
Questions for self-control:
1. What kind of relations does lexical typology have with other types of
Comparative Typology?
2. What can lexical typology be dealt with?
3. How can you define the term “lexicon”?
4. What branches of lexical typology do you know?
5. The problem of interference in foreign language teaching acquisition
(Lexical level).
RecommendedLiteratures:
1. Аракин В.Д. Сравнительнаятипологияанглийскогоирусскогоязыков.
Ленинград, 1979.
2.Буранов Ж.Б. Сравнительная типологи яанглийского и тюркских
языков. М, 1983.
3. РождественскийЮ.В. Типология слова. М, 1969.
4. ArnoldV.I. The EnglishWord. M, 1973.
152
5.2. Comparative analysis of English and Native languages words




Key points for discussion:
Word as a basis unit of a language
Paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations of words
Semantic classification of words
Classification of words according to their structure
The main unit of the lexical system of a language resulting from the
association of a group of sounds with a meaning is a word. This unit is used in
grammatical functions characteristic of it. It is the smallest language unit which
can stand alone as a complete utterance. A word, however, can be divided into
smaller sense units - morphemes. The morpheme is the smallest meaningful
language unit.
The morpheme consists of a class of variants, allomorphs, which are either
phonologically or morphologically conditioned, e.g. please, pleasant, pleasure.
Morphemes are divided into two large groups: lexical morphemes and grammatical
(functional) morphemes. Both lexical and grammatical morphemes can be free and
bound. Free lexical morphemes are roots of words which express the lexical
meaning of the word, they coincide with the stem of simple words.
Free grammatical morphemes are function words:
 articles
 conjunctions
 prepositions(the,with, and).
Bound lexical morphemes are affixes:
 prefixes (dis-)
 suffixes (-ish)
 blocked (unique) root morphemes (e.g. Fri-day, cran-berry).
Word is a basic two sided and independent unit of a language. It has been
attracted the attentions of many linguists from ancient times. Thus, thewordis the
basis unit of a language, directly corresponds to the object of thought (referent)which is a generalized reverberation of a certain ‘slice’, ‘piece’ of objective reality
and by immediately referring to it names the thing meant. Words in all languages
can be distinguished as followings:
153
WORD:
Morphologically:
Monomorphemic
Polymorphemic
Semantically:
Monosemantic
Polysemantic
Syntactically:
categorematic
syncategorematic
Stylistically:
neutral
colloquial
bookish
substandard
Etymologically:
native
evaluative
borrowed
key-words
hybrids
object
international
occasional
dictionary
154
Typologically denotational meaning suggests the distribution of general and
special meanings (hyperonyms and hyponyms) in languages. In general, it is more
natural for English and Uzbek to use a hyperonym, while Russian typically favours
hyponym:
English
box
flask
pot
Russian
Uzbek
коробка
коробочка
шкатулка
ящик
ящичек
фляга
фляжка
склянка
пузырёк
горшок
котелок
банка
кружка
кринка
қути
қутича
фляга
тувак
Naturally, it is possible to show opposite examples in which Russian and
Uzbek words are more general in meaning than its counterparts in English:
English
Russian
Uzbek
finger
toe
палец
бармоқ
hand
arm
рука
қўл
watch
clock
часы
соат
Depending on the context Russian uses a special prefixed derivatives where
English and Uzbek have a general word:
English
to cut a finger
to cut a road
Russian
порезать палец
перерезать дорогу
155
Uzbek
бармоқни кесмоқ
йўлни кесиб ўтмоқ
to cut a grass
to cut one’s throat
срезать траву
ўтни кесмоқ
зарезаться, перерезать Кимнидир
сўймоқ
кому та горло
(томоғини кесмоқ)
Every word has two aspects: the outer aspect (its sound form) and their inner
aspect (its meaning). Sound and meaning do not always constitute a constant unit
even in the same language. E.g. in English the word “temple” may denote “a part
of human head” and “a large church”; or in Russian the word “ручка” can denote
“a part of human body (hand)”, “a writing tool (pen)” and “a part of the door
(handle)” and Uzbek word “ўт” may give the meanings of “fire”, “grass”,
“movement”. In such cases, there are exist homonyms. Homonyms are words
different in meaning but identical in sound or spelling, or both in sound and
spelling.
Homonyms can appear in the language not only as the result of the split of
polysemy but also as the result of leveling of grammar inflexions when different
parts of speech become identical in their outer aspect, e.g. “care” from “caru” and
“care” from “carian”. They can be also formed by means of conversion, e.g. “to
slim” from “slim”, “to water” from “water”. They can be formed with the help of
the same suffix from the same stem, e.g. “reader” a person who reads and a book
for reading.
One and the same word in different syntactical relations can develop
different meanings, e.g. the verb in English “treat” in the sentences:
 He treated my words as a joke;
 The book treats of poetry;
 They treated me so sweet;
 He treats his son cruelly.
In all these sentences the verb “treat” has different meanings and we can
speak about polysemy. The word “polysemy” means “plurality of meanings” it
exists only in the language, not in speech.
A word which has more than one meaning is called polysemantic.
Different meanings of a polysemantic word may come together due to the
proximity of notions which they express. E.g. the English word “blanket” has the
following meanings: a woolen covering used on beds, a covering for keeping a
horse warm, a covering of any kind “a blanket of snow”, covering all or most cases
(used attributively), e.g. we can say “a blanket insurance policy”.
There are some words in the language which are monosemantic, such as most
terms, “synonym”, “molecule”, “bronchitis”, some pronouns (this, my, both),
numerals.This feature can be observed in all types of languages. It is obvious in the
156
Uzbek language too, e.g. the noun “кўз” (an eye) which is a part of thehuman face,
in the following phrases can show polysemy in this language:
 Ёғочнинг кўзи;
 Узукнинг кўзи;
 Булоқнинг кўзи;
 Ишнинг кўзи;
 Деразанинг кўзи.
On the other hand, one and the same meaning can be expressed by different
sound forms, e.g. in English “pilot” and “airman”, “man”, “mankind”, “human”,
“person”; in Uzbek “мўйсафид”, “қари”, “ёши улуғ”; in Russian “кушать”,
“есть”, “съедать”; “симпотичный”, “приятный”, “славный”, “милый”. In such
cases, synonyms can be developed. Synonyms are words different in their outer
aspects, but identical or similar in their inner aspects. In English there are a lot of
synonyms because there are many borrowings, e.g. hearty (native) – cordial
(borrowing); куч (native) – қувват(borrowed). After a word is borrowed it
undergoes desynonymization, because absolute synonyms are unnecessary for a
language. However, there are some absolute synonyms in the language, which
have exactly the same meaning and belong to the same style, e.g. to moan, to
groan; homeland, motherland etc. In cases of desynonymization, one of the
absolute synonyms can specialize in its meaning and we get semantic synonyms,
e.g. “city” (borrowed), “town” (native). The French borrowing “city” is
specialized. There are also phraseological synonyms in the compared languages,
these words are identical in their meanings and styles but different in their
combining with other words in the sentence, e.g. “to be late for a lecture” but “to
miss the train”, “to visit museums” but “to attend lectures” ; “боши осмонга етди”
and “терисига сиғмади” (to be very happy).
In each group of synonyms, there is a word with the most general meaning,
which can substitute any word in the group, e.g. “piece” is the synonymic
dominant in the group “slice”, “lump”, “morsel”. The verb “to look at” is the
synonymic dominant in the group “to stare”, “to glance”, “to peep”. The adjective
“red” is the synonymic dominant in the group “purple”, “scarlet”, “crimson”. Same
as in the Uzbek language the word “осмон” is dominant in the group “само”,
“кўк”, “фалак”, “гардун”.
Moreover, one of the types of words according to the meaning is called
antonym, a group of words which have opposite meaning to each other. Antonyms
are words belonging to the same part of speech, identical in style, expressing
contrary or contradictory notions.
157
V.N. Comissarov in his dictionary of antonyms classified them into two
groups:
Antonyms
Absolute
(root)
Derivational
selflessselfish
late-early
Absolute antonyms have different roots and derivational antonyms have the
same roots but different affixes. In most cases, negative prefixes form antonyms
(un-, dis-, non-). Sometimes they are formed by means of suffixes -ful and -less.
The number of antonyms with the suffixes ful- and -less is not very large, and
sometimes even if we have a word with one of these suffixes its antonym is formed
not by substituting -ful by less-, e.g. “successful” –“unsuccessful”. The difference
in the Uzbek language this type of antonyms is called morphological, e.g. “ақллиақлсиз”. The same is true about antonyms with negative prefixes, e.g. “to man” is
not an antonym of the word “to unman”, “to disappoint” is not an antonym of the
word “to appoint”in English. The difference between derivational and root
antonyms is not only in their structure but in semantics as well. Derivational
antonyms express contradictory notions, one of them excludes the other, e.g.
«active»- «inactive». Absolute antonyms express contrary notions. If some notions
can be arranged in a group of more than two members, the most distant members
of the group will be absolute antonyms, e.g. «ugly» , «plain», «good-looking»,
«pretty», «beautiful», the antonyms are «ugly» and «beautiful».E.g. in English
“short-long”, “rich- poor”, “wise –fool”; in Uzbek “катта−кичик”, “узоқ−яқин”,
“яхши−ёмон”; in Russian “умный-глупый”, “старый-новый”, “высокийнизкий”. Besides antonyms in all languages can be root and derived. For instance,
good-bad (root), like-dislike (derived with prefix dis-); дўст−душман (root),
доно−нодон (derived with prefix но-), богатый-бедный (root), толстыйнетолстый (derived with negative particle н ).
Both the meaning and the sound can develop in the course of time
independently. E.g. the Old English “luvian” is pronounced [l^v] in Modern
158
English. On the other hand “board” primarily means “a piece of wood sawn thin”.
It has developed the meanings: a table, a board of theship, a stage, a council etc.
Syntacmatics−linear (simultaneous) relationship of words in aspeech as
distinct from theassociative (non-simultaneous) relationship of words in
thelanguage.
Paradigmatics− 1) associative (non-simultaneous) relationship of words in
language as distinct from linear (simultaneous) relationship of words in speech
(syntagmatics);
relation
of
units
in
absentia
(e.g.
synonymic,
antonymicrelationships); 2) an approach to language when the elements of its
system are regarded as associated units joined by oppositional relationship.
According to the structure, English words can be subdivided into:
Simple
Derived
Word
Compound
Compound-derived
Simple words consist of one root morpheme and an inflexion (in many
cases the inflexion is zero), e.g. “red”, “ask”, “leg”;
Derived words consist of one root morpheme, one or several affixes and an
inflexion, e.g. “ aimless”, “unemployed”, “disbelief”;
Compound words consist of two or more root morphemes and an
inflexion, e.g. “foreign-made”, “red-haired”, “to daydream”;
Compound-derived words consist of two or more root morphemes, one or
more affixes and an inflexion, e.g. “a stay-slim diet”,“an out-of-town
performance”, “do-it-your-self principle”.
In the Uzbek language they can be classified into:
159
Word
Сўз
Содда
(simple)
Туб
(root)
Қўшма
(compound)
Жуфт
(pairs)
Ясама
(derived)
Такрорий
(repeated)
Simple words in Uzbek can be subdivided in to root “ ўқи”, “келди”, and
derived “билим”, “улғай”, “серзавқ”.
A distinctive feature of Uzbek language is having the types of words such
pairs and repeated ones which can be formed by a hyphen and give one meaning.
Pair words in Uzbek can be formed as followings:
Pair words
Жуфт сўзла
Both components
can be used
independently
Опа- ингил, ғамташ иш,
атта- ичи
Both components
cannot be used
independently
онда- онда,
апил- тапил,
алғо -далғо
Repeated words
т -т , ғир-ғир,
баланд-баланд
The way of forming English, Uzbek and Russian short compounds are the
same. There are three ways of forming short compounds:
1.
The solid or closed form in which two usually moderately short words
appear together as one. Solid compounds most likely consist of short
(monosyllabic) units that often have been established in the language for a long
time. Examples are; housewife, lawsuit, and wallpaper.
Uzbekexamplesare: сувилон, тоғолча, гултувак.
Russian examples are: водовоз, , сумасшедший.
160
2.
The hyphenated form in which two or more words are connected by a
hyphen. Compounds that contain affixes, such as house – builder and single –
mind (ed) (ness) but if these words are written in Uzbek and Russian they will be
written without ahyphen: single – mindednessҳурфикрлилик, честолюбие.
As well as anadjective - adjective compounds and verb – verb compounds,
such as blue – green and freeze – dry, are often hyphenated. Some Uzbek verb –
verb compounds are not hyphenated: сотиболди, борибкелди.And such Russian
compounds also are not hyphenated, e.g. adjective-adjective: драгоценный.
Compounds that contain particles, such as mother – of – pearl and salt – and
– pepper, mother – in – law, merry – go – round, are also hyphenated.
The open or spaced form consisting of newer combinations of usually
longer, such as distance learning, player piano, lawn tennis.
In Uzbek and Russian there are also such kind of open compounds: стол
тенниси, масофавий ўқитиш, дистанционноеобучение, гарантийныйталон,
настольныйтеннис.
In Uzbek the relationship between the components of compound words are
different: They show:
1. Comparison: карнайгул, отқулоқ туяқуш, шерюрак, қўйкўз.
2. Relevance, purposed for something: гултувак (vase for flower), молқўра,
оловкурак, токқайчи,қийматахта. In English and Russian washing – machine,
blood – vessel (a tube through which blood flows in the body),
стиральнаямашина, гладинаядоска.
3. Connection to some places: сувилон (a snake which lives in water),
тоғолча, чўлялпиз, қўқонарава like in English zookeeper, postman, house keeper,
head – dress, ear – ring.
4. The mark of something: аччиқтош, олақарға, шўрданак, қизилиштон,
Қизилтепа. In English long – legged, bluebell, slow – coach.
5. Relationship to quantity: бешбармоқ, мингоёқ, қирқоғайни, Бешариқ.
This rule is also relevant to Englishand Russian compounds such as: three –
cornered, fifteen – fold, six – fold, five – sided polygon, пятиэтажный,
треугольный, шестикратный.
Uzbek compound words are classified:
a) from the point of view of the way the components of the compound are
linked together: хомкалла, кўксултон, искабтопар.
b) from the point of view of agreeing:
тўйбоши, китобсевар, дунёқараш.
161
с) from the point of view of therelationship between subject and predicate:
first elements of such kind compound will be predicate: гўшткуйди, келинтушди.
There are 6 types of compound words in Uzbek:
Compound
nouns
Compound
number
Compound
adjectives
Compound
words
Compound
adverbs
Compound
verbs
Compound
pronouns
Most frequently spread English and Russian compound words are:
Compound
nouns
Compound
verbs
Compound
words
Compound
adverbs
162
Compound
adjectives
Comparison of languages in the level of lexicology from theoretical points
requires comparing the lexical units and their systematic relations. As it mentioned
above thelexical unit of the languages can be compared to various levels of
language. We tried to show some analysis of a word in several levels as its
meaning, structure, and branches.
Questions for self-control:
1.
How can you define the main unit of lexical level?
2.
Howa word can be distinguished in all languages?
3.
What can be understood in the terms of hyperonyms and hyponyms?
4.
How can words be subdivided according to their meaning?
5.
What kind of types of a word can be found in compared languages?
6.
The problem of interference in foreign language teaching acquisition
(Lexical level).
Recommended Literature:
1.
Akhmanova O.S. Lexicology: Theory and Method. M. 1972
2.
Arnold I.V. The English Word. M. 1986.
3.
Аракин В.Д. Сравнительная типология английского и русского
языков. Ленинград, 1979.
4.
Виноградов В. В. Лексикология и лексикография. Избранные
труды. М. 1977.
163
5.3.
Comparative analysis of English and Native languages wordformation types
Key points for discussion:
 Word formation in linguistics
 Types of word formation in compared languages
 Similarities in word formation ways of
compared languages
 Differences in word formation ways of
compared languages
In linguistics, word formation is the creation of a new word. Word
formation is sometimes contrasted with semantic change, which is a change in a
single word's meaning. The line between word formation and semantic change is
sometimes a bit blurry; what one-person views as a new use of an old word,
another person might view as a new word derived from an old one and identical to
it in form. Word formation can also be contrasted with the formation of idiomatic
expressions, though sometimes words can form from multi-word phrases. Wordbuilding is one of the main ways of enriching vocabulary.As it is known
morpheme can be subdivided into root and derived types. These features of
morphemes are characterized all types of languages. There are two major groups
of word formationin Modern English:
Word
formation
Productive
Non-productive
Compounding
Sound interchange
Prefixation
Stress interchange
Suffixation
Sound imitation
Conversion
blending
Shortening
Back formation
164
Two main ways of word formation can be observed in Russian too:
Word formation
словооб азова е
Morphological way
Non-morphologicalway
(Морфологический способ)
(Неморфологический способ)
Affixation
Morphological-syntactical
(аффиксация)
(Морфолого-синтактический)
Compounding
Lexical-syntactical
(сложение)
(Лексико-синтактический)
Lexical-semantical
(Лексико-семантический)
Different from English and Russian languages there are five main ways of
word formation in modern Uzbek:
Affixation
(аффиксация)
Phonetic
Abbreviation
(аббревиация)
(фонетик)
Word
formation (сўз
ясалиши)
Composition
Semantic
(композиция)
(семантик)
As it is seen from the schemes of word formation in the compared languages
some similarities and differences can be observed.
165
The main similarity of forming words is having the way of affixing in all
compared languages. And all of them have the subtypes, such as pefixing,
suffixing and prefix-suffix. For instance, English prefixes are such particles that
can be prefixed to full words and it is mostly characteristic for forming verbs.
Prefixes can be considered more independent than suffixes in English. They can be
classified according to the nature of words in which they are used: prefixes used in
notional words and prefixes used in functional words. Prefixes used in notional
words are proper prefixes which are bound morphemes, e.g. re- (rewrite). Prefixes
used in functional words are semi-bound morphemes because they are met in the
language as words, e.g. over- (overprotected) ( cf. over the book ).
Prefixes can be classified according to different principles:
1. Semantic classification:
a) prefixes of negative meaning, such as : in- (invaluable), non- (nonmorphological), un- (unhappy) etc.
b) prefixes denoting repetition or reversal actions, such as: de- (deregulate), re(redo), dis- (disappear).
c) prefixes denoting time, space, degree relations, such as : inter- (international) ,
hyper- (hypertension), ex- (ex-friend), pre- (pre-reading), over- (overhead) etc.
2. Origin of prefixes can be classified as follows:
a) native (Germanic), such as: un-, over-, under- etc.
b) Romanic, such as : in-, de-, ex-, re- etc.
c) Greek, such as:sym-, hyper- etc.
Besides, there are a lot of borrowed prefixes in English:
AutoDemiMonoMultiSemiPostOn the contrary with English prefixes Russian and Uzbek have not any
classifications in prefixes but they also can show negative meaning such as н неприятный, недоступный,or in Uzbek но-номаълум, номуносиб. But there are
many other types of prefixes in Russian and Uzbek languages such as -, н -,
рх-, при-, ра - for forming words such спутник, неприятель, сверхранний,
придавать, раздавать. There is such verb in Russian which can combine with
almost all prefixes:
166
Ехат
По-ехать
В-ехать
На-ехать
За-ехать
До-ехать
С-ехать
Вы-ехать
Недо-ехать
Пере-ехать
При-ехать
Гово т
По-говорить
За-говорить
На-говорить
Вы-говорить
Недо-говорить
б -, ба-, но-, р-, ҳам- бебаҳо, баобрў, серҳосил, ҳамшаҳарand etc. All
prefixes in the Uzbek language are borrowed from Tajik and Persian languages.
Thus, prefixation is a productive way of word formation in all languages.
And they can form nouns and adjectives besides verbs. For example, in difference
from English and Russian Uzbek language prefixes cannot form verbs, they are
used for nouns and adjectives. Even though nouns, verbs, and adjectives can be
formed in English in the same way as in Russian, the difference between English
and Russian is that the adverbs cannot be formed by prefixation in English.
Moreover, there is another similarity of compared languages in aproductive
way of forming words is suffixing. The main function of suffixes in compared
languages is to form one part of speech from another, the secondary function is to
change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech. ( e.g. “govern” is a verb,
“government” is a noun, and “music” is a noun, “musician” is also a noun or
“учи”is a verb, “учитель” is a noun,“суҳбат” is a noun, “суҳбатлашди” is a
verb).
Therearedifferentclassificationsofsuffixes:
1. Part-of-speech classification. Suffixes which can form different parts of
speecharegivenhere:
a) noun-forming suffixes, such as : -er(criticizer),-dom(officialdom), -ism
(ageism),-ни (работник),- ц(продавец),-увч (ўқитувчи),
чили (сотувчилик).
b) adjective-forming suffixes, such as : -able(separable), -less(useless),ous(glamorous),-ный(сильный),-ной (глазной), -ли (чиройли), - и (тузсиз).
c) verb-forming suffixes, such as-ize (modernize) , -ify (modify), -а-ть
(завтракать), -нича-ть (умничать), -а (туна), -лан (фахрлан).
167
d) adverb-forming suffixes , such as : -ly (likely), -о (привычно), -и (дружески),лаб(челаклаб),-она(мардона).
e) numeral-forming suffixes, such as: -teen (sixteen), -ty (seventy), -надцать
(пятнадцать), -ой (-ый) (шестой),-та (иккита), -нчи (еттинчи).
2. Semantic classification . Suffixes changing the lexical meaning of the
stem can be subdivided into groups, e.g. noun-forming suffixes can denote:
a) the agent of the action, e.g. -er (experimenter), -ist (taxist), -ent (student), о (игрок),-чи(ишчи).
b) nationality, e.g. -ian (Russian), -ese (Japanese), -ish (English).On the contrary
with English Russian and Uzbek can show place of thenation: - ич (москвич),ли (Тошкентлик).
c) quality, e.g. -ness (copelessness), -ity (answerability), - чан (қизиқувчан).
d) collectivity, e.g. -dom (moviedom), -ry (peasantry, -ship (readership), ati(literati).
e) diminutiveness, e.g. -ie (horsie), -let (booklet), -ling (gooseling), -ette
(kitchenette).
3. Lexico-grammatical character of the stem. Suffixes which can be added
tocertaingroupsofstemsaresubdividedinto:
a) suffixes added to verbal stems, such as: -er (commuter), -ing (suffering), - able
(flyable), -ment (involvement), -ation (computerization); - т о (правительство),
-аци
(модернизация);
- ич
(кўрсаткич),
-ги
(супурги).
b) suffixes added to noun stems, such as : -less (smogless), -ful (roomful), -ism
(adventurism), -ster (pollster), -nik (filmnik), -ish (childish); -ый (гордый), ный(умный);- ор(пахтакор),-гар(заргар).
c) suffixes added to adjective stems, such as: -en (weaken), -ly (pinkly), -ish
(longish), -ness (clannishness); -о ть (глупость), -и- (веселье); -ли
(гўзаллик), (ёшлик).
Besides other productive ways such as conversion, compounding and
shortening also can be found in the compared languages’ word forming system.
Sound interchange is one of the ways of non-productive word formation.
And this characterizes only in the English language.The causes of sound
interchange can be different. It can be the result of Ancient Ablaut which cannot be
explained by the phonetic laws during the period of the language development
known to scientists., e.g. to strike - stroke, to sing - song etc. It can be also the
result of Ancient Umlaut or vowel mutation which is the result of palatalizing the
root vowel because of the front vowel in the syllable coming after the root
(regressive assimilation), e.g. hot - to heat (hotian), blood - to bleed (blodian) etc.
168
However, stress interchange is occurred in all compared languages:to af`fix `affix, to con`flict- `conflict, to ex`port -`export, to ex`tract - `extract, `игрыигр`ы, п`оля- пол`я, `янги(adv.) - янг`и (adj.), ҳ`озир(adj.) - ҳоз`ир (adv.) .
Sound imitationis the way of word-building when a word is formed by
imitating different sounds. And this type of forming words can be observed in all
languages. There are some semantic groups of words formed by means of sound
imitation:
a) sounds produced by human beings, such as:to whisper, to giggle, to mumble, to
sneeze, to whistle etc; шептать, чихатьхихикать, бормотать;
пичирламоқ,ғўнғирламоқ,минғирламоқ.
b) sounds produced by animals, birds, insects, such as:to hiss, to buzz, to bark, to
moo, to twitter etc; лаять, мычать, щебетать, вовулламоқ,
миёвламоқ,сайрамоқ.
c) sounds produced by nature and objects, such as:to splash, to rustle, to clatter, to
bubble, to ding-dong, to tinkle etc;звякать, звенеть,греметь, тақилламоқ,
шитирламоқ, тарақ-туруқ.
Blends are words formed from a word-group or two synonyms. In blends,
two ways of word-building are combined: abbreviation and composition.Blends
formed from two synonyms are:slanguange, to hustle, gasohol etc. Mostly blends
are formed from a word-group, such as : acromania (acronym mania), cinemadict
(cinema adict), chunnel (channel, canal), dramedy (drama comedy), detectifiction
(detective fiction), faction (fact fiction) (fiction based on real facts), informecial
(information commercial) , Medicare ( medical care) , magalog ( magazine
catalogue) slimnastics (slimming gymnastics), sociolite (social elite), slanguist
( slang linguist) etc.As it is seen this type of non-producting way of word
formation characterizes mostly in English, but in Russian also can be observed
such kind of way of forming words. In this language it is called lexical-syntactic
way of forming words e.g. сумасшедший (сумасшедший), тяжелораненый
(тяжелораненный), четыреста (четыреста), наконец (наконец), сейчас
(сейчас).
The back formation is the way of word-building when a word is formed by
dropping the final morpheme to form a new word. It is opposite to suffixation, that
is why it is called back formation.E.g. it is typical of English to form nouns
denoting the agent of the action by adding the suffix -er to a verb stem (speakspeaker). So when the French word “beggar” was borrowed into English the final
syllable “ar” was pronounced in the same way as the English -er,and Englishmen
formed the verb “to beg” by dropping the end of the noun.Another example,
169
babysitter, to bach (from bachelor), to compute (from thecomputer), to emote
(from emotion). Andthis type of forming theword is one of the distinctive features
of English among Russian and Uzbek.
One of the Russian non-morphological ways of word formation is lexical
semantic, which can express the similar function with Uzbek semantic way of
forming words. This type in Russian is explained as homonymous meaning of
words which are already existed in the language, e.g. кулак (кисть руки,
сжатая для удара) и кулак (эксплуататор); бабка (то же, что бабушка),
бабка (надкопытный сустав ноги у животных), бабка (одна из парных
частей токарного станка), бабка (несколько снопов хлеба, уложенных
определенным образом); in Uzbek : юпқа- қалин эмас(юпқа -сифат, юпқа –
от, овқатнинг номи), кўк (ранг,- сифат, кўк-от, осмон).
The last distinctive feature of Uzbek language word formation way is
composition, which cannot be found in other compared languages. This type of
forming words is formed by combining two or more words to each other. With the
help of this type of word formation compound, pair and repeated words in Uzbek
can appear.
Finally, from the analysis of compared languages can be found several
similarities and differences in word formation process in these languages. For
instance, as a similarity, it is possible to show theexistence of types of affixation in
all languages, or amount of derived words and suffixes, which can change the
meaning from one part of speech in to another. On the contrary, as a difference can
be presented some ways of forming words in English, Russian and Uzbek, which
cannot be found in word forming system of other languages. Moreover, the main
way of word formation in English is considered compounding, while in Russian
and Uzbek it is affixation. Derived words in English mostly can be formed with
compounding, affixation and conversion, and in Russian and Uzbek can be
observed two of them besides conversion. In these languages, conversion is not
well developed.
Question for self-control:
1.
languages?
2.
3.
4.
What kind of differences are there in word formation of compared
Tell the main types of morphological way of word formation?
How can you define adistinctive feature of English word formation?
Is there any distinctive feature of Uzbek word formation?
170
5.
Tell about general ways of word formation in compared languages.
6. The problem of interference in foreign language teaching acquisition
(Lexical level).
RecommendedLiteratures:
1.
Аракин В.Д. Сравнительная типология английского и русского
языков. Ленинград, 1979.
2.
Буранов Ж.Б.
Сравнительнаятипологияанглийскогоитюркскихязыков. М, 1983.
3.
Валгина Н.С. Современный русский язык. М., 2003.
4.
Лекант П. А. Современный русский язык. М., 2003.
5.
Adams V. Introduction into English Wordformation. Lnd., 1983.
6.
Canon G. Historical Changes and English Wordformation: New
Vocabulary items. N.Y., 1986.
Topics for self-study
1. Typology of word formation system of the English and Uzbek (Russian)
languages.
2. Typology of lexical systems.
3. Theoretical foundation of Lexical typology.
4. Typology of word.
171
LIST OF THE KEY WORDS OF UNDERSTANDING THE COURSE OF
COMPARATIVE TYPOLOGY OF ENGLISH AND NATIVE LANGUAGES
Typology of lexical level of English and Native Languages
1.
Typology is the study and classification of languages according to structural
features, especially patterns of phonology, morphology, and syntax, without
reference to their histories.
2.
Cross-language means relating to languages of different families and
types; especially: relating to the comparison of different languages;
a plural of phenomenon,
a fact, occurrence, or circumstance observed or observable:
to study the phenomena of nature.
3.
Generalisation is the act or process whereby a learned response is
made to a stimulus similar to but not identical with the conditioned
stimulus.
4.
Sememe is the capacity for a sign (such as a word, phrase, or symbol) to
have multiple meanings (that is, multiple semes or sememes and thus
multiple senses), usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field.
5.
Heterosemy can be seen as a special case of polysemy, with the difference
that in polysemy, the related meanings of a form is associated with the
same lexeme.
6.
Semantics relating to, or arising from the different meanings of words or oth
er symbols: semantic change, semantic confusion;
7.
Explicitly is something that's said or done explicitly is clear and direct, like
an explicitly told story about terrible poverty in India — it leaves out no disturbing
details, even if it upsets the listener.
8.
Lexicon in linguistics, a lexicon is a language's inventory of lexemes
9.
Paradigm
is
a set
of forms all of
which contain a particular
element, especially the set of all inflected forms based on a single stem or theme.
10. Invariance is the condition or quality of being unchanging; constancy.
11. Heterogeneous means different in kind; unlike; incongruous.
12. The profile is a brief written description that provides information
about someone or something.
13. Asymmetry is having two sides or halves that are not the same: not
symmetrical.
172
14. Assimilation is the act or process by which a sound becomes identical with
or similar to a neighboring sound in one or more defining characteristics, as
aplace ofarticulation, voiced or voicelessor manner of articulation.
15. Conventionaliseisa cause to change; make different; cause a transformation.
16. Hyphenated is relating toor designating a person, group or organization of
mixed origin or identity.
17. Semi-bound/semi-free morphemes (or semi-affixes) are morphemes that
stand midway between roots and affixes. A semi-bound morpheme can function as
an affix (a prefix or a suffix) and at the same time as an independent full-meaning
word (cf.: ill-fed, ill-dressed, ill-mannered - to speak ill of somebody; water proof,
kiss-proof, foolproof - proof against).
18. Prefixation is a morphological process whereby a bound morpheme is
attached to the front of a root or stem.
19. Conversion is a kind of word formation involving the creation of a word (of
a new word class) from an existing word (of a different word class) without any
change in form, which is to say, derivation using only zero.
20. Blend word or ablend is a word formed from parts of two or more other
words. These parts are sometimes, but not always, morphemes.
173
Seminar 9
Typology of lexical level of English and Native Languages
►Classroom activities
Exercise#1. Work in two small groups. Discuss the following question.
Clarify the terms “semantic typology” and “lexical typology”
Exercise#2. Fill the chart below. What branches of lexical typology do you
know?
Lexical typology:
Go round the class and compare your list with other classmates.
Exercise#3. Explain with your own words following terms to your classmates.
Phonetic typology
Phonological typology
Morphological typology
Syntactic typology
Lexical typology
Exercise#4. Discuss the following questions in class.
174
1. How can you define the main unit of lexical level?
2. Howcan a word be distinguished in all languages?
3. What can be understood in the terms of hyperonyms and hyponyms?
4. How can words be subdivided according to meaning?
5. What kind of types of a word can be found in compared languages?
Exercise#8. Match the terms with their definitions.
1...........Simple words
2...........Derived words
3...........Compound words
4...........Compound-derived words
a) consist of two or more root morphemes, one or more affixes and an
inflexion, e.g. “a stay-slim diet”, “an out-of-town performance”, “do-it-yourself principle”.
b) consist of one root morpheme and an inflexion (in many cases the inflexion
is zero), e.g. “red”, “ask”, “leg”;
c) consist of one root morpheme, one or several affixes and an inflexion, e.g.
“ aimless”, “unemployed”, “disbelief”;
d) consist of two or more root morphemes and an inflexion, e.g. “foreignmade”, “red-haired”, “to daydream”;
►Home activities
Exercise#1. Match the definitions.
Typology
deals with the units of lexical levels. It
studies inter-lingual paradigms of words,
inter-lingual invariance of meanings
expressed by words and
Lexical typology
is the study of patterns that occur
systematically across languages
phrases.
175
Semantic typology
is the systematic cross-linguistic study of
how languages express meaning by way of
signs
Exercise#2. As we know according to the nature of borrowings can be
classified in all languages into:
Borrowings
Loan words
Translation
loans
Semantic
loans
Give your own examples:
 A loan word taken over from another proper language can be modified in
phonetic shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning according to the standards of
the language. Example:
RussianUzbek: журнал, театр, роман, армия, сюжет, автобус.
EnglishRussianUzbek:_________________________________
 A translation loans are the words and expressions formed I one language
after the patterns characteristic of it but under the influence of some foreign
words and expressions. For example:
Latin: - “tinge maternal”  mother tongue;
English: ______________________________________________________
Russian: ______________________________________________________
Uzbek:_______________________________________________________
 Semantic borrowings are the appearance of a new meaning due to the
influence of a related word in another language. For instance:
English: mother  Mutter (German)  Madre (Spanish).
Russian: ______________________________________________________
Uzbek: _______________________________________________________
176
Exercise#3. Fill the cluster. According to the nature of borrowings, they can
be classified in all languages into:
Borrowings
Exercise#4.True/False statements.
1. ______Word is the smallest language unit which can stand alone as a
complete utterance.
2. _____Morphologically words can be distinguished monomorphemic and
polysemantic.
3. ______ The word “polysemy” means “plurality of meanings” it exists
only in speech, not in the language.
4. ______Antonyms in all languages can be subdivided into absolute and
derivational.
5. ______According to the structure English words are divided into three
main types.
6. ______ Compounds that contain particles are hyphenated.
7. ______ according to the structure Uzbek words subdivided into two
major types.
8. ______ There are 4 types of compound words in Uzbek.
9. ______ Compound words consist of two or more root morphemes and an
inflexion.
10._____“man”, “mankind”, “human”, “person” is polysemantic words.
►Activities for self-improvement
Exercise#1.
a) In how many ways borrowings enter the language?
b) Give the samples and fill the table below.
177
Oral borrowings:
Written borrowings:
Sombrero (Mex.)
Table, face, figure, chair, sport (Fr.)
Exercise#2. Fill the table: Hand vs. arm, foot vs. leg, finger vs. toe in English,
Russian and Uzbek.
English
Russian
Uzbek
қўл
hand
foot
Нога
бармоқ
toe
Exercise#3. As you know, a loan word taken over from another proper
language can be modified in phonetic shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning
according to the standards of the language. Give examples.
EnglishRussianUzbek:
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
178
RussianUzbek:
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
TOPICS FOR PRESENTATIONS
1. Word is the smallest language unit.
2. Classification of theword according to meaning.
3. The difference between polysemy and homonymy.
4. Structural classification of words.
5. Lexical typology of words according to its structure.
6. Lexical typology of words according to its meaning.
7. Lexical typology of borrowings.
8. Lexical typology of phraseology.
9. Lexical typology of proverbs and sayings.
179
Seminar 10
Typology of lexical level of English and Native Languages
►Classroom activities
Exercise#1. Round table discussion. Divide into four groups and discuss these
problems in groups. In 10 minutes present your topic, after all they make
overall conclusion.
The problem of
hyperonyms and
hyponyms in
compared languages
Clarification of the
terms of polysemy
and homonyms
Comparison of simple
words in compared
languages
Compound words in
English and Native
languages
Exercise#2. Discuss the following questions in mini groups.
2
4
What functions of
affixation in
English and Native
languages do you
know?
1
What is word
formation in
linguistics?
180
3
Give different
ways of word
formation in
compared
languages.
What ways of
compounding are
there in English
and Native
languages?
Exercise#3a. Look at the questions in the chart about ways of word formation
in English, Russian and Uzbek languages. Write your answers first in the
YOU column.
3b. Interview your partner and write his/her answers in your partner column.
Questions
You
Your partner
The ways ofword
formation in modern
English
The ways ofword
formation in modern
Russian
Five main ways of
word formation in
modern Uzbek
3c. compare your answers with your partner's answers.
►Home activities
Exercise#1. Look at the text about similarities and differences of word formation in compared languages. There are 12 mistakes are underlined in it.
Replace them with the correct words from the box below.
origin
independent
prefixing
bound
repetition or reversal
proper
semi-bound
negative
prefixes
full
The main similarity of forming words is having the way of affixing in all
compared languages. And all of them have the subtypes, such as borrowing,
suffixing and prefix-suffix. For example, English prefixes are such particles that
can be prefixed to separate words and it is mostly characteristic for forming verbs.
181
Prefixes can be considered more dependent than suffixes in English. They can be
classified according to the nature of words in which they are used: prefixes used in
notional and functional words. Prefixes used in notional words are irrelevant
prefixes, which are semi-bound morphemes, e.g. re- (rewrite). Prefixes used in
functional words are bound morphemes because they are met in the language as
words, e.g. over- (overprotected) ( cf. over the book ).
Prefixes can be classified according to different principles:
1. Semantic classification:
a) prefixes of positivemeaning, such as: in- (invaluable), non- (nonmorphological), un- (unhappy) etc.
b) prefixes denoting planned actions, such as: de- (deregulate), re- (redo), dis(disappear).
c) prefixes denoting time, space, degree relations, such as : inter- (international) ,
hyper- (hypertension), ex- (ex-friend), pre- (pre-reading), over- (overhead) etc.
2.Usage of prefixes can be classified as follows:
a) native (Germanic), such as: un-, over-, under- etc.
b) Romanic, such as : in-, de-, ex-, re- etc.
c) Greek, such as : sym-, hyper- etc.
Besides, there are a lot of borrowed suffixes in English:
Auto-, Demi-, Mono-, Multi-, Semi-, Post-;
Exercise#2. You are given different classifications of suffixes in English,
Russian and Uzbek languages. According to the classification match the
suffixes with their sub groups.
I. Part-of-speech classification
1. noun-forming suffixes
2. adjective-forming suffixes
3. verb-forming suffixes
4. adverb-forming suffixes
5. numeral-forming suffixes
-ize , -ify, -а-ть, -а, -лан
-able, -less,-ous,-ный-ной,-ли,- и
-er, -ism, -ни ,- ц,-увч , -чили
-teen , -ty, -надцать , -ой (-ый),-та
-ly , -о,-лаб, -она.
II. Semantic classification
1. nationality
2.the agent of the action
3. quality
4.diminutiveness
-ness, -ity,- чан
- dom, -ry, -ship, -ati
- ian, -ese, -ish,- ич, -ли .
-er, -ist, -ent, -о , -чи.
182
5. collectivity
-ie, -let, -ling, -ette.
III. The lexico-grammatical character of the stem.
1. suffixes added to verbal stems
-e,-ly, -ish, -ness,-о ть, -и- ,-ли
2. suffixes added to noun stems
-er, -ing,- т о, -аци , - ич, -ги
3.suffixes added to adjective stems
-less, -ful, -ni-ый, -ный,- ор,гар
Exercise#3. Look at the suffixes in thechart below. Give the examples for each
according to the classification in compared languages.
Part-of-speech
classification
Semantic classification
Lexico-grammatical
character of the stem
1. -ize , -ify, -а-ть, -а, - 1. - dom, -ry, -ship, -ati
лан
Ex.
Ex.
1. -e,-ly, -ish,
о ть, -и- ,-ли
Ex.
-ness,-
2.-able, -less,-ous,-ный- 2. -er, -ist, -ent, -о , -чи.
ной,-ли,-сиз
Ex.
Ex.
2. -er, -ing,- т о, -аци ,
- ич, -ги
Ex.
3. -er, -ism, -ник,-ец,- 3. - ian, -ese, -ish,- ич, - 3. -less, -ful, -ni-ый, увчи, -чилик
ли .
ный,- ор,гар
Ex.
Ex.
Ex.
4. -teen , -ty, -надцать , 4.-ness, -ity,- чан
-ой (-ый),-та
Ex.
Ex.
►Activities for self-improvement
183
Exercise#1. Are these statements true (√) or false (×)? Correct the false
statements.
1. _____Stress interchange is occurred in all compared languages.
2. _____ Sound interchange is one of the ways of productive word formation
3. _____ Sound imitation is the way of word-building when a word is formed
by imitating different sounds.
4. _____ Sounds produced by animals, birds, insects, such as: to hiss, to buzz,
to bark, to moo, to twitter etc; лаять, мычать, щебетать, вовулламоқ,
миёвламоқ, сайрамоқ.
5. _____ Sounds produced by human beings, such as : to splash, to rustle, to
clatter, to bubble, to ding-dong, to tinkle etc; звякать, звенеть, греметь,
тақилламоқ,
шитирламоқ,
тарақ-туруқ.
6. _____ In blends three ways of word-building are combined
7. _____ Back formation is the way of word-building when a word is formed by
dropping the final morpheme to form a new word.
8. _____ One of the Russian non-morphological ways of word formation is
semantic, which can express the similar function with Uzbek semantic way of
forming words.
9. _____ The last distinctive feature of Uzbek language word formation way is
composition, which cannot be found in other compared languages.
10. _____ The main way of word formation in English is considered
compounding, while in Russian and Uzbek it is affixation.
Exercise#2. Check your comprehension on comparative analysis of English
and Native languages word-formation types.
Tick√ what can you understand.
• Can differentiate the ways of word formation in
English, Russian and Uzbek languages
• Can understand differences and similarities of word
formation in compared lamguages.
• Can understand different classifications of suffixes in
English, Russian and Uzbek languages
184
Test yourself on Typology of lexical level of English and Native
Languages
1. What does study Lexical typology?
a) It deals with the meaning of words both lexically and semantically
b) It deals with the units of lexical levels
c) It deals with structural meanings of words
d) It deals with the units of morphological and lexical levels
2. Give definition of the lexical typology…
a) It is a systematic cross-linguistic study of how languages express meaning
by way of signs
b) It is an independent branch of linguistic typology and concerns to every
level of language hierarchy
c) It is an independent branch of linguistic typology and deals with a
comparison of the units of lexical units
d) It is an independent branch of linguistic typology and deals with some
problems of grammar
3. From how many branches Lexical typology consists of?
a) 5
b) 4
c) 6
d) 7
4. What kind of dimensions has Lexical-typological research?
a) Synchronic and diachronic
b) Synchronic and panchronic
c) Diachronic and panchronic
d) Synchronic, diachronic and panchronic
5. What language is considered as asingle-morphemic structure of a word?
a) Russian
b) English
c) Turkish
d) Uzbek
185
6. What is word changing type of forming words in every language?
a) It is a type which includes morphemes of case affixes, personal endings
and etc.
b) It is a type which includes various types of its content and its form
according to its place in the word such affixes and prefixes
c) It is a type which content can be equal to the word
7. To try- a try, round-round, hand- to hand what kind of type of the way of
word forming is it?
a) Word changing
b) Word building
c) Word helping
d) Single-morphemic
8. How many adjective building suffixes exist in order to build adjectives from
nouns?
a) 10
b) 9
c) 20
d) 24
9. What is anagglutinative way of forming words?
a) when affixing morphemes are added to root automatically without
changing its phoneme structure
b) when with adding affixing morphemes their phoneme structure can be
changed
c) when the content can be equal to the word
10.What languages contain a group of adjectives, which characterizes
emotional coloring of diminutively pet meanings?
a) Russian and English
b) English and Uzbek
c) Only Uzbek
d) Russian and Uzbek
11.In what languages are root morphemes equal to the word according to its
sound content?
a) Flective
186
b) Agglutinative
c) Isolating
d) Polysynthetic
12.“Kick the bucket, тарвузи қўлтиғидан тушиб кетди”. What kind of type
of phraseological units are they?
a) Phraseological collocations
b) Phraseological units
c) Phraseological fusions
d) Phraseological idioms
13.What are phraseological collocations?
a) They are the units when one of the words of the phrase has its lexical
meaning and connected to another one
b) They are a relation of words where the content of words don’t have their
lexical meanings
c) They are such kind of phrases where the lexical meaning of a word are
expressed with their own
14.To keep an eye, to kill two birds with one stone, ширин сўз, оғир йигит
into what type of phraseological units they can be included?
a) Phraseological collocations
b) Phraseological units
c) Phraseological fusions
d) Phraseological idioms
15.How in English the meaning of gender may be expressed?
a) Lexical – semantic means
b) Syntactic means
c) The use of suffixes
d) The use of prefix
187
TOPICS FOR PRESENTATIONS
1. Main classifications of word formation in compared languages.
2. Functions of affixation in English and Native languages.
3. Different ways of word formation in compared languages.
4. Ways of compounding in English and Native languages.
5. Word formation typology.
6. Typology of aproductive way of word formation.
7. Typology of thenon-productive way of word formation in English and Native
languages.
8. The role of thesemantic way of word formation in English and Native
languages.
188
VI. Interrelation of Comparative Typology
with anthropocentric trends of Linguistics
6.1. Typology in Modern trends inLinguistics
Key points for discussion:
 Appearance of anthropocentric paradigm
 Understanding the term of “Cognitive science”
 Role of typology in modern trends of linguisitics
It is known that linguistics and variety fields of it were developed in every
period of developing process. Hence, we can observe that in XVIII century, there
were mostly done researches of comparative-historical investigations among
related languages and in the last century collection of anthropocentric, functional,
cognitive and dynamic paradigms occupied the position of structural paradigm.
Movement of interests of researcher from the object of cognition to the subject in
anthropocentric paradigm, with another word it can be understood the analysis of
language in ahuman being and human being in language.
The anthropocentric paradigm is the last and modern scientific paradigm
where the problem of human in language and language in ahuman being is
analyzed, i.e. interrelation of human and language becomes the main object of
linguistic researches. This paradigm appeared in the 30s of the XXth century with
the linguistic works of American philosophers and linguists, and a number of great
linguists all over the world developed it.List of areas are developing in the
anthropocentric paradigm of the modern linguistics such as pragmatics,
sociolinguistics,
ethnolinguistics,
psycholinguistics, linguistic anthropologyand
cognitive linguistics, linguistic culturology and
gender linguistics are considered the urgent
directions of it. Cognitive linguistics investigates
language as amechanism of transformation and
codification of it. The aim of this linguistics
covers the cognition of the world from one's
point of view and ways of appearing of receiving
processes, categorization, and classification of it.
189
According to a number of specialists, cognitive linguistics and
linguaculturology are progressing in the frame of the collection of single general
cognitive sciences [Kubryakova, 1994, 37-47]. The term of “Cognitive science”
includes learning processes jointly, receiving them and reworking, saving and
using, organizing thestructure of knowledge and collection, furthermore, it
arranges collection of a certain scientific thought which is joint for forming the
mental activity of these structures. Cognitive science is closely connected with
mathematics, logic, philosophy, anthropology, and linguistics.
Linguaculturology is a complex scientific science direction appeared on the
basis of inter reaction of linguistics and culturology. This direction investigates
interconnection between culture and language and researches the language as a
phenomenon of culture. It shows the observation of the world in the certain view
by the cultural prism and by a certain nation’s mind and culture.
It is known that the first researches on gender started to be investigated in
western humanitarian sciences. The reason of appearing them was the new views
of investigations of the problems of intelligence, philosophy of science and
philosophy of society.
Specifically, such anchor domains in modern linguistic research as
communication, interaction, culture, habitus, cybernetics, culture, and cognition
can be considered as a target of comparative typology.
Questions for self-control:
1. What can be understood under the term of anthropocentric paradigm?
2. What does “Cognitive science” include?
3. How can the modern trends of the general linguistics be defined?
190
6.2. Typology of cultural concepts of English and Native
languages
Key points for discussion:
 Lingua culture in linguistics.
 Understanding culture and language.
 Cultural concept in compared languages.
Traditionally, theculture was understood in terms of formal or "high" culture
(literature, art, music, and philosophy) and popular or "low" culture. From this
perspective, one main reason for studying a language is to be able to understand
and appreciate the high culture of the people who speak that language. The pop
culture is regarded as inferior and not worthy of study.
Some scientists define culture as an integrated pattern of human behavior
that includes thoughts, communications, languages, practices, beliefs, values,
customs, courtesies, rituals, manners of interacting and roles, relationships and
expected behaviors of a racial, ethnic, religious or social group; and the ability to
transmit the above to succeeding generations.
In this understanding of "deep culture," language and culture are integral to
one another. The structure of language and the ways it is used reflect the norms
and values that members of a culture share. However, they also determine how
those norms and values are shared because language is the means through which
culture is transmitted.
The communicative competence model is based on this understanding of the
relationship between language and culture. Linguistic, discourse, sociolinguistic,
and strategic competence each incorporate facets of culture, and the development
of these competences is intertwined with the development of cultural awareness.
191
"The exquisite connection between the culture that is lived and the language that is
spoken can only be realized by those who possess a knowledge of both" [National
Standards in Foreign Language Education Project, 1999, p. 47].
According toV. N. Telia, culture is described as
a world-conception, world-perception,and worldcomprehension of a people. (This statement does not
certainly deny the material component of culture but
only puts in focus its “ideal” / mental component,
which is much more significant for lingual-cultural
and lingual-cognitive studies.) Therefore, linguaculture is the verbalized culture, the culture
externalized in signs of language. Hence, signs of
language (in the linguistic sense of this term) are
regarded as the substances for signs of culture. Culture
itself is not; however, simply a body of knowledge but rather a framework in
which people live their lives and communicate shared meanings with each other.
Regarding the benefits of learning about theculture, attending the culture class has
raised cultural awareness in ELT students concerning both native and target
societies.
Conceptual researches have an important role as well in linguaculturology as
cognitive linguistics. The Cultural concept is considered as a subject of research of
linguaculturology. In linguaculturology concept can be understood as “culturalmental-lexical” expression.
The Cultural concept is considered as
amultifunctional mental expression. According to the
opinion of Yu. S. Stepanov concept is a part of the
culture in the mind of ahuman being and with this, he
includes the culture into the mental world of ahuman
being [Stepanov, 1997, 40-76]. The dyad of “language
and human being” of anthropocentric paradigm
changes into the construction of “language-human
being-culture” in linguaculturology.As an example,
the concept of “love” can be analyzed from thelinguacultural point of view.The concept “love” itself has
broad sense and it can be interpreted with avariety of notions and conceptions from
acultural point of view. Hence, if we see it from aphilosophical point of view, this
concept can be analyzed as thetracident-social-financial level in different nation
192
and culture. Besides, the national-cultural features of this concept explicitly shown
in the literature and poetry of variety nations. For example, in Western nations, this
concept is devoted to human being with great passion and feelings, but in Eastern
poetry mostly the great love is devoted to God from areligious point of view.
The word “квас”in Russian is used as a component in the phraseological
unit “перебиваться с хлеба на квас на воду” with the meaning “live from hand
to mouth”, be extremely poor”. Kvass (квас) is a national drink made from rye
bread and malt.Phraseological units containing such national components also exist
in the English language. For example, the name of the English river Avon is a
component of the phraseological expression “Sweet Swan of Avon” [Koonin
1984:738]. In Uzbek, mostly “green tea” is considered as anational component in
such examples as “бир пиёла чой устида”with the meaning of pleasant
conversation or discussion of a serious issue.
There can be observed linguaculturological analysis of the category of
possessiveness in the culture of languages belonging to the different language
systems like English and Uzbek. One can witness the culture of English and Uzbek
nation with the national-coloring phraseological units expressed by the category of
possessiveness. In the following circumstances possessiveness with expressing
national-cultural features can be formed in English:

Mostly, in phrases expressed with possessive pronouns, although it is
known that British country is amonarchy and here can be seen the units showing
this monarchial culture of this country in the context: My Fair Lady, Your
Highness, His Master's Voice.

Naming with possessive units the names of stores, restaurants,
churches, colleges with names of their owners or with names of their profession:
the grocer's, the chemist's, Luigi's.
There is also arange of phrases, which convey national-coloring
features of Uzbek nation:

Possessive relations can be formed by possessive pronouns and with дир short form of notional verb “бор бўлмоқ” (to be):Мен Зарифаман, биз
инсондирмиз!

Possessiveness can be expressed with the notions of respect which
characterizes one of the features of Uzbek nation. For instance, in such phrases like
“ҳурматли президентимиз” (“our respectful president”), “меҳрибон отамиз”
(“our kind father”) one can observe joining of possessive affix of the third person
plural to the third person singular. Such way of uttering characterizes great respect
193
to these people in the culture of Uzbek and East people. Moreover, it is considered
like thedistinctive side of this nation.

Possessiveness can also be used in expressing irony in the Uzbek
culture. Furthermore, in such phrases as “тақдиримиз шу экан”, “ҳа, энди
дилимиздаги кўриниб турибди” first person singular is expressed with the form
of first person plural. Changing the places of affixes of plurality and singularity
also can be observed in the languages as Uzbek.
The differences of linguaculturological features of the category of
possessiveness between English and Uzbek can be illustrated essentially in Uzbek
culture. In such situations like governing in the family relations, in therelationship
of family members and while speaking about them or in the process of addressing
to them the power of possessing above family members shows the culture of
Uzbek people. Because such kind of relationship in British family and in their
culture cannot be characterized.
In linguaculturology, it is requested to investigate cultural picture of the
world together with complex mores in the language. There is a list of
circumstances in investigating the cultural picture of the world, which is
introduced by a number of specialists (such as N. Terebixin, V. Toporova, G.
Gachev):
1) Cultural world picture includes all humankind and their distinctive
features in the language.
2) In the cultural world picture, cultural notions, which are used and kept in
the language, cultural-traditional dominants, concepts that create certain types of
culture, can be observed.
3) Cultural world picture cannot express universal understanding in the
frame of one language culture. Because various nations can have various mores.
4) Cultural world picture exists not only in the individual cognizance but
also in social cognizance. [Karasik, 1996, 5].
Linguaculturology shows the separation of cultural world picture from the
universal picture of theworld from the linguistic point of view.
Questions for self-control:
1.
2.
How “culture” can be interpreted in anthropocentric paradigm?
How can you define the term “cultural concept”?
194
3.
What kind of characteristics of national colouring features of
phraseological units can be compared in typology?
4.
How can cultural world picture be classified?
RecommendedLiteratures
1.
Ma’rufovZ.M., O’zbektiliningizohlilug‘atiI-II, M., Russkiyyazik,
1981, p. 63, 97, 110.
2.
Weedon, Chris Feminist Practice and Poststructuralist Theory.
Oxford: Basil Blackwell. 2nd edn. 1996.
3.
Маслова В. А. М 31 Лингвокультурология: Учеб. пособие для
студ. высш. учеб, заведений. -- М., «Академия», 2001, C. 35.
4.
Матушка-Русь: Опыт гендерного анализа поисков национальной
идентичности России в отечественной и западной историософии. М.:
Ладомир, 2001. C. 25.
5.
National Standards in Foreign Language Education Project. Standards
for foreign language learning in the 21st century. Yonkers, NY: Author. 1999.
195
6.3. Typology in Gender Linguistics of English and Native
languages
Key points for discussion:
 Interconnection of gender and language.
 Features of the term “gender”.
 Characteristics of male and female characters.
In linguistics, the new directions of anthropocentric paradigm have been
developing in recent years and gender linguistics can be included in this
development. It is known that the first researches on gender started to be
investigated in western humanitarian sciences. The reason of appearing them was
the new views of investigations of the problems of intelligence, philosophy of
science and philosophy of society. “Gender” is considered the main object of
genderology. It includes anational description of cultures, the roles of male and
female in society and their relationship and behavior.
Post-structuralism has provided a major challenge to essentialist notions of
gender and has been crucial in the developing understanding of gender.With its
emphasis on the constitutive nature of discourse, it has thoroughly informed
linguistic study – and indeed has been largely responsible for the “linguistic turn”
in many other disciplines.Chris Weedon famously characterized language as ‘the
place where actual and possible forms of social organization and their likely social
and political consequences are defined and contested. Yet it is also the place where
our sense of selves, our subjectivity is constructed’ [Weedon,1987, 21].
196
In addition, the term “gender” is considered as one of the problematic
concepts in this direction of linguistics. The main attention of linguists was paid to
distinguish the terms of “gender” and “sex”. Cameron points out that a
‘correlational’ relationship between sex and gender is usually seen in one of two
possible ways: first, that gendered behavior is ‘built on’ to pre-existing sex
differences, and, second, that the sex-gender relationship may be arbitrary, but that
there will always be gender differences in behavior, which then come to
“symbolize” sex (1997p). This sex–gender relationship entails differences or
tendencies in what women and men do and say, stemming from the notion of
gender as an idea about the importance of differentiation between women and
men.“Gender refers to the array of socially constructed roles and relationships,
personality traits, attitudes, behaviors, values, relative power and influence that
society ascribes to the two sexes on a differential
basis. Whereas biological sex is determined by
genetic and anatomical characteristics, gender is an
acquired identity that is learned, changes over time
and varies widely within and across cultures. Gender
is relational and refers not simply to women or men
but to the relationship between them”. O.V. Ryabov
explains the relationship of these two terms as one
whole and part: “Sex is biological, consists of
sociocultural sex with sociocultural elements. That is
why “gender” and “sex” is appeared as “whole and
part”.
Genderological analysis of a language can serve in understanding not only
its anthropocentric paradigm but also its male and
female peculiarities. The opinion of V.A.Maslova can
be anexample for this understanding: “human being
can receive themajority of data through linguistic
frequency, therefore human lives in his own world
created by himself with intellectual, spiritual and social
need concepts than the world of things”. Moreover,
through gender humanity can understand and evaluate
the existence as individual and collective
consciousness, they can investigate flamboyant
relationships of ahuman being based on relations
197
between male and female. Thus, gender as a meaningful source identifies all
sociocultural sides of human’s life.
According to Jane Sunderland gender can be
found and can be analyzed in the following contexts:
The list below represents a starting point:

in differences between women and men,
boysand girls;

in similarities between women and men,
boys and girls;

in diversity within women, within men,
within boys, within girls;

in aspects of linguistic dealings with
(individual, and groups of) women, men, boys, and
girls, for example, how they are addressed, what is said
to them(‘hearer sex’);

in aspects of what is said and written about
gender
differences/tendencies,similarities,
and
diversity;

in aspects of what is said and written about
(individual, and groups of) women,men, boys and girls
(the assumption being that gender may be relevant in
suchspoken and written texts).
Gender can be observed in the vocabulary of every nation. Male and female
characteristics are reflected in phraseological units and proverbs in the vocabulary
of different ethnos and cultures. As an example, a number of groups of
phraseological units can be used for comparison of genderological features of three
languages:

a list of phraseological units can be related only male features such
as:general’s
battle,
brother
of
the
angle
→
шутгороховый,
рыцарьбезстрахаиупрека→ қулоғидакункўринибқопти, жонкуйдирмасанг жононақайда.

a list of phraseological units can be related only male features such
as:lady of the house, one’s good lady, → подругажизни, талияврюмочку→
онасиўпмаган, аёлмакриқирқтуягаюк.
Another example can be observed in thehidden sematic form of
possessiveness:
198
o
Phraseological units with the peculiarities of male and female
appearances and their characters that cannot be met in the language system of other
cultures or nations and their possessive concepts have hidden semantic
distinctiveness. For instance, English “May Queen” (May-queen a young woman
crowned with flowers as queen on Mayday, hyponyms can be filled, girl, miss,
missy, young lady, young woman, i.e. the full structure of “May Queen” is “Queen
of the May”, and obviously the hidden form of possessiveness can be observed
here).“Girl Friday” ( it is a female employee who has a wide range of duties,
usually including secretarial and clerical work, originally by extension, from the
character Man Friday in Robinson Crusoe, and structurally it is “girl (man) of
Friday”). In Uzbek “устасифаранг” (expert of his work), “бекойим” (mother or
wife of beks (landlords) and form of addressing to them), the structural form of
possessiveness is “бекнингонаси” and others.
o
Phraseological units of male and female characters, which can be
observed in lexicology of most languages. For example, in Uzbek “эркаксабзи”
or “эркакшода” is used for women who do the work of men and in appearance.
Also, looks like a man, or in English, the equivalent of this phrase can be “blue
stocking” (an intellectual or literary woman originally late XVIIth century:
originally used to describe a man wearing blue worsted (instead of formal black
silk) stockings; extended to mean 'in aninformal dress'. Later the term denoted a
person who attended the literary assemblies held (circa1750) by three London
society women, where some of the men favored less formal dress. The women who
attended became known as bluestocking women or blue-stockingers). However, in
Russian, there are such characteristics of thefemale character. Instead of this, they
interpret female as ascandalous creature as базарнаябабаor androcentric metaphor
like аппетитнаяженщинаetc.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Questions for self-control:
What are the main reasons of appearing gender linguistics?
With what gender typology can be dealt?
How can you define the term “gender”?
What can gender features be compared ingender typology?
Recommended Literature:
1.
Cameron, Deborah ‘Review: Deborah Tannen: You Just Don’t
Understand! Women and Men in Conversation’, Feminism and Psychology 2 (3):
465–89.
199
2.
Jane Sunderland Language and Gender: An advanced resource book
2006 385p
3.
Ma’rufov Z.M., O’zbek tilining izohli lug‘ati I-II, M., Russkiy yazik,
1981, p. 63, 97, 110.
4.
Weedon, Chris Feminist Practice, and Poststructuralist Theory.
Oxford: Basil Blackwell. 2nd edn. 1996.
5.
Маслова В. А. М 31 Лингвокультурология: Учеб. пособие для
студ. высш. учеб, заведений. -- М., «Академия», 2001, C. 35.
6.
Матушка-Русь: Опыт гендерного анализа поисков национальной
идентичности России в отечественной и западной историософии. М.:
Ладомир, 2001. C. 25.
7.
Карасик, Культурные доминанты в языке // Языковая личность:
культурные концепты. Волгоград - Архангельск, 1996.
8.
КирилинаА.В.
Исследование гендера в лингвистических
научных дисциплинах // Гендерные образование в системе высшей и средней
школы: состояние и перспективы: Материалы международной научной
конференции, Иваново, 2003.
Topics for self-study
1. The role of typology in modern trends of linguistics.
2. Comparative typology and Methods of Teaching the English language
3. Comparative typology and Lingua culture
4. Comparative typology and Gender linguistics
5. Comparative typology and concepts
200
LIST OF THE KEY WORDS OF UNDERSTANDING THE COURSE OF
COMPARATIVE TYPOLOGY OF ENGLISH AND NATIVE LANGUAGE
Typology in Modern trends of linguistics
1.
Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary, scientific study of the mind and
its processes. It examines the nature, the tasks, and the functions of cognition.
2.
Anthropocentric is interpreting or regarding the world in terms of human
values and experiences.
3.
Paradigm is an example serving as a model; apattern or is a distinct set of
concepts or thought patterns, including theories, research methods, postulates, and
standards for what constitutes legitimate contributions to a field.
4.
Categorization is the process in which ideas and objects are recognized,
differentiated, and understood. It implies that objects are grouped into categories,
usually for some specific purpose.
5.
Pragmatics is a subfield of linguistics and semiotics that studies the ways in
which context contributes to meaning.
6.
Anthropology is the study of various aspects of humans within societies of
the past and present.
7.
Cultural anthropology is a branch of anthropology focused on the study of
cultural variation among humans and is in contrast to social anthropology, which
perceives cultural variation as a subset of the anthropological constant.
8.
Linguistic anthropology is the interdisciplinary study of how language
influences social life. It is a branch of anthropology that originated from the
endeavor to document endangered languages and has grown over the past century
to encompass most aspects of language structure and use.
9.
Sociolinguistics is the descriptive study of the effect of any and all aspects
of society, including cultural norms, expectations, and context, on the way
language is used, and the effects of language use on society.
10. Ethnolinguistics (sometimes called cultural linguistics) is a field of
linguistics, which studies the relationship between language and culture, and the
way different ethnic groups perceive the world. It is the combination between
ethnology and linguistics.
11. Psycholinguistics or psychology of language is the study of the
psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use,
comprehend and produce language.
12. Cognitive linguistics refers to the branch of linguistics that interprets
language in terms of the concepts, sometimes universal, sometimes specific to a
201
particular tongue, which underlies its forms. It is thus closely associated with
semantics but is distinct from psycholinguistics, which draws upon empirical
findings from cognitive psychology in order to explain the mental processes that
underlie the acquisition, storage, production and understanding of speech and
writing.
13. Habitus is a system of embodied dispositions, tendencies that organize the
ways in which individuals perceive the social world around them and react to it.
14. Cybernetics is a transdisciplinary approach for exploring regulatory
systems, their structures, constraints, and possibilities. In the 21st century, the term
is often used in a rather loose way to imply "control of any system using
technology."
15. Communicative competence is a term in linguistics which refers to a
language user's grammatical knowledge of syntax, morphology, phonology and the
like, as well as social knowledge about how and when to use utterances
appropriately.
16. World view or worldview is the fundamental cognitive orientation of an
individual or society encompassing the entirety of the individual or society's
knowledge and point of view.
17. Linguistic World Picture is a part of the cognitive paradigm in linguistics.
It is used in analyzing natural languages.
18.
In sociolinguistics and other social sciences, gender refers to sexual identity
in relation to culture and society. The ways in which words are used can both
reflect and reinforce social attitudes toward gender. In the U.S., the
interdisciplinary study of language and gender was initiated by linguistics
professor Robin Lakoff in her book Language and Woman's Place (1975).
19. Gender studies is a field for interdisciplinary study devoted to gender
identity and gendered representation as central categories of analysis. This field
includes women's studies (concerning women, feminism, gender, and politics),
men's studies and queer studies. Sometimes, gender studies are offered together
with thestudy of sexuality. These disciplines study gender and sexuality in the
fields of literature, language, geography, history, political science, sociology,
anthropology, cinema, media studies, human development, law, and medicine. It
also analyzes how race, ethnicity, location, class, nationality, and disability
intersect with the categories of gender and sexuality.
20.
Gender relations are encoded in linguistic and symbolic representations,
normative concepts, social practices, institutions and social identities.
202
Seminar 11
Typology in Modern trends of linguistics
►Classroom activities
Exercise#1. Work in groups. Discuss the following question.
What is the role of Typology in Modern trends of linguistics?
Exercise#2. Match the Dates with the right investigations.
1. XVIII century
a. The
appeared
anthropocentric
2. the 30s of the XXth century
b. Investigations in
typology was developed
paradigm
comparative
Exercise#3a. As we know, the concept of linguaculturology can be understood
as “cultural-mental-lexical” expression. Clearly, linguacultualogy means
cultural behavior of any nation and some phrases appear from the cultural
spirit of a nation (for example,the word “квас” in Russian is used as a component
in the phraseological unit “перебиватьсясхлебанакваснаводу” with the meaning
“live from hand to mouth”, be extremely poor”. Kvass (квас) is a national drink
made from rye bread and malt. Phraseological units containing such national
components also exist in the English language. For example, the name of the
English river Avon is a component of the phraseological expression “Sweet Swan
of Avon”. In Uzbek, mostly “green tea” is considered as anational component in
such examples as “бир пиёла чой устида” with the meaning of pleasant
conversation or discussion of a serious issue).
Based on the above-mentioned samples find out national coloring words,
which can be asymbol of theculture of compared languages.
203
English
Russian
Uzbek
b. Go round the class and compare your list with the group. Add by one
interesting phrase from other students. Discuss the reasons why do you think
so with the group.
Exercise#4. Collect the modernly developed areas of the anthropocentric
paradigm of the modern linguistics to the following table.
anthropocentric
paradigm
►Home activities
Exercise#1. Gender can be observed in the vocabulary of every nation. Male
and female characteristics are reflected in phraseological units and proverbs
in the vocabulary of different ethnos and cultures. As an example, a number
204
of groups of phraseological units can be used for comparison of
genderological features of three languages. Learn the following phrases and
continue the list with your own examples:
 a list of phraseological units can be related only male features such as:
general’s battle, brother of the angle → шутгороховый,
рыцарьбезстрахаиупрека
→
қулоғидакункўринибқопти,
жонкуйдирмасанг - жононақайда.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
__________________________________
 a list of phraseological units can be related only male features such as:
lady of the house, one’s good lady, →
подругажизни,
талияврюмочку → онасиўпмаган, аёлмакриқирқтуягаюк.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
__________________________________
Exercise#2. Summarizing the topic, "Typology in Modern trends of
linguistics" complete the following table with your ideas that you thought
about the topic before and what are you thinking about it now?
205
Before
After
Exercise#3. Basing on the results of your notes of "After" in Exercise 8
prepare 5 minutes report presentation.
►Activities for self-improvement
Exercise#1. Complete the text with the right word from a box.
Linguaculturology Cognitive science phenomenon
mechanism
of
transformation
Cognitive linguistics investigates language as ______________________
and codification of it. The aim of this linguistics covers the cognition of the world
from one's point of view and ways of appearing of receiving processes,
categorization, and classification of it. The term of “Cognitive science” includes
learning processes jointly, receiving them and reworking, saving and using,
organizing thestructure of knowledge and collection, furthermore, it arranges
collection of a certain scientific thought which is joint for forming the mental
activity of these structures. _____________________is closely connected with
mathematics, logic, philosophy, anthropology and linguistics. However,
___________________is a complex scientific science direction appeared in the
basis of inter reaction of linguistics and culturology. This direction investigates
interconnection between culture and language, and researches the language as a
_________________of culture. It shows the observation of the world in the certain
view by the cultural prism and by a certain nation’s mind and culture.
Exercise#2. Read the statements below and choose whether they are True or
False.
206
1. “Gender” is considered the main object of genderology, which includes
aninternational description of cultures, the roles of male and female in society and
their relationship and behavior.
True/False
2. Chris Weedon famously characterized language as ‘the place where actual and
possible forms of social organization and their likely social and political
consequences are defined and contested.
True/False
3. The term “gender” is considered as one of the problematic concepts in this
direction of linguistics.
True/False
4. Yu.Stepanov points out that a ‘correlational’ relationship between sex and
gender is usually seen in one of two possible ways: first, that gendered behavior is
‘built on’ to pre-existing sex differences, and, second, that the sex-gender
relationship may be arbitrary, but that there will always be gender differences in
behavior, which then come to “symbolize” sex.
True/False
5. Genderological analysis of a language can serve in understanding not only its
anthropocentric paradigm but also its male and female peculiarities.
True/False
Test yourself on Interrelation of typology with anthropocentric
trends of linguistic
1. In XVIII century, there were mostly done researches of comparativehistorical investigations among related languages and in the last century
collection of ........................... paradigms occupied the position of structural
paradigm.
a) anthropocentric, functional
b) functional, cognitive and dynamic
c) functional, cognitive
d) anthropocentric, functional, cognitive and dynamic
2. The anthropocentric paradigm appeared...
a) in the 30s of the XXth century
b) in the 40s of the XXth century
c) in the 50s of the XXth century
207
d) in the XIXth century
3. Cognitive linguistics investigates language as mechanism of
a) codification and classification of it
b) categorization and classification of it
c) transformation and codification of it
d) transformation and categorization of it
4. Linguaculturology is…
a) complex linguistic science direction appeared in the basis of
reaction of linguistics and culturology
b) b complex scientific science direction appeared in the basis of
reaction of linguistics and culturology
c) complex scientific science direction appeared on the basis of
reaction of culture and linguistics
d) complex scientific science direction appeared on the basis of
reaction of linguistics and literature
inter
inter
inter
inter
5. The communicative competence model is based on...
a) this understanding of the relationship between language and culture
b) literature, art, music, and philosophy
c) the high culture of the people who speak that language
d) the pattern of human behavior that includes thoughts,
communications, languages, practices, beliefs
6. According to V. Telia, culture is described as a ...
a) world-conception, world-perception, and world-comprehension of a
people
b) world-conception, world- connection of a people
c) world-conception, world- connection and world- competence of a
people
d) world-conception, world-perception, and world- practices of a people
7. Lingua-culture is...
a) the verbalized art, the culture externalized in signs of language
b) the verbalized culture, the culture externalized in signs of language
c) the verbalized culture, the culture internalized in signs of language
208
d) the verbalized cultural awareness, the culture externalized in signs of
language
8.
In linguaculturology concept can be understood as…
a. “cultural-grammaticall-lexical” expression
b. "grammatical-mental-lexical” expression
c. “cultural-mental-grammatical” expression
d. “cultural-mental-lexical” expression
9. “Sex is biological, consists of sociocultural sex with sociocultural elements.
That is why “gender” and “sex” is appeared as “whole and part” explains ...
a)
b)
c)
d)
V.A.Maslova
O.V. Ryabov
Jane Sunderland
Yu. S. Stepanov
10.In Western nations, the concept "love" is devoted to…
a) a human being with great passion and feelings
b) great love is devoted to God
c) love devoted to parents
d) love that is devoted to children
11. Cognitive science is closely connected with...
a) anthropology, ethno linguistics, mathematics
b) sociolinguistics, ethno linguistics, psycholinguistics
c) mathematics, logic, philosophy, anthropology, and linguistics
d) philosophy of science, anthropology, and linguistics
12. In Uzbek “эркаксабзи” or “эркакшода” in English can be the equivalent...
a) landlord
b) blue stocking
c) brother of the angle
d) black-stocking
209
13. ... refers to the array of socially constructed roles and relationships,
personality traits, attitudes, behaviors, values, relative power and influence
that society ascribes to the two sexes on a differential basis
a) sex
b) gender logical analysis
c) existence
d) gender
14. The first researches on gender started to be investigated in ... humanitarian
sciences.
a)
b)
c)
d)
eastern
south-western
western
both southern and western
15.… includes anational description of cultures, the roles of male and female in
society and their relationship and behavior
a) gender
b) culture
c) linguistics
d) biological sex
TOPICS FOR PRESENTATIONS
1. The appearance of anthropocentric paradigm.
2. Understanding the term of “Cognitive science”.
3. The role of typology in modern trends of linguistics.
4. Lingua culture in linguistics.
5. Understanding culture and language.
6. Typology of cultural concept in compared languages.
7. Characteristics of national colouring features of phraseological units in
compared languages.
8. Interconnection of gender and language.
9. Characteristics of male and female characters.
10. Comparison of gender features in compared languages.
210
Answer keys
Seminar 1
Comparative typology as a branch of General Linguistics
►Classroom activities
Exercise #4. Read the statements below and choose whether they are True or
False.
11.True
12.False
13.False
14. False
15.True
16.True
17.True
18.True
19.False
20. False
►Home activities
Exercise #1. Read the statements below and choose whether they are True or
False.
7. True
8. False
9. True
10.True
11.False
12.True
Exercise #2. Complete the table according to their classification of linguistic
typology.
According to 2 plans of
language
According to subject of
comparison
Formal
Genetic
Semantic
Structural
According to levels of
language hierarchy
Phonetic, phonological
Morphological
211
Comparative
Lexical
Areal
Syntactic
Exercise #3. Read the statements below and match them with the appropriate
answers.
Typology does not deal with a limited number of languages. If it does, then it
should be called “characterology” or “comparative description. Uspenskiy
Material similarity means similarities of words that are similar in meaning
and morphemes in compared languages. Maslow
In the last seven or eight years, the “Port Royal Grammar” has been
discussed more often in the English speaking world than at any other time
since its publication more than three hundred years ago. Kretsmann
Typology consists of structural, comparative and genetic typology. The task of
structural typology consists of language universals, typological classification
of the languages, typological theory and work out methods to create etalon
language.Buranov
It would be wrong to identify comparative researches of two languages with
typology.Guhman
►Activities for self-improvement
Exercise #1. Read and fill the gaps with the given words below.
The problem of the type language was firstly discussed by romantics, the
representators of romanticism which were at the end of XVIII and in the beginning
of XIX century. Romantics considered that “the spirit of the nationmay be
displayed in myth in art, literature and in the language. V.Gumbold began to
examine the types of the Languagesas a display of “the spirit of the nation”. The
division of the languages to flaxsive and affix by the German linguist Fridrih
Shlegel was the first attempt to create atypological classification of the language.
From the history of linguistic studies, such typologicalclassification of languages
offered by August William, V.Gumbold, A.Shleyher, G.Steyntal, F.Misteli and
other linguists were formed. Now topologists are trying to find the ways of
creating amore informative classification of the languages like periodical systems
of Mendeleyev.
212
Seminar#2
Comparative typology as a branch of General
Linguistics
►Classroom activities
Answers can be varied.
►Home activities
Exercise #1. Complete the following definitions with the types of typology
from the box:
Comparative typology
Genetic typology
Areal typology
Structural typology
1. Areal typology is a branch of linguistics that studies (using the methods of
linguistic geography) distribution of linguistic phenomena in the spatial extent
and interlingual (interdialectic) interaction.
2. Comparative typology is one of the branches of General Linguistic typology.
It deals with thecomparison of languages irrespectively of their genetic or
structural identity.
3. Genetic typology is a branch of linguistic typology, which studies the similarities, and differences of originally related languages.
4. Structural typology is the major branch of Linguistic typology and aims to
identify structural language types.
Exercise #2. Circle the correct answer.
1. Who said that Areal typology compares languages irrespectively of the
degree of their relatedness and aims at defining general elements formed as
a result of themutual influence of languages and the cultures staying
behind them?
a. V.K.GhaK
b. D.J.Buranov*
c. Yu.V.Rojdestvenskiy
d. M.m.Guhman
2. What includes objects of study Areal typology?
213
a. borrowings, bi-lingual features, hybrid languages, language contacts
b. dialects, centum/satem languages, compiling dialectal maps
c. sub-stratum and super-stratum languages, neologisms, archaisms
d. *all answers are true
3. What studies Areal typology?
a. dialects and restrictions of dissemination of separate features in the systems
of related and non-related languages, theconfluence of different languages
b. dialects and restrictions of dissemination of separate features in the systems
of related and non-related languages
c. *dialects, centum/satem languages, compiling dialectal maps
d. sub-stratum and super-stratum languages, neologisms, archaisms
4. With what deals Comparative typology?
a. With thedistribution of linguistic phenomena in the spatial extent and
interlingua (interdialectic) interaction
b. with the similarities, and differences of originally related languages
c. With the aims of identifying structural language types
d. *with comparison of languages irrespectively of their genetic or structural
identity
5. What is the goal of Structural typology?
a. To include discrete sound segments like p, n, or a, which can be defined by a
finite set of sound properties or features
b. to identify structural language types
c. identifying common/similar features specific to systems of all or separate
language groups
d. *to identify universal features of languages
►Activities for self-improvement
Exercise #1. Read the statement below and find some mistakes among them.
Typology is a branch of science which is typical to all sciences without any
exception. In this respect, their typological method is not limited to the sphere of
one science. Typology may be divided into:Non-linguistic typology, Linguistic
typology, Paralinguistic typology.
214
Non-linguistic typology is the subject matter of the sciences except linguistics. It
can be political typology, medical or economic typology as well. Linguistic
typology is a new branch of general linguistic, which studies the systems of
languages comparatively, also finds common laws of languages and establishes
differences and similarities between them. And due to David Crystal’s book
“Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics”, Non- linguistic Typology is explained
in this way: “A branch of linguistics which studies the structural similarities
between languages, regardless of their history, as part of an attempt to establish a
satisfactory classification, or typology, of languages. The typological comparison
is thus distinguished from the historical comparison of languages and its groupings
can coincide with those set up by the historical method”. Nowadays many terms
are used for defining this very type of science, such as Linguistic Typology,
Comparative Typology, Contrastive Typology. But with the help of analyzing
historical background, we’ll be able to realize the main notion of this branch of
Linguistics. Typology is understood as a science of a whole comparison that has a
large number of factors of its development. However, if it is described as a
structural typology, then numbers of factors of its appearance will diminish. As
Maslow said: “Typology does not deal with a limited number of languages. If it
does, then it should be called “characterlogy” or “comparative description”. Since
the number of languages typology deals with cannot be counted, languages are
referred as an unlimited number of languages. The development of typology was
very slow. It has several factors that influence to its development which are but not
limited to typological imitation, “Port Royal Grammar”, historical comparative
linguistics, theprocess of studying of languages without awriting system,
theinfluence of writing, phonetics and practical and theoretical study of languages.
Test yourself on Comparative Typology as a branch of General
Linguistics
1. General typology combines two types of typologies
a) *Linguistic and non-linguistic
b) Lexical and Semantic
c) Structural and Areal
d) Phonetic and Phonological
2. Non-linguistic typology as a method of comparison serves in…
a) *All sciences besides linguistics
215
b) Linguistics
c) Literature
d) General Linguistics and Literature
3. …deals with the languages which are genetically related both synchronically
and diachronically
a) *Genetic Typology
b) Areal Typology
c) Comparative Typology
d) Structural Typology
4. Linguistic Typology deals with …
a) *Language systems in comparison
b) Psychology
c) Mathematics
d) Literature
5. According to the object of comparison Linguistic Typology consists of:
a) *Genetic, comparative, areal, structural
b) Semantic, formal
c) Syntactic, structural, areal, lexical
d) Phonetic, phonological, morphological, syntactic, lexical
6. Comparative method has …
a) *Universal features
b) Typological investigation
c) Grammatical features
d) General features
7. Internal approach to language description deals with…
a) *The system of any concrete national language
b) Non-related languages
c) Related languages
d) All languages
8. External approach to language description deals with…
a) *The cross-language description
216
b) All languages
c) Non-related languages
d) Related languages
9. Comparative-historical linguistics is…
a) *Comparative-historical studies of languages in their development
b) Comparative-scientific studies of languages in their development
c) Content approach to comparison
d) One – level approach to comparison
10. Diachronic development means the development of some linguistic phenomena
from…
a) *From historical viewpoint
b) Modern viewpoint
c) Linguistic viewpoint
d) Grammatical viewpoint
11. The first period is named spontaneous which was over …
a) * Not long before the Renaissance
b) In the XI century
c) In the XX century
d) In the XIV century
12. Division of Linguistic Typology with respect to two plans of language:
a) *Formal, semantic
b) Comparative, structural, areal, genetic
c) Phonetic, phonological, morphological, syntactic, lexical
d) Formal, semantic, areal, genetic
13. Port-Royal grammar is considered to be …
a) A *universal grammar
b) Practical grammar
c) Theoretical grammar
d) English grammar
14. When was Port-Royal grammar written
a) *1660
217
b) 2009
c) 1700
d) 1669
15. What did Mahmud Kashgariy do by analyzing a group of Turkic languages
a) *He defined the level of their genetic relationship to each other
b) He found out Language Universals
c) He analyzed the lexical units of all Turkic languages
d) He compared all language of the world
218
Seminar#3
Typology of phonetic and phonological level of English and
Native languages
►Classroom activities
Answers can be varied.
►Home activities
Exercise#1. Write 4 main aspects of PHONETICS and match them with the
paragraphs below:
PHONETICS
1 Articulatory Phonetics
2 Acoustic Phonetics
3. Auditory Phonetics
4. Functional Phonetics
Exercise#2. Read and fill in the gaps:
Comparative phonetics, Segmental phonology, Specific phonetics,Suprasegmental
phonology andGeneral phonetics.
Phonetics can be divided into several types like:
1. General phonetics
2. Specific phonetics
3. Comparative phonetics
4. Segmental phonology
5. Suprasegmental phonology
►Activities for self-improvement
Exercise#1. Read the statements below and choose whether they are True or
False.
219
11.False
12.True
13.False
14.False
15.True
16.False
17.False
18.False
19.False
20.True
220
Seminar#4
Typology of phonetic and phonological level of English and
Native Languages
►Classroom activities
Answers can be varied.
Exercise#3. Stress can be divided into all compared languages. a) in small
groups complete the clusters.
In English:
Stress
Word stress
Syntagmatic stress
Utterance stress
Logic stress
Emphatic stress
In Russian:
Stress
Place of stress
Manner of division
Dynamic stress
Fixed stress
Free stress
Strong stress
Free located
Weak stress
Free movable
Quantitative stress
Melodic stress
In Uzbek:
221
Stress
Word stress
According to the
phonetic feature
According to the
place
Dynamic
stress
Free stress
Quantitative
stress
Linked stress
Typical tonic
stress
Musical stress
According to the
movement
Moveable
stress
Unmovable
stress
Syntagmatic stress
Utterance stress
Logic stress
Emphatic stress
3b) Compare completed clusters and find 3 similarities, differences and
distinctive features of the stress in 3 languages.
222
►Home activities
Exercise#1. Complete the table and Compare vowels according to the tongue
position in 3 languages:
fron
t vowel
English
Uzbek
Russian
[i: e
ǽ]
[и,
э]
[и],
[э]
frontretracted
vowel
[i]
cent
ral vowels
back
vowels
[Λ ә:
ә]
[ў]
[a: o
o: u:]
[a, у,
o]
[у],
[о]
-
[ы],
[а]
-
backadvanced
vowel
[u]
-
Exercise#2. Compare Uzbek, Russian and English vowels according to the
vertical position of the tongue.
Uzbek
Russian
narrow
[и, у]
[и], [ы], [у]
mid
[э, o, ў]
[э], [о]
broad
[a]
[а]
►Activities for self-improvement
Answers can be varied.
Test yourself on Typology of phonetic and phonological level of English and
Native languages
1. The smallest unit of sound distinguishing meaning is called a ...
a) *phoneme
b) Morpheme
c) allophone
d) phone
2. A fricative and an affricate differ in ...
a) *pressure phase and friction phase
223
b) Nothing
c) place of articulation
e) the manner of articulation
3. A voiced and a voiceless sound differ in ...
e) There is no difference
f) aspiration
g) the direction of the air stream
h) *vocal chord action
4. In which of these words is the vowel the shortest?
e) bean
f) bead
g) bee
h) beat
5. … which is mainly concerned with the functioning of phonetic units in the
language.
e) segmental phonetics;
f) practical phonetics;
g) suprasegmental phonetics;
h) *theoretical phonetics.
6. The branch of phonetics that studies the linguistic function of consonant and
vowel sounds, syllable structure, word accent and prosodic features, such as
pitch, stress, and tempo is called …
e) *phonology;
f) instrumental phonetics;
g) practical phonetics;
h) theoretical phonetics;
7. … studies the larger units of connected speech syllables, words, phrases, texts.
e) segmental phonetics;
f) theoretical phonetics;
g) practical phonetics;
h) *suprasegmental phonetics.
8. How many vowels are there in the English, Russian and Uzbek languages?
224
e) *20, 6, 6
f) 18, 6, 10
g) 19, 6, 6
h) 24, 10, 6
9. What language classifies vowels into short and long according to the length
e) Russian
f) *English
g) Uzbek
h) Polish
10. According to the palatalization of the tongue, what language has soft and hard
consonants.
e) English
f) Uzbek
g) *Russian
h) Polish
11. According to the passive organs of speech, consonants are divided into:
e) Labial
f) *Dental and alveolar
g) Sonorant
h) Fricative
12. A special prominence given to one more syllable in a word is:
e) The pause
f) The rhythm
g) The melody
h) *The stress
13. Which language has free word stress?
e) *Russian and English
f) Czeck and Slovak
g) French
h) Kazakh
14. What is a syllable?
e) Morphemic structure of the word
f) One of the speech sounds
g) The shortest segment of speech sounds
h) *Segmental structure of the word
225
15. Find the correct answer where English and Uzbek stress position is correctly
shown.
e) *words in English have mostly 1st syllable stressed position and Uzbek last
syllable stressed position
f) words in Uzbek have mostly 2nd syllable stressed position and English 1st
syllable stressed position
g) there is no stable stress position in both languages
h) words in Uzbek and English have free syllable stressed position
226
Seminar#5
Typology of morphological level of English and Native
Languages
►Classroom activities
Answers can be varied.
►Home activities
Answers can be varied.
►Activities for self-improvement
Answers can be varied.
227
Seminar#6
Typology of morphological level of English and Native
Languages
►Classroom activities
Exercise#2. Work in pairs. Give a definition to the terms. Then compare your
definitions with the group. First is done as an example:
g) Morphological typologyis a way of classifying the languages of the world
that groups languages according to their common morphological structures.
h) Analytic languages show a low ratio of morphemes to words; in fact, the
correspondence is nearly one-to-one. Sentences in analytic languages are
composed of independent root morphemes.
i) Synthetic languages form words by affixing a given number of dependent
morphemes to a root morpheme. The morphemes may be distinguishable
from the root, or they may not.
j) Agglutinative languages tend to have a high number of morphemes per
word, and their morphology is highly regular.
k) Fusional languages Morphemes in fusional languages are not readily
distinguishable from the root or among themselves. Several grammatical
bits of meaning may be fused into one affix.
l) Polysynthetic languages commonly express "the ability to form words that
are equivalent to whole sentences in other languages.
►Home activities
Exercise#1. Circle the right answer.
6. How many types of categories of grammar may be?
d) Three
e) One
f) *Two
7. Find the difference between primary and secondary categories of
grammar.
228
d) Secondary grammar categories study number, case, gender for nouns, tense,
voice, aspect, mood, person, degrees of comparison for adjectives and so on
and primary grammar categories study synthetic relations between words.
e) *primary grammatical categories deal with parts of speech, whereas
secondary grammatical categories deal with within every part of speech
separately
f) None
8. What is a morpheme?
d) *the units of morphological level
e) a grammatical category within every part of speech
f) an association of a given meaning with a given sound pattern
9. Find right parts of words sportive and elegant.
d) sport, sportive; elegant: eleg-, -ive, -ant
e) sport, sportive; elegant, elegative
f) *sport, sportive; elegant, eleg.
10.Who developed first the morphological typology?
d) Wilhelm von Humboldt
e) Peter Stephen DuPonceau
f) *brothers Friedrich von Schlegel and August von Schlegel
Exercise#2. Read the statements below and choose whether they are True or
False.
11. False
12. True
13. True
14. False
15. False
16. True
17. False
18. True
19. False
20. True
►Activities for self-improvement
Answers can be varied.
229
Test yourself on Typology of morphological level of English and Native
Languages
1. According to the relations of elements, languages are classified into…
a) *Agglutinative, Flexional, Isolating, Polysynthetic
b) Flexional, Agglutinative, Polysynthetic, Monosynthetic
c) Polysynthetic, Flexional, Non-flexional, Isolating
d) Isolating, Non-agglutinative, Polyflexional, Polysenthetic
2. Category of plurality can be expressed in Modern English by
a) *Morphological means, Syntactic means, Phono-morphological, Lexical
b) Morphological means, Phono-morphological
c) Syntactic means, Lexical
d) Phono-morphological, Lexical
3. Choose the right answer:
a) * Gender is a lexical-grammatical category. Sex is used to denote biological
notions and it is usually used for animate objects
b) Gender is a lexical-grammatical category
c) Gender is used to denote biological notions
d) Sex is usually used for animate objects
4. Choose the variant with grammatical category of gender
a) *пожилой мужчина
b) Very big house
c) Her beautiful face
d) Green tree
5. Primary grammatical categories are…
a) *Parts of speech
b) The category of gender
c) Verbal categories
d) Degrees of comparison
6. Secondary grammatical categories are…
a) *Categories within every part of speech
230
b) Noun
c) Verb
d) Article
7. The category of plurality is expressed by morphological means… choose the
correct answer
a) *boy – boys
b) much milk
c) class – people
d) foot – feet
8. The category of plurality is expressed by phono-morphological means…
a) *tooth – teeth
b) Class – people
c) Girl – girls
d) a lot of students
9. The category of plurality is expressed by syntactic means…
a) *A lot of English books
b) Goose – geese
c) flower – flowers
d) class – people
10. Traditional grammatical categories consist of:
a) *Grammatical form and grammatical meaning
b) Grammatical categorization
c) Analysis and synthesis
d) Grammatical analysis
11. What are the types of languages due to typological classification?
a) Isolating, polysynthetic, agglutinative, flexional
b) Diachronic and synchronic
c) *Polysynthetic, isolating, agglutinative, flexional
d) Isolating, agglutinative
12. What is the type of language that is characterized by the absence of inflections
and affixational morphemes expressing word relations?
231
a) *Isolating
b) Agglutinative
c) Flexional
d) Polysynthatic
13. What language has non –developed morphology?
a) *Chinese
b) Uzbek
c) Latin
d) English
14. What languages does dual number exist in?
a) *Sanscrit, Greek, Old English
b) Modern English, French, Uzbek
c) Russian, German, Chinese
d) English, Chinese, French
15. What are languages given below genetically differently related ones?
a) *English and Russian
b) Russian and Uzbek
c) Uzbek and Kazakh
d) Kirgiz and Russian
232
Seminar#7
Typology of syntactic level of English and Native Languages
►Classroom activities
Exercise#1. Write some features of a term sentence in Uzbek, Russian and
English languages and compare them with your classmates.
Uzbek
Russian
a)
It
has
predication
which
consists of modality and
time. It may have the
meanings of person and
number.
b)
It
is
addressed to a hearer.
c)
It has a new
information.
English
Exercise#3. Give examples to syntactical connections: agreement, government,
and contact in English and Russian languages.
Languages
English
agreement
number and
person (this
room-these
rooms, that
room-those
rooms, I have a
book-he has a
book)
government
personal pronoun
(Believe me,
help him).
contact
Attributive phrases,
(object and its feature,
they can be expressed by
different parts of speech:(
be happy, to seem
delighted)
Russian
gender, number, substantial
case, and person (осмотр здания
– gen. case),
adjectival
(интересный для
Objective phrases (action,
feature and the object, in
the relation of carrying
out the action or
feature:(слушатьмузыку,
233
Uzbek
predicative and
possessive
connection
зрителя – gen.
case with a
prep.), adverbial
(делать весело,
ему приятно),
verbal
(осматривать
здание –
accusative case,
доверить врагу
– dative case
dative,
accusative,
locative and
ablative cases:
мактабга бор,
уйда ўтир,
доскадан ёз,
дарсингни
тайёрла
встречатьсясдрузьями,
похожий)
Adverbial phrases (the
way of the action/feature,
its measure of the degree,
time, place, reason: ( тез
юрмоқ, берилиб
тингламоқ).
Exercise#4. Brainstorm the definitions of word combinations in compared
languages.
Answers can be varied.
►Home activities
Exercise#1. Read the statements. Circle the true or false.
9. False
10.True
11. False
12. False
13. True
14.True
15.True
16. False
234
Exercise#2. Fill the table below. Write the types and definitions of word
combinations in the missed places according to its structural feature.
Answers can be varied.
►Activities for self-improvement
Exercise#1. Work in pairs. Learn carefully the clusters below. Find general
differences of word-combinations of three compared languages and compare
them with your partner.
Answers can be varied.
235
Seminar#8
Typology of syntactic level of English and Native Languages
►Classroom activities
Exercise#2. Work in a small group. Compare the given topic. Identify
similarities, differences, and distinctive features and prepare a poster
presentation to other group members.
Answers can be varied.
Exercise#3. Classify and do acomparative analysis of types of thesentence
according to communication. Complete the table below and share your
analysis with your partner.
English
Russian
Declarative
Grammatical
morpheme: ( do+not
I don’t go)
Interrogative
general, special,
alternative and
disjunctive. (Do you
want…?, Where do
Lexical
units: you want…?, Do you
(Neither…nor
want …or…?, You
It is neither good nor want…, don’t you?).
bad
)
Grammaticalmorpheme:
(не
Янепойду)
Lexicalunits:
(Не…не
Это и не хорошо и не
плохо
Imperative
(What a lovely day it
is! How wonderful!)
1) Interrogative
(Москва как много
sentence having no
в этом звуке…)
interrogative words,
sometimes they may
contain such particles
as ведь, как, что,
неужели, разве, ли,
and etc. In such cases
they differ from
declarative sentence
236
Uzbek
in intonation.
(Инженер поехал в
Москву? Его здесь
нет? Разве он
вамписал?
Неужелионушел?);
2) Interrogative
sentences having
interrogative words,
such as кто, что,
куда, откуда,
почему
(Ктопришел? Что
вы читаете?).
Grammatical
1) absolute
(Аввал ўйла
morpheme: (-ма
interrogative
кейин сўйла!).
Мен бормайман)
sentences which
require the answers
(сиз эртага
Lexical units: (Эмас, на келасизми?); 2)
…на
rhetoric interrogative
Бу на яхши ва на
sentence with the
ёмон)
obvious hidden
answer in it (Мен
унинг тўсатдан
келиб қолишини
қаердан билай?! Бу
ватанда нималар
йўқ?! Ўзинган
чиққан балога қайга
борасан давога?! Бу
нимаси?!).
Exercise#4. Discuss the following questions with your partner.
Answers can be varied.
237
Exercise#5. Choose one of the topics below. Make a comparative analysis and
prepare 10 minutes demonstrative presentation on it.
Answers can be varied.
►Home activities
Exercise#1. Read the statements. Circle the true or false definition of
“sentence”.
1. True
2. True
3. False
4. True
5. True
6. False
Exercise#2. Read the given main criteria about the classification of sentences.
Classify and write types of sentences according to these criteria in the table.
The criterion of the
structure of sentences
simple and composite
The criterion of the aim
of the speaker
The criterion of the
existence of all parts of
the sentence
declarative, interrogative, elliptical and nonimperative and
elliptical
exclamatory
Exercise#3. Fill the table with examples of thenegative form of adeclarative
sentence of compared languages. Analyze similarities, differences between
them.
Means
1. Grammatical
morpheme
English
do+not
I don’t go
2. Lexical units
Neither…nor
Не…не
It is neither Это
и
good nor bad
хорошо и
плохо
Russian
не
Я не пойду
238
Uzbek
-ма
Мен бормайман
Эмас, на …на
не Бу на яхши ва на
не ёмон
3. Negative
pronouns
adverbs
Nobody,
and nowhere,
never, none
None of them is
here
4. Phraseological
units
5. Rhetoric
questions
Никто, нигде,
никогда,
ни
один
Ни один из них
не здесь
Ҳеч ким, ҳеч
қаер, ҳеч қачон,
ҳеч бири
Уларнинг
ҳеч
бири бу ерда
эмас
моря Қизил
қор
ёққанда
When
Жди у
Ethiopian
погоды
changes
his
skin
Whoever can Да кто может Ким ҳам бизни
win us?!
нас победить?! енга оларди?!
►Activities for self-improvement
Exercise#1. What languages have these types of thecomposite sentence? Fill
the table below. The first is given as an example.
Answers can be varied.
Exercise#2. Read the statements below and choose whether they are true or
false.
1. False
2. False
3. False
4. False
5. True
Exercise#3. Write different kind of conjunctions, which are used to combine
sentences.
Answers can be varied.
Test yourself on Typology of syntactic level of English and Native
Language
1. Which of these is the best definition of syntax?
a)
The study of the rules governing specifically the sounds that form words.
b) *The study of the rules governing sentence formation.
c) The study of the rules governing word formation.
239
2. Which Typology studies the syntactic structure of different languages?
a) *Syntactic
b) Lexical and grammatical
c) Phonetic and phonological
d) Semantic and formal
3.
a)
b)
c)
d)
Syntactic typology studies...
parts of speech
word level
phoneme level
*sentence level and phrase level
4. Which of these morphemes can the majority of English nouns have added
to them?
e) –ing
f) *–er
g) –s
h) un5.
e)
f)
g)
h)
In which sentence do the dots replace a noun?
They can ... them
They can ...
*He has no ...
They … him
6. Identify this sentence according to its type: "The old hotel at the end of the
street is going to be knocked down at the beginning of next year."
e) complex
f) compound
g) *simple
h) compound-complex
7.
e)
f)
g)
What must every correct sentence have a ..?
transition word
*subject and predicate
conjunction and verb
240
h) dependent and independent clause
8. In Russian nouns can show gender (among other features). What feature(s)
can nouns in English show?
e) Case only
f) Number only
g) Case and number
h) *Number and person
9.
e)
f)
g)
h)
What is the smallest speech pattern?
Morpheme
*Phrase
Phomeme
Semime
10. What is word order in the language?
e) The agreement of words in a phrase
f) *The arrangement of words in a phrase, clause, or sentence
g) Subordination of clauses
h) Structure of a phrase
11. Define the sentence?
e) It is the smallest speech pattern
f) It is smallest meaningful unit
g) It is the basic unit of syntax
h) It is an important communicative unit
12. Subordinator…
e) joins two similarly constructed and/or syntactically equal words
f) contains an independent clause and at least one dependent clause
g) is a unit of communication
h) *introduces a dependent clause, joining it to the main clause
13. What language word-combination has extended type according to the
structure?
e) Russian
f) *English
241
g) Arabic
h) Uzbek
14. Independent and dependent are types of word combinations of…
e) English language
f) French language
g) Russian language
h) *Uzbek language
15. What languages are fond of long and colorful phrases?
e) *Russian and Uzbek
f) Russian and English
g) English and Uzbek
h) English and French
242
Seminar#9
Typology of lexical level of English and Native Languages
►Classroom activities
Exercise#2. Fill the chart below. What branches of lexical typology do you
know?
Lexical typology:




Lexical typology of words
Word-building typology
Comparative lexicology
Etc.
Go round the class and compare your list with other classmates.
Exercise#8. Match the terms with their definitions.
1.Simple words - b
2.Derived words - c
3.Compound words - d
4.Compound-derived words - a
►Home activities
Exercise#1. Match the definitions.
Typology
is the study of patterns that occur
systematically across languages
Lexical typology
deals with the units of lexical levels. It
studies inter-lingual paradigms of words,
inter-lingual invariance of meanings
expressed by words and phrases.
243
Semantic typology
the systematic cross-linguistic study of how
languages express meaning by way of signs
Exercise#3. Fill the cluster. According to the nature of borrowings, they can
be classified in all languages into:
Borrowings
Loan words
Translation
loans
Semantic loans
Exercise#3.True/False statements.
11.True
12.False
13.False
14.True
15.False
16.True
17.True
18.False
19.True
20.True
►Activities for self-improvement
Exercise#1.
Answers can be varied.
Exercise#2. Fill the table: Hand vs. arm, foot vs. leg, finger vs. toe in English,
Russian and Uzbek.
Answers can be varied.
Exercise#3. As you know, a loan word taken over from another proper
language can be modified in phonetic shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning
according to the standards of the language. Give examples.
Answers can be varied.
244
Seminar#10
Typology of lexical level of English and Native Languages
►Classroom activities
Exercise#1. Round table discussion. Divide into four groups and discuss these
problems in groups. In 10 minutes present your topic, after all, they make
anoverall conclusion.
Answers can be varied.
Exercise#2. Discuss the following questions in mini groups.
Answers can be varied.
Exercise#3.a. Look at the questions in the chart about ways of word formation
in English, Russian and Uzbek languages. Write your answers first in the
YOU column.
3b. Interview your partner and write his/her answers in your partner column.
3c. compare your answers with your partner's answers.
Answers can be varied.
►Home activities
Exercise#1. Look at the text about similarities and differences of word formation in compared languages. There are 12 mistakes in it. Find them and
replace them with the correct words from the box below.
9.origin
3. independent
1.prefixing 5.bound
2.full
8. repetition or reversal
4. proper
6.semi-bound
10.prefixes
7.negative
The main similarity of forming words is having the way of affixing in all
compared languages. And all of them have the subtypes, such as 1.borrowing
(prefixing), suffixing and prefix-suffix. For example, English prefixes are such
particles that can be prefixed to 2.separate(full) words and it is mostly
characteristic for forming verbs. Prefixes can be considered more 3.dependent
(independent) than suffixes in English. They can be classified according to the
nature of words in which they are used: prefixes used in notional and functional
245
words. Prefixes used in notional words are. 4.irrelevant (proper) prefixes which
are 5.semi-bound (bound) morphemes, e.g. re- (rewrite). Prefixes used in
functional words are 6.bound (semi-bound)morphemes because they are met in
the language as words, e.g. over- (overprotected) ( cf. over the book ).
Prefixes can be classified according to different principles:
1. Semantic classification:
a) prefixes of 7.positive(negative) meaning, such as : in- (invaluable), non- (nonmorphological), un- (unhappy) etc.
b) prefixes denoting 8.planned (repetition or reversal) actions, such as: de(deregulate), re- (redo), dis- (disappear).
c) prefixes denoting time, space, degree relations, such as: inter- (international) ,
hyper- (hypertension), ex- (ex-friend), pre- (pre-reading), over- (overhead) etc.
2.9.Usage (origin) of prefixes can be classified as follows:
a) native (Germanic), such as: un-, over-, under- etc.
b) Romanic, such as : in-, de-, ex-, re- etc.
c) Greek, such assym-, hyper- etc.
Besides, there are a lot of borrowed 10.suffixes (prefixes) in English:
Auto-, Demi-, Mono-, Multi-, Semi-, Post-;
Exercise#2. You are given different classifications of suffixes in English,
Russian and Uzbek languages. According to the classification match the
suffixes with their sub groups.
I. Part-of-speech classification
1. noun-forming suffixes
2. adjective-forming suffixes
3. verb-forming suffixes
4. adverb-forming suffixes
5. numeral-forming suffixes
-ize , -ify, -а-ть, -а, -лан
-able, -less,-ous,-ный-ной,-ли,- и
-er, -ism, -ни ,- ц,-увч , -чили
-teen , -ty, -надцать , -ой (-ый),-та
-ly , -о,-лаб, -она.
II. Semantic classification
1. nationality
2.the agent of the action
3. quality
4.diminutiveness
5. collectivity
-ness, -ity,- чан
- dom, -ry, -ship, -ati
- ian, -ese, -ish,- ич, -ли .
-er, -ist, -ent, -о , -чи.
-ie, -let, -ling, -ette.
246
III. The lexico-grammatical character of the stem.
1. suffixes added to verbal stems
-e,-ly, -ish, -ness,-о ть, -и- ,-ли
2. suffixes added to noun stems
-er, -ing,- т о, -аци , - ич, -ги
3.suffixes added to adjective stems
-less, -ful, -ni-ый, -ный,- ор,гар
Exercise#3. Look at the suffixes in thechart below. Give the examples for each
according to the classification in compared languages.
Part-of-speech
classification
Semantic classification
Lexico-grammatical
character of the stem
1. -ize , -ify, -а-ть, -а, - 1. - dom, -ry, -ship, -ati
лан
Ex.
Ex.
1. -e,-ly, -ish,
о ть, -и- ,-ли
Ex.
-ness,-
2.-able, -less,-ous,-ный- 2. -er, -ist, -ent, -о , -чи.
ной,-ли,-сиз
Ex.
Ex.
2. -er, -ing,- т о, -аци ,
- ич, -ги
Ex.
3. -er, -ism, -ник,-ец,- 3. - ian, -ese, -ish,- ич, - 3. -less, -ful, -ni-ый, увчи, -чилик
ли .
ный,- ор,гар
Ex.
Ex.
Ex.
4. -teen , -ty, -надцать , 4.-ness, -ity,- чан
-ой (-ый),-та
Ex.
Ex.
Activities for self-improvement
Exercise#1. Are these statements true (√) or false (×)? Correct the false
statements.
1. _____Stress interchange occurs in all compared languages.
247
2. _____ Sound interchange is one of the ways of productive word formation
3. _____ Sound imitation is the way of word-building when a word is formed
by imitating different sounds.
4. _____ Sounds produced by animals, birds, insects, such as: to hiss, to buzz,
to bark, to moo, to twitter etc; лаять, мычать, щебетать, вовулламоқ,
миёвламоқ, сайрамоқ.
5. _____ Sounds produced by human beings, such as: to splash, to rustle, to
clatter, to bubble, to ding-dong, to tinkle etc; звякать, звенеть, греметь,
тақилламоқ,
шитирламоқ,
тарақ-туруқ.
6. _____ In blends three ways of word-building are combined
7. _____ Back formation is the way of word-building when a word is formed by
dropping the final morpheme to form a new word.
8. _____ One of the Russian non-morphological ways of word formation is
semantic, which can express the similar function with Uzbek semantic way of
forming words.
9. _____ The last distinctive feature of Uzbek language word formation way is
composition, which cannot be found in other compared languages.
10. _____ The main way of word formation in English is considered
compounding, while in Russian and Uzbek it is affixation.
Exercise#2. Check your comprehension on comparative analysis of English
and Native languages word-formation types.
Tick√ what can you understand.
• Can differentiate the ways of word formation in
English, Russian and Uzbek languages
• Can understand differences and similarities of word
formation in compared lamguages.
• Can understand different classifications of suffixes in
English, Russian and Uzbek languages
248
Test yourself on Typology of lexical level of English and Native
Languages
1. What does study Lexical typology?
a) It deals with the meaning of words both lexically and semantically
b) It deals with the units of lexical levels
c) It deals with structural meanings of words
d) It deals with the units of morphological and lexical levels
2. Give definition of the lexical typology…
a) It is a systematic cross-linguistic study of how languages express meaning by
way of signs
b) It is an independent branch of linguistic typology and concerns to every level of
language hierarchy
c) It is an independent branch of linguistic typology and deals with a comparison
of the units of lexical units
d) It is an independent branch of linguistic typology and deals with some problems
of grammar
3. From how many branches Lexical typology consists of?
a)5
b) 4
c) 6
d) 7
4. What kind of dimensions has Lexical-typological research?
a) Synchronic and diachronic
b) Synchronic and panchronic
c) Diachronic and panchronic
d) Synchronic, diachronic and panchronic
5. What language is considered as asingle-morphemic structure of a word?
a)Russian
b) English
c) Turkish
d) Uzbek
249
6. What is word changing type of forming words in every language?
a) It is a type which includes morphemes of case affixes, personal endings and etc.
b) It is a type which includes various types of its content and its form according to
its place in the word such affixes and prefixes
c) It is a type which content can be equal to the word
7. To try- a try, round-round, hand- to hand what kind of type of the way of word
forming is it?
a) Word changing
b) Word building
c) Word helping
d) Single-morphemic
8. How many adjective building suffixes exist in order to build adjectives from
nouns?
a) 10
b) 9
c) 20
d) 24
9. What is anagglutinative way of forming words?
a) when affixing morphemes are added to root automatically without changing its
phoneme structure
b) when with adding affixing morphemes their phoneme structure can be changed
c) when the content can be equal to the word
10. What languages contain a group of adjectives, which characterizes emotional
coloring of diminutively pet meanings?
a) Russian and English
b) English and Uzbek
c) Only Uzbek
d) Russian and Uzbek
11. In what languages are root morphemes equal to the word according to its sound
content?
250
a) Flective
b) Agglutinative
c) Isolating
d) Polysynthetic
11. Kick the bucket, тарвузи қўлтиғидан тушиб кетди. What kind of type of
phraseological units are they?
a) Phraseological collocations
b) Phraseological units
c) Phraseological fusions
d) Praseological idioms
12. What are phraseological collocations?
a)They are the units when one of the words of the phrase has its lexical meaning
and connected to another one
b)They are a relation of words where the content of words don’t have their lexical
meanings
c) They are such kind of phrases where the lexical meaning of a word are
expressed with their own
13. To keep an eye, to kill two birds with one stone, ширин сўз, оғир йигит into
what type of praseological units they can be included?
a) Phraseological collocations
b) Phraseological units
c) Phraseological fusions
d) Praseological idioms
14. How in English the meaning of gender may be expressed?
a) Lexical – semantic means
b) Syntactic means
c) The use of suffixes
d) The use of prefex
251
Seminar#11
Typology in Modern Trends inLinguistics
►Classroom activities
Exercise#1.
Answers can be varied.
Exercise#2. Match the Dates with the right investigations.
1.a
2 .b
Exercise#3a. see an example, answers may vary
English
Russian
Uzbek
Sweet Swan of Avon
перебиваться с хлеба на бир пиёла чой устида
квас на воду
Exercise#4. Collect the modernly developed areas of the anthropocentric
paradigm of the modern linguistics to the following table.
anthropocentric
paradigm
pragmatics
linguistic
anthropology
sociolinguistics
ethnolinguistics
cognitive
linguistics
psycholinguistics
linguistic
culturology
gender
linguistics
►Home activities
Exercise#1. Answers may vary as it’s shown in theexample.
 phraseological units related only male features such as: general’s battle,
brother of the angle → шутгороховый, рыцарьбезстрахаиупрека →
қулоғидакункўринибқопти, жонкуйдирмасанг - жононақайда.
252
 a list of phraseological units can be related only male features such as:lady
of the house, one’s good lady, → подругажизни, талияврюмочку →
онасиўпмаган, аёлмакриқирқтуягаюк.
Exercise#2.
Answers can be varied.
Exercise#3.
Presentations may vary.
►Activities for self-improvement
Exercise#1. Complete the text with the right word from a box.
Cognitive linguistics investigates language as amechanism of
transformation and codification of it. The aim of this linguistics covers the
cognition of the world from one's point of view and ways of appearing of receiving
processes, categorization, and classification of it. The term of “Cognitive science”
includes learning processes jointly, receiving them and reworking, saving and
using, organizing thestructure of knowledge and collection, furthermore, it
arranges collection of a certain scientific thought which is joint for forming the
mental activity of these structures. Cognitive science is closely connected with
mathematics, logic, philosophy, anthropology, and linguistics. However,
Linguaculturology is a complex scientific science direction appeared on the basis
of inter reaction of linguistics and culturology. This direction investigates
interconnection between culture and language and researches the language as a
phenomenonof culture. It shows the observation of the world in the certain view
by the cultural prism and by a certain nation’s mind and culture.
Exercise#2. Read the statements below and choose whether they are True or
False.
1. True
2. True
3. True
4. False (Cameron pointed)
5. True
Test yourself on Interrelation of typology with anthropocentric
trends of linguistic
253
1. In XVIII century, there were mostly done researches of comparative-historical
investigations among related languages and in the last century collection of
........................... paradigms occupied the position of structural paradigm.
a) anthropocentric, functional
b) functional, cognitive and dynamic
c) functional, cognitive
d) anthropocentric, functional, cognitive and dynamic
2. The anthropocentric paradigm appeared..........
a) in the 30s of the XXth century
b) in the 40s of the XXth century
c) in the 50s of the XXth century
d) in the XIXth century
3. Cognitive linguistics investigates language as mechanism of
a) codification and classification of it
b) categorization and classification of it
c) * transformation and codification of it
d) transformation and categorization of it
4. Linguaculturology is…
a) complex linguistic science direction appeared on the basis of inter reaction of
linguistics and culturology
b) *b complex scientific science direction appeared on the basis of inter reaction of
linguistics and culturology
c) complex scientific science direction appeared on the basis of inter reaction of
culture and linguistics
d) complex scientific science direction appeared on the basis of inter reaction of
linguistics and literature
5. The communicative competence model is based on...
a) *this understanding of the relationship between language and culture
b) literature, art, music, and philosophy
c) the high culture of the people who speak that language
d) the pattern of human behavior that includes thoughts, communications,
languages, practices, beliefs
254
6. According to V. Telia, culture is described as a ...
a)
*world-conception, world-perception and world-comprehension of a people
b) world-conception, world- connection of a people
c) world-conception, world- connection and world- competence of a people
d) world-conception, world-perception, and world- practices of a people
7. Lingua-culture is...
a) the verbalized art, the culture externalized in signs of language
b) * the verbalized culture, the culture externalized in signs of language
c) the verbalized culture, the culture internalized in signs of language
d) the verbalized cultural awareness, the culture externalized in signs of language
8. In linguaculturology concept can be understood as
a) “cultural-grammaticall-lexical” expression
b) "grammatical-mental-lexical” expression
c) “cultural-mental-grammatical” expression
d) *“cultural-mental-lexical” expression
9. “Sex is biological, consists of sociocultural sex with sociocultural elements.
That is why “gender” and “sex” is appeared as “whole and part” explains ...
a) V.A.Maslova
b) * O.V. Ryabov
c) Jane Sunderland
d) Yu. S. Stepanov
10. In Western nations, the concept "love" is devoted to
a) * human being with great passion and feelings
b) great love is devoted to God
c) love devoted to parents
d) love that is devoted to children
11. Cognitive science is closely connected with...
a) anthropology, ethno linguistics, mathematics
b) sociolinguistics, ethno linguistics, psycholinguistics
c) * mathematics, logic, philosophy, anthropology, and linguistics
d) philosophy of science, anthropology, and linguistics
255
12. In Uzbek “эркаксабзи” or “эркакшода” in English can be the equivalent...
a) Landlord
b) * blue stocking
c) brother of the angle
d) black-stocking
13. ... refers to the array of socially constructed roles and relationships, personality
traits, attitudes, behaviors, values, relative power and influence that society
ascribes to the two sexes on a differential basis
a) sex
b) gender logical analysis
c) existence
d) *gender
14. The first researches on gender started to be investigated in ... humanitarian
sciences.
a) eastern
b) south-western
c) * western
d) both southern and western
15. … includes anational description of cultures, the roles of male and female in
society and their relationship and behavior
a) *gender
b) culture
c) linguistics
d) biological sex
256
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